Phase Relations 2

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Soils generally contain air, water, and solid grains, known as the three phases. The relative
proportions of these three phases play an important role in the engineering behavior of soils. The
two extreme cases here are dry soils and saturated soils, both having only two phases. Dry soils
have no water, and the voids are filled with only air. Saturated soils have no air, and the voids are
filled with only water. Soils beneath the water table are often assumed to be saturated. Very often
in geotechnical problems (e.g., earthworks) and in laboratory tests on soils, it is required to
compute masses (or weights) and volumes of the different phases present within the soil.

In this chapter, you will learn how to compute masses and volumes of the different phases in a
soil. We will define some simple terms and develop expressions that relate them, which will help
in the computations that appear in most chapters. The definitions are quite logical, and although it
is important that you understand them, it is not necessary that you memorize them.

2.2 DEFINITIONS
Let’s consider the soil mass shown in Figure 2.1a, where all three phases are present. For
simplicity, let’s separate the three phases and stack them as shown in Figure 2.1b, which is known
as a phase diagram. Here, the volumes are shown on the left and the masses on the right. M and V
denote mass (or weight) and the volume respectively. The subscript are: a = air, w = water, s =
soil grains (solids), v = voids and t = total quantity of the soil under consideration. Since the mass
of air is negligible, Also and

Water content w is a mass ratio that is used to quantify the amount of water present within the
soil and is defined as:

(2.1)

11
12 Geotechnical Engineering

Figure 2.1 (a) a soil mass (b) phase diagram (c) phase diagram with

This is generally expressed as a percentage. Drying the soil in the oven at for 24 hours is
the standard method for determining water content. The natural water content of most soils would
be well below 100%, but organic soils and some marine clays can be at water contents greater
than 100%

Example 2.1: A soil sample of 26.2 g was placed in a 105 oven for 24 hours. The dry
mass of the sample turned out to be 19.5 g. What is the water content?

Solution:

= (6.7/19.5)

Void ratio e and porosity n are two volumetric ratios used to quantify the voids that are present
within the soil. Generally, void ratio is expressed as a decimal number (e.g., 0.82) and porosity is
expressed as a percentage (e.g., 45.1%) ranging from 0% to 100%. They are defined as:

(2.2)

(2.3)

Void ratios typically lie between 0.4 and 1 for sands, and 0.3 to 1.5 for clays. For organic soils
and soft clays, the void ratio can be even more.

The degree of saturation S is a measure of the void volume that is occupied by water,
expressed as a percentage ranging from 0% to 100%. It is defined as:

(2.4)
For dry soils S = 0 and for saturated soils (e.g., below the water table) S = 100%.

Density p of the soil is simply the mass per unit volume. However, because of the different
phases present within the soil, there are several forms of densities used in geotechnical
engineering. The most common one is the bulk density also known as total, moist, or wet
density. It is the total mass divided by total volume ( / ). Dry density is the density of
the soil at the same volume, assuming there is no water (i.e., = / ). Saturated density
is the bulk density when the voids are filled with water (i.e., / when S = 100%).
Submerged density p’ is the effective density of the soil when submerged (considering buoyancy
effects) and is defined as:

(2.5)

When weight (e.g., kN) is used instead of mass (e.g., g, kg, t) density becomes unit weight You
may remember that Never mix densities and unit weights. The definitions of bulk unit
weight , dry unit weight saturated unit weight and submerged unit weight are similar
to those of corresponding of densities. Density water is 1.0 g/ , 1.0 t/ , or 1000 kg/ and
its unit weight is 9.81 kN/ .

Specific gravity of a soil grain is the ratio of the density of the soil grain to the density of
the water. We know that specific gravity of mercury = 13.6, steel = 7.5, and water = 1.0. For most
soils, specific gravity varies little -ranging from 2.6 to 2.8. If G, is not known, it is reasonable to
assume a value in this range. There are exceptions, where mine tailings rich in minerals have
values as 4.5. For organic soils or fly ash, it can even be lower than 2 (See Worked Example 11).
The specific gravity of soil grains is generally measured using pycnometers (density bottles of
fixed volume).

Example 2.2: A 90 g sample of dry sands was placed in a pycnometer (a density used
for determining the specific gravity of soil grains), and the pycnometer was filled with
water; its mass is 719.3 g. A clean pycnometer was filled with water and has a mass of
663.2 g. Find the specific gravity of the sand grains.

Solutions: . Let’s find the mass of the water displaced by the sand (i.e., same
volume) using Archimedes’ principle. It is given (think!!) 90 + 663.2 – 719.3 = 33.9 g.

= 90/33.9 = 2.65

2.3 PHASE RELATIONS

All the terms introduced above (e.g., w, e, S, ) are ratios and therefore do not depend on the
quantity of soil under consideration. In a homogeneous soil mass, they should be the same
anywhere. Let’s consider a portion of the soil where the volume of the soil grains is unity (i.e.,
 ) and develop the phase diagram as shown in Figure 2.1c. Here, we have simply used the

14 Geotechnical Engineering

Given definitions and the fact that to compute the other masses and volumes. The weights
(shown on the right) are obtained simply by multiplying the volumes (shown on the left) by the
corresponding densities. Now let’s develop some simple and useful expressions for water content,
porosity, and the different densities and unit weights. Here, we express water content (w) and
degree of saturation (S) as decimal numbers instead of percentages:

The expressions for and can be deduced from Equation 2.8 by substituting S = 0 and 1
respectively. They are:

From Equation 2.5 and 2.10

Similar equations hold for unit weight too, where p is replaced by .

Example 2.3: A saturated soil sample has water content of 24.2% and the specific
gravity of the soil grain is 2.73. What are the dry and saturated unit weights?

Solution: S = 1, W = 0.242, = 2.73

From Equation 2.6 e = (0.242)(2.73) – 0.661

 Phase Relations 15

It is not necessary to memorize the different equations relating the phases. From the definitions
and the phase diagram for = 1 (Figure 2.1c), one can derive them quickly. It is a good practice
to go from the fundamentals.
The densities (or unit weights), water content, and specific gravity are the ones that are
measured in the laboratory. Void ratio, porosity, and degree of saturation are generally not
measured, but are calculated from the phase relations.
Example 2.4: The unit weight of a dry sandy snit is 15.5 kN/ . The specific gravity of
the soil grain is 2.64. If the soil becomes saturated, at the same void ratio, what would be
the water content and unit weight?

Solution:

If the soil gets saturated,

 Do not try to memorize the equations. Understand the

definitions and develop the phase relations from the
phase diagram with = 1. If you are determined
to memorize some of the equations, you would benefit
most from Equations 2.6 and 2.8.
 You can work with weights (and unit weights) or
masses (and densities), but you should never mix them.
 Assume (2.6 to 2.8) when required.
 Soil grains are incompressible. Their mass and
volume remain the same at any void ratio.
 (N/ ) = p (kg/ ) g (m/ ).
 = 9.81 kN/ ; = 1.0 g/ =
1.0 t/ = 1000 kg/ .
16 Geotechnical Engineering

WORKED EXAMPLES

1. Show that bulk density, dry density, and water content arc related by

Solution:

2. 5 kg of soil is at natural water content of 3%. How much water would you add to the above soil
to bring the water content to 12%?

Solution: Let's find the dry mass of soil grains first.

At w= 12%,

Quantity of water to add = 0.583 – 0.146 = 0.437 kg or 437 ml

3. A 38 mm diameter and 76 mm long cylindrical day sample has a mass of 174.2 g. After drying
in the oven at 105 for 24 hours, the mass is reduced to 148.4 g. Find the dry density, bulk
density, and water content of the clay.

Assuming the specific gravity of the soils grains as 2.71, find the degree of saturation of the clay.

Solution: Sample volume =

/86.2 = 1.722 g/

w / /

Substituting in Equation 2.9:

Substituting in Equation 2.6:

Phase relations 17

4. Soil excavated from a borrow area is being used to construct an embankment. The void ratio of
the in situ soil at the borrow area is 1.14, and it is required that the soil in the embankment be
compacted to a void ratio of 0.70. With 200,000 of soil removed from the borrow area, how
many cubic meters of embankment can be made?

Solution: The volume of the soil grains remain the same in the borrow area and in the
embankment.

At the borrow area:

At the embankment

5. A saturated, undisturbed clay sample collected below the water table has a wet mass of 651 g.

The volume of the sample was determined to be 390 . When dried in the oven for 24
hours, the sample has a mass of 416 g. What is the specific gravity of the soil grains?

Solution:

g/ /
 (Given)

Substituting in Equation 2.6:

18 Geotechnical Engineering

6. A 200 m long section of a 15 m wide canal is being deepened 1.5 m by means of a dredge. The

effluent from the dredge has a unit weight of 12.4 kN/ . The soil at the bottom of the canal
has an in situ unit weight of 18.7 kN/ . The specific gravity of the soil grains is 2.72. If the
effluent is being pumped at a rate of 400 L per minute, how many operational hours will be
required to complete the dredge work?

Solution: Let’s find the volume of solid grains ( to be removed by dredging.

Volume of soil to be removed = (1.5)(15)(200) = 4500

In situ unit weight (saturated) = 18.7 kN/

Now, let’s see how much soil grains ( are being pumped out every minute, where

/
 Phase Relations 19

7. A 1 m-thick fill is compacted by a roller, and the thickness reduced by 90 mm. If the initial
void ratio of the fill was 0.94, what is the new void ratio after the compaction?

Solution: Let’s consider a 1 area in plan. Find the volume of soil grains

The new volume after the compaction = 0.91 m X 1.0 where and
:

8. The undisturbed soil at a borrow pit has a bulk unit weight of 19.1 kN/ and water content
of 9.5%. The soil from this borrow will be used to construct a compacted fill with a finished
volume of 42,000 . The soil is excavated by machinery and placed in trucks, each with a
capacity of 4.50 . When loaded to the full capacity, each load of soil weighs 67.5 kN.

In the construction process, the trucks dump the soil at the site, then the soil is spread and
broken up. Water is then sprinkled to bring the water content to 15%. Finally, the soil is
compacted to a dry unit weight of 17.1 kN/ .
 a. Assuming each load is to the full capacity, how many truckloads are required to construct
the fill?

b. What would be the volume of the pit in the borrow area?

c. How many liters of water should be added to a truckload?

Solution: The water content of the borrow pit and the truck must be the same. In addition, the
mass of the soil grains at the fill and the borrow pit is the same.

20 Geotechnical Engineering

Number of truck loads required /61.64 = 11,652

b. At the borrow area, W = 9.5% and

/19.1 = 39,920.3

c. per truckload is 61.64 kN, and the water content is increased from 9.5% to 15%.
Therefore, the quantity of water that has to be added per truckload = 61.64 X 0.055 = 3.39
 kN or 345.6 L.

9. An irregularly shaped, undisturbed soil lurnp has a mass of 4074 g. To measure the volume, it
was required 10 thinly coat the sample with wax (the mass and volume of which can be
neglected) and weigh it submerged in water when suspended by a string. The submerged mass
of the sample is 1991 g. Later, the water content of the sample and the specific gravity of the
soil grains were determined to be 12.4% and 2.75 respectively. Determine the void ratio and
the degree of saturation of the sample.

Solution: Mass of the water displaced = upthrust = 4074 – 1991 g = 2083 g

Phase Relations 21

10. A sample of an irregular lump of saturated day with a mass of 605.2 g was coated with wax.
The total mass of the coated lump was 614.2 g. The volume of the coated lump was
determined to be 311 by the water displacement method as used in Worked Example 9.
After carefully removing the wax, the lump of day was oven dried to a dry mass of 479.2 g.
The specific gravity of the wax is 0.90. Determine the water content, dry unit weight, and the
specific gravity of the soil grains.

Solution:

11. A series of experiments are being conducted in a laboratory where fly ash ( is
being mixed with sand ( at various proportions by weight. If the suggested mixes
are 100/0, 90/10, 80/20 ... 10/90, and 0/100, compute the average values of the specific
gravities for all the mixes. Show the results graphically and in tabular form.

Solution: Let's show here a specimen calculation for a 70/30 mix, which contains 70% fly ash
and 30% sand by weight. Let's consider 700 g of fly ash and 300 g of sand.
22 Geotechnical Engineering

Volume of fly ash = 700/2.07 = 338.2

Volume of sand = 300/2.65 = 113.2

Total mass = 1000 g

= 1000/451.4 = 2.22 g/ = 2.22

Mix Fly ash (g) Sand (g) Fly ash ( Sand (

100/0 1000 0 483.09 0.00 2.07

90/10 900 100 434.78 37.74 2.12

80/20 800 200 386.47 75.47 2.16

70/30 700 300 338.16 113.21 2.22

60/40 600 400 289.86 150.94 2.27

50/50 500 500 241.55 188.68 2.32

40/60 400 600 193.24 226.42 2.38

30/70 300 700 144.93 264.15 2.44

20/80 200 800 96.62 301.89 2.51

10/90 100 900 48.31 339.62 2.58

0/1000 0 1000 0.00 377.36 2.65

REVIEW EXERCISES
1. State whether the following are true or false.

a. A porosity of 40% implies that 40% of the total volume consists of voids

b. A degree of saturation of 40% implies that 40% of the total volume consists of
water
c. Larger void ratios correspond to larger dry densities
d. Water content cannot exceed 100%
e. The void ratio cannot exceed 1

2. From the expressions for

3. Tabulate the specific gravity values of different soil and rock forming minerals
(e.g., quartz).

Phase Relations 23

4. A thin-walled sampling tube of a 75 mm internal diameter is pushed into the wall of an

excavation, and a 200 mm long undisturbed sample with a mass of 1740.6 g was obtained.
When dried in the oven, the mass was 142 1.2 g. Assuming that the specific gravity of the soil
grains is 2.70, find the void ratio, water content, degree of saturation, bulk density, and dry
density.

Answer: 0.679, 22.5%, 89.5%, 1.97 t/ , 1.61 t/

5. A large piece of rock with a volume of 0.65 has 4% porosity. The specific gravity of the
rock mineral is 2.75. What is the weight of this rock? Assume the rock is dry.

Answer: 16.83 kN

6. A soil-water suspension is made by adding water to 50 g of dry soil, making 1000 ml of

suspension. The specific gravity of the soil grains is 2.73. What is the total mass of the
suspension?

Answer: 1031.7 g

7. A soil is mixed at a water content of 16% and compacted in a 1000 ml cylindrical mold. The
sample extruded from the mold has a mass of 1620 g. and the specific gravity of the soil grains
is 2.69. Find the void ratio, degree of saturation, and dry unit weight of the compacted sample.
If the sample is soaked in water at the same void ratio, what would be the new water content?

Answer: 0.926, 46.5%, 1.397 t/ , 34.4%

8. A sample of soil is compacted into a cylindrical compaction mold with a volume of 944 .
The mass of the compacted soil specimen is 1910 g and its water content is calculated at
14.5%. Specific gravity of the soil grains is 2.66. Compute the degree of saturation, density,
and unit weight of the compacted soil.
 Answer: 76.4%, 2.023 g/ , 19.85 kN/

9. The soil used in constructing an embankment is obtained from a borrow area where the in situ
void ratio is 1.02. The soil at the embankment is required to be compacted to a void ratio of
0.72. If the finished volume of the embankment is 90,000 , what would be the volume of
the soil excavated at the borrow area?

Answer: 105,698

10. A subbase for an airport runway 100 m wide, 2000 m long, and 500 mm thick is to be
constructed out of a clayey sand excavated from a nearby borrow where the in situ water
content is 6%. This soil is being transported into trucks having a capacity of 8 , where

24 Geotechnical Engineering

each load weighs 13.2 metric tons (I metric ton = 1000 kg). In the subbase course, the soil
will be placed at a water content of 14.2% to a dry density of 1.89 t/ .

a. How many truckloads will be required to complete the job?

b. How many liters of water should be added to each truckload?

c. If the subbase becomes saturated, what would be the new water content?

Answer: 15,177, 1021 L, 15.9%

11. The bulk unit weight and water content of a soil at a borrow pit are 17.2 kN/ and 8.2%
respectively. A highway fill is being constructed using the soil from this borrow at a dry unit
weight of 18.05 kN/ . Find the volume of the borrow pit that would make one cubic meter
of the finished highway fill.

Answer: 1.136

12. A soil to be used in the construction of an embankment is obtained by hydraulic dredging of

a nearby canal. The embankment is to be: placed at a dry density of 1.72 t/ and will have
a finished volume of 20,000 . The in situ saturated density of the soil at the bottom of the
canal is 1.64 t/ . The effluent from the dredging operation, having a density of 1.43 t/ ,
is pumped to the embankment site at the rate of 600 L per minute. The specific gravity of the
soil grains is 2.70.

a. How many operational hours would be required to dredge sufficient soil for the
embankment?
 b. What would be the volume of the excavation at the bottom of the canal?

Answer: 1396 hours, 33,841

13. A contractor needs 300 of aggregate base for a highway construction project. It will be
compacted to a dry unit weight of 19.8 kN/ . This material is available in a stockpile at a
local material supply yard at a water content of 7%, but is sold by the metric ton and not by
cubic meters.

a. How many tons of aggregate should the contractor purchase?

b. A few weeks later, an intense rainstorm increased the water content of the stockpile to 15%.
If the contractor orders the same quantity for an identical section of the highway, how many
cubic meters of compacted aggregate base will he produce?

Answer: 648 t, 279.2

14. A sandy soil consists of perfectly spherical grains of the same diameter. At the loosest
possible packing, the particles are stacked directly above each other. Show that the void ratio
is 0.910.

Phase Relations 25

There are few possible arrangements for a denser packing. You can (with some
difficulty) show that the corresponding void ratios are 0.654, 0.433, and 0.350 (densest).
Use the diagram shown below to visualize this. See how the void ratio decreases with
the increasing number of contact points

Note: This is not for the fainthearted!

Loosest Dense