1

MODULE 1: RECTILINEAR MOTION OF PARTICLES

1.0 Introduction to Dynamics

Dynamics is the part of mechanics that deals with the analysis of bodies in motion. Dynamics includes two
broad areas of study:
a) Kinematics, which is the study of the geometry of motion. The principles of kinematics relate the
displacement, velocity, acceleration, and time of a body’s motion, without reference to the cause of the
motion.
b) Kinetics, which is the study of the relation between the forces acting on a body, the mass of the body,
and the motion of the body. We use kinetics to predict the motion caused by given forces or to determine
the forces required to produce a given motion.

1.1 Position, Velocity, and Acceleration

The velocity v of the particle was shown to be equal to the time derivative of the position coordinate x,
so
𝑑𝑥
𝑣= (1.1)
𝑑𝑡

And we obtained the acceleration a by differentiating v with respect to t, as

𝑑𝑣
𝑎= (1.2)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥
𝑎= 2 (1.3)
𝑑𝑡
We also noted that a could be expressed as
𝑑𝑣
𝑎=𝑣 (1.4)
𝑑𝑥
We observed that the velocity v and the acceleration a are represented by algebraic numbers that can be
positive or negative. A positive value for v indicates that the particle moves in the positive direction, and a
negative value shows that it moves in the negative direction. A positive value for a, however, may mean
that the particle is truly accelerated (i.e., moves faster) in the positive direction or that it is decelerated (i.e.,
moves more slowly) in the negative direction.

1.2 Determination of the Velocity and Acceleration by Integration

In most problems, the conditions of motion of a particle are defined by the type of acceleration that the
particle possesses and by the initial conditions. Then we can obtain the velocity and position of the particle
by integrating two of the equations (1.1) to (1.4). The selection of these equations depends upon the type
of acceleration involved.
CASE I. Acceleration a is given as a function of time t, that is a = f(t).
𝑑𝑣
𝑎= .
𝑑𝑡
𝑣 𝑡
∫ 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎 ∫ 𝑑𝑡.
𝑣0 𝑡0
𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎(𝑡 − 𝑡0 ).
𝑑𝑥
𝑣= .
𝑑𝑡
𝑥 𝑡
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣 ∫ 𝑑𝑡.
𝑥0 𝑡0
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣(𝑡 − 𝑡0 ).

CASE II. Acceleration a is given as a function of position x, that is a = f(x).

 2

𝑑𝑣
𝑎=𝑣 = 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑑𝑥
𝑣 𝑥
∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥.
𝑣0 𝑥0

𝑣 2
𝑣02 𝑥 𝑥
= + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ⇒ 𝑣 = √𝑣02 + 2 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 .
2 2 𝑥0 𝑥0
𝑑𝑥
𝑣= .
𝑑𝑡
𝑥 𝑡
𝑑𝑥
∫ = ∫ 𝑑𝑡.
𝑥0 𝑥
√𝑣02 + 2 ∫𝑥0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 0

CASE III. Acceleration a is given as a function of velocity v, that is a = f(v).

𝑑𝑣
𝑎= = 𝑓(𝑣).
𝑑𝑡
𝑡 𝑣
𝑑𝑣
𝑎 ∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ .
𝑡0 𝑣0 𝑓(𝑣)
1 𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑡 = 𝑡0 + ∫ .
𝑎 𝑣0 𝑓(𝑣)
𝑑𝑣
𝑎=𝑣 = 𝑓(𝑣).
𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑣
𝑣 𝑑𝑣
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ .
𝑥0 𝑣0 𝑓(𝑣)
𝑣
𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + ∫ .
𝑣0 𝑓(𝑣)

ILLUSTATIVE PROBLEMS.

1. A snowboarder starts from rest at the top of a double black diamond hill. As she rides down the slope,
GPS coordinates are used to determine her displacement as a function of time: x = 0.5t3 + t2 + 2t, where x
and t are expressed in feet and seconds, respectively. Determine the a) position, b) velocity, and c)
acceleration of the boarder when t = 5 seconds.
SOLUTION:
x = 0.5t3 + t2 + 2t
dx/dt = v = 1.5t2 + 2t + 2
dv/dt = a = 3t + 2
At t = 1 s, we have
a) x = 0.5t3 + t2 + 2t = 0.5(1)3 + (1)2 + 2(1) = 0.5 + 1 + 2 ⇒ x = 3. 5 ft.
b) v = dx/dt = 1.5t2 + 2t + 2 = 1.5(1)2 + 2(1) + 2 = 1.5 + 2 + 2 ⇒ v = 5.5 ft/s.
c) a = dv/dt = 3t + 2 = 3(1) + 2 = 3 + 2 ⇒ a = 5 ft/s2.

2. The vertical motion of mass A is defined by the relation x = 10 sin 2t + 15 cos 2t + 100, where x and t are
expressed in millimeters and seconds, respectively. Determine (a) the position, velocity, and acceleration
of A when t = 1 s, (b) the maximum velocity and acceleration of A.
SOLUTION:
(a) position, velocity, and acceleration function
a) x(t) = 10 sin 2t + 15 cos 2t + 100
 3

b) v(t) = dx/dt = 20 cos 2t – 30 sin 2t

c) a(t) = dv/dt = –40 sin 2t – 60 cos 2t
@ t = 1 s, set the calculator to radian mode, we have
a) x(1) = 10 sin 2(1) + 15 cos 2(1) + 100 = 102.9 mm.
b) v(1) = 20 cos 2(1) – 30 sin 2(1) = –35.6 mm/s.
c) a(1) = –40 sin 2(1) – 60 cos 2(1) = –11.4 mm/s2.
(b) To find the maximum velocity, a = 0;
0 = a = dv/dt = –40 sin 2t – 60 cos 2t.
tan 2t = –1.5 ⇒ 2t = –0.983 s and 2.159 s,
then take the positive value, we have:
v = 20 cos 2t – 30 sin 2t = 20 cos (2.159) – 30 sin (2.159) ⇒ v = –36 mm/s.
To find the maximum acceleration,
a = –40 sin 2t – 60 cos 2t;
differentiating both sides, we have
0 = da/dt = (–80 cos 2t + 120 sin 2t).
tan 2t = 2/3 ⇒ 2t = 33.7°.
a = –40 sin 2t – 60 cos 2t = –40 sin 33.7° – 60 cos 33.7° ⇒ a = –72.11 mm/s2.

3. The brakes of a car are applied, causing it to slow down at a rate of 10 m/s2. Knowing that the car stops
in 100 m, determine (a) how fast the car was traveling immediately before the brakes were applied, (b) the
time required for the car to stop.
SOLUTION:
a) When a car decelerates to a stop, the limits are 𝑣0 to 0, and the distance travelled from 0 to 100 m,
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑎=𝑣 ⇒ 𝑣 = −10.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 100
𝑚
∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = ∫ −10𝑑𝑥 ⇒ 𝑣0 = 44.72 .
𝑣0 0 𝑠
b) The time t is from 0 to the elapsed time Δ𝑡, and the velocity 𝑣 from 44.72 𝑚/𝑠 to 0, then
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑎= ⇒ −10 = .
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Δ𝑡 0
∫ −10𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑑𝑣.
0 44.72
Δ𝑡 = 4.472 𝑠.

4. A piece of electronic equipment that is surrounded by packing material is dropped so that it hits the
ground with a speed of 4 m/s. After contact the equipment experiences an acceleration of a = –kx, where
k is a constant and x is the compression of the packing material. If the packing material experiences a
maximum compression of 20 mm, determine the maximum acceleration of the equipment.
Solution.
𝑑𝑣
𝑎=𝑣 = −𝑘𝑥.
𝑑𝑥
0 0.02
∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = ∫ −𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥.
4 0
𝑣2 0 𝑥 2 0.02
] = −𝑘 ] .
2 4 2 0

02 42 (0.02)2 02
[ − ] = −𝑘 [ − ]
2 2 2 2
 4

𝑘 = 40,000 𝑠 −2 .
Maximum acceleration,
𝑎 = −𝑘𝑥 = −(40,000 𝑠 −2 )(0.02 𝑚) = −800 𝑚/𝑠 2 .

5. A projectile enters a resisting medium at x = 0 with an initial velocity v0 = 900 ft/s and travels 4 in. before
coming to rest. Assuming that the velocity of the projectile is defined by the relation 𝑣 = 𝑣0 − 𝑘𝑥 where v
is expressed in ft/s and x is in feet, determine (a) the initial acceleration of the projectile, (b) the time
required for the projectile to penetrate 3.9 in. into the resisting medium.
SOLUTION:
𝑣 = 𝑣0 − 𝑘𝑥
4 2,700
0 = 900 − 𝑘 ( ) ⇒ 𝑘 = .
12 𝑠
a)
2,700
𝑎 = −𝑘𝑣 = (− ) (900 ft/s) = 2,430,000 ft/s2.
𝑠

b)
𝑑𝑥
𝑣= = 𝑣0 − 𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑡
𝑡 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ .
0 0 𝑣0 − 𝑘𝑥
3.9/12
𝑑𝑥
𝑡=∫
0 900 − 2700𝑥
𝑡 = 0.001366 𝑠.

6. The acceleration of a particle is defined by the relation a = 0.8v where a is expressed in m/s2 and v in
m/s. Knowing that at t = 0 the velocity is 1 m/s, determine (a) the distance the particle will travel before
coming to rest, (b) the time required for the particle’s velocity to be reduced by 50 percent of its initial
value.
SOLUTION:
a) To find the distance the particle will travel before coming to rest, then
𝑑𝑣
𝑎=𝑣 = 0.8𝑣.
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑣 = −0.8𝑑𝑥.
Separate and integrate with limits v = 1m/s when x = 0; find x when v = 0;
0 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑣 = −0.8 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 0
𝑥 = 1.25 𝑚.
b) To find the time required for the particle’s velocity to be reduced by 50 percent of its initial value,
𝑑𝑣
𝑎= = 0.8𝑣.
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
= −0.8𝑑𝑡.
𝑣
0.5 𝑥
𝑑𝑣
∫ = −0.8 ∫ 𝑑𝑡.
1 𝑣 0
𝑡 = 0.866 𝑠.
7. Starting from x = 0 with no initial velocity, a particle is given an acceleration 𝑎 = 0.1√𝑣 2 + 16 where a
and v are expressed in ft/s2 and ft/s, respectively. Determine (a) the position of the particle when v = 3ft/s,
(b) the speed and acceleration of the particle when x = 4 ft.
 5

SOLUTION:
𝑑𝑣
𝑎=𝑣 = 0.1√𝑣 2 + 16
𝑑𝑥
3 𝑥
𝑣𝑑𝑣
∫ = 0.1 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 √𝑣 2 + 16 0
𝑥 = 10.00 𝑓𝑡.
@ x = 4 ft/s, then
4 𝑥
𝑣𝑑𝑣
∫ = 0.1 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑣 2 + 160 0
𝑥 = 1.83 𝑓𝑡.
2 2
𝑣 = 0.1√𝑣 + 16 = 0.1√(1.83) + 16 = 0.44 ft/s2.

8. The acceleration due to gravity at an altitude y above the surface of the earth can be expressed as
−32.2
𝑎= 2
(1 + (𝑦/2.09 × 107 ))
where a and y are expressed in ft/s2 and feet, respectively. Using this expression, compute the height reached
by a projectile fired vertically upward from the surface of the earth if its initial velocity is (a) 1800 ft/s, (b)
3000 ft/s, (c) 36,700 ft/s.
SOLUTION:
𝑑𝑣
𝑎=𝑣 = 0.1√𝑣 2 + 16.
𝑑𝑦
a) To find the maximum y, then we apply the limits
0 𝑦
−32.2
∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = ∫ [ 2 ] 𝑑𝑦.
1,800 0 (1 + (𝑦/2.09 × 107 ))
𝑦 = 50,400 𝑓𝑡.
b) To find the maximum y, then we apply the limits
0 𝑦
−32.2
∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = ∫ [ 2 ] 𝑑𝑦.
3,000 0 (1 + (𝑦/2.09 × 107 ))
𝑦 = 140,700 𝑓𝑡.
c) To find the maximum y, then we apply the limits
0 𝑦
−32.2
∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = ∫ [ 2 ] 𝑑𝑦.
36,700 0 (1 + (𝑦/2.09 × 107 ))
𝑦 = −30,300,000,000.0 𝑓𝑡. , 𝑦𝑢𝑐𝑘!

9. The acceleration due to gravity of a particle falling toward the earth is a = –gR2/r2, where r is
the distance from the center of the earth to the particle, R is the radius of the earth, and g is the
acceleration due to gravity at the surface of the earth. If R = 3960 mi, calculate the escape velocity1.
(Hint: v = 0 for r = ∞.)
SOLUTION:
𝑑𝑣 𝑔𝑅 2
𝑎=𝑣 =– 2 ;
𝑑𝑟 𝑟
Apply the limits, w/ the hint v = 0 for r = ∞; let r = R, and v = escape velocity, then

1
the minimum velocity with which a particle must be projected vertically upward from the surface of the earth if it
is not to return to the earth.
 6

0 ∞
𝑔𝑅 2
∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = ∫ − 2 𝑑𝑟
𝑣 𝑅 𝑟
𝑣2 1 ∞
0− = 𝑔𝑅 2 [ ]
2 𝑟 𝑅
𝑣 = √2𝑔𝑅
𝑓𝑡
𝑣 = √2(32.2)(3960)(5281) = 36,700 .
𝑠

FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT PROBLEMS

10. The motion of a particle is defined by the relation x = 6t4 – 2t3 – 12t2 + 3t + 3, where x and t are expressed
in meters and seconds, respectively. Determine the time, the position, and the velocity when
a = 0. (ANS. 0.667 s; 0.259 m; –8.56 m/s)
11. The motion of a particle is defined by the relation x = t3 – 9t2 + 24t – 8, where x and t are expressed in
inches and seconds, respectively. Determine (a) when the velocity is zero, (b) the position and the total
distance traveled when the acceleration is zero. (ANS. 2 sec & 4 sec; 10 in; 22 in)

12. The brakes of a car are applied, causing it to slow down at a rate of 10 ft/s2. Knowing that the car stops
in 300 ft, determine (a) how fast the car was traveling immediately before the brakes were applied,
(b) the time required for the car to stop. (ANS. 77.5 ft/sec2; 7.75 sec)

13. The acceleration of a particle is defined by the relation a = 3e-0.2t, where a and t are expressed in ft/s2
and seconds, respectively. Knowing that x = 0 and v = 0 at t = 0, determine the velocity and
position of the particle when t = 0.5 s. (ANS. –33 in/sec, 2 in)

14. The acceleration of Point A is defined by the relation a = −1.8 sin kt where a and t are expressed in 2
m/s and seconds, respectively, and k = 3 rad/s. Knowing that x = 0 and v = 0.6 m/s when t = 0, determine
the velocity and position of Point A when t = 0.5 s. (ANS. 42.4 mm/s; 199.5 mm)
15. The acceleration of a particle is defined by the relation a = –k/x. It has been experimentally determined
that v = 15 ft/s when x = 0.6 ft and that v = 9 ft/s when x = 1.2 ft. Determine (a) the velocity of the particle
when x = 1.5 ft, (b) the position of the particle at which its velocity is zero. (ANS. 5.89 ft/s; 1.772 ft)

16. A spring AB is attached to a support at A and to a collar. The unstretched length of the spring is l.
Knowing that the collar is released from rest at x = x0 and has an acceleration defined by the relation a =
100(x – lx/√𝑙 2 + 𝑥 2 , determine the velocity of the collar as it passes through point C.
 7

17. A ball is dropped from a boat so that it strikes the surface of a lake with a speed of 16.5 ft/s. While in
the water the ball experiences an acceleration of a = 10 – 0.8v, where a and v are expressed in ft/s2
and ft/s, respectively. Knowing the ball takes 3 s to reach the bottom of the lake, determine (a) the depth of
the lake, (b) the speed of the ball when it hits the bottom of the lake.
18. The acceleration of a particle is defined by the relation a = –k√𝑣, where k is a constant.
Knowing that x = 0 and v = 81 m/s at t = 0 and that v = 36 m/s when x = 18 m, determine (a) the
velocity of the particle when x = 20 m, (b) the time required for the particle to come to rest.
19. The acceleration due to gravity of a particle falling toward the earth is a = –gR2/r2, where r is
the distance from the center of the earth to the particle, R is the radius of the earth, and g is the
acceleration due to gravity at the surface of the earth. If R = 3960 mi, calculate the escape velocity2.
(Hint: v = 0 for r = ∞.)

2
the minimum velocity with which a particle must be projected vertically upward from the surface of the earth if it
is not to return to the earth.
 8

11.2 SPECIAL CASES AND RELATIVE MOTION

In this section, we derive the equations that describe uniform rectilinear motion and uniformly accelerated
rectilinear motion. We also introduce the concept of relative motion, which is of fundamental importance
whenever we consider the motion of more than one particle at the same time.

11.2A Uniform Rectilinear Motion

Two types of motion are frequently encountered. Uniform rectilinear motion [Sec. 11.2A], in which the
velocity v of the particle is constant, is described by
𝑣 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣𝑡 (11.5)

11.2B Uniformly Accelerated Rectilinear Motion

The acceleration a of the particle is constant, is described by
𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 (11.6)
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣0 𝑡 + 0.5𝑎𝑡 2 (11.7)
𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) (11.8)

11.2C Motion of Several Particles

When two particles A and B (such as two aircraft) move, we may wish to consider the relative motion of
B with respect to A [Sec. 11.2C]. Denoting the relative position coordinate of B with respect to A by xB/A
(Fig. 11.26), we have

Differentiating Eq. (11.9) twice with respect to t, we obtained successively

where vB/A and aB/A represent, respectively, the relative velocity and the
relative acceleration of B with respect to A.
Dependent Motion
When several blocks are connected by inextensible cords, it is possible to write a linear relation between
their position coordinates. We can then write similar relations between their velocities and between their
accelerations, which we can use to analyze their motion [Sample Probs. 11.7 and 11.8].

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS.