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The Handbook of
Biomass Combustion and Co-firing
3226 J&J Handbook/Biomass 16/11/07 11:12 AM Page ii
3226 J&J Handbook/Biomass 16/11/07 11:12 AM Page iii
The Handbook of
Biomass Combustion and Co-firing
Edited by
Sjaak van Loo and Jaap Koppejan
London • Sterling, VA
3226 J&J Handbook/Biomass 16/11/07 11:12 AM Page iv
ISBN: 978-1-84407-249-1
Earthscan
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London, NW1 0JH, UK
Tel: +44 (0)20 7387 8558
Fax: +44 (0)20 7387 8998
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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Current status of bioenergy 3
1.2 Combustion as main bioenergy technology 4
1.3 This handbook 5
1.4 References 6
Contents vii
7 Co-combustion 203
7.1 Introduction 203
7.2 Operational experience 203
7.3 Co-firing concepts 206
7.3.1 Direct co-firing 207
7.3.2 Indirect co-firing 207
7.3.3 Parallel co-firing 207
7.4 Examples of biomass co-firing in pulverized coal-fired boilers 208
7.4.1 Direct co-firing of demolition wood waste with coal, Gelderland
Power Station, Nijmegen, the Netherlands 208
3226 J&J Handbook/Biomass 16/11/07 11:12 AM Page viii
Contents ix
10 Policies 379
10.1 Introduction 379
10.2 Global expansion of biomass combustion 379
10.2.1 Trends in selected OECD member countries 381
10.2.2 Trends in selected non-OECD member countries 385
10.2.3 Relevant policy issues 385
10.3 Financial support instruments 387
10.3.1 Fixed feed-in tariffs and fixed premiums 387
10.3.2 Green certificate systems 387
10.3.3 Tendering 387
10.3.4 Investment subsidies 387
10.3.5 Tax deduction 388
10.4 Other policies that influence the establishment of biomass combustion 389
10.5 References 390
Index 426
3226 J&J Handbook/Biomass 16/11/07 11:12 AM Page xi
Figures
1.1 Many countries have abundant resources of unused biomass readily available 1
1.2 Wood-stove commonly used in Cambodia 2
1.3 Influencing parameters for the optimal design of biomass combustion systems 4
1.4 Wood-fired heating plant used for district heating in Wilderswil, Switzerland 5
2.1 Thermochemical conversion technologies, products and potential end uses 7
2.2 The combustion of a small biomass particle proceeds in distinct stages 8
2.3 Thermogravimetric analysis of four wood samples 10
2.4 Adiabatic combustion temperature as a function of moisture content (w.b.) and
excess air ratio for a continuous combustion process 12
2.5 GCV and NCV as a function of wt% C and H 13
2.6 NCV as a function of wt% moisture 13
2.7 Chemical composition of various solid fuels 14
2.8 Integral reaction flow analysis in a premixed stoichiometrical methane flame 16
2.9 Influence of residence time and temperature on CH4 conversion 17
2.10 Main variables influencing emission levels and energy efficiency in wood-stoves
and fireplaces 18
2.11 Adiabatic combustion temperature as a function of excess air ratio and inlet air
temperature for a continuous combustion process 19
2.12 Time dependence of combustion processes in batch combustion applications 32
2.13 Modelling tools 33
2.14 Mechanisms involved in ash formation in biomass combustion 35
2.15 Images of coarse fly ash and aerosol particles from wood combustion
in a grate furnace 36
2.16 Ash fractions produced in a biomass combustion plant 37
3.1 Fuel supply chain for woody biomass 54
3.2 Wood fuel flows from the forest to the end-user 55
3.3 Factors influencing the quality of solid biomass fuels 56
3.4 Content of Cl in straw as a function of chlorine supply through fertilizers 57
3.5 Leaching of barley straw by rainfall during storage on the field 58
3.6 Yield and moisture content at different harvesting dates for various cereals 59
3.7 Harvesting processes for herbaceous biomass fuels 62
3.8 Processes for harvesting short rotation coppice 63
3.9 Disc and drum chippers 64
3.10 Mobile chipper with a crane efficiently collecting roadside thinnings for fuel 66
3.11 Mobile chipper 66
3.12 Spiral chunker 67
3.13 Fine grinding mill 67
3226 J&J Handbook/Biomass 16/11/07 11:12 AM Page xii
5.32 Specific capital costs for biomass combustion systems as a function of boiler
capacity and boiler utilization 172
6.1 Single-stage radial flow steam turbine with gear shaft and generator used in a
biomass-fired CHP plant of approximately 5MWth and 0.7MWe 177
6.2 Axial flow steam turbine with five stages, typical for industrial applications
of a few MWe 178
6.3 Flow and T/S diagrams of back-pressure plants based on the Rankine cycle 180
6.4 Thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle as a function of live steam
parameters and back-pressure 181
6.5 Extraction condensing plant with use of steam at intermediate pressure (6B)
for heat production and condensing operation for the non-utilized part
of steam at lower presssure to drive the low-pressure section of the turbine 182
6.6 Steam engine (two cylinders) from Spillingwerk, Germany 184
6.7 Flow and T/s-diagrams for a steam cycle using saturated steam in a
steam piston engine or a steam screw-type engine 185
6.8 Screw-type compressor and working principle of a steam screw engine 187
6.9 730kWe screw-type engine with high-pressure and low-pressure stage and
generator in a demonstration plant in Hartberg, Austria 188
6.10 Possible processes with screw engines in the T/s-diagram 188
6.11 Principle of co-generation using a steam engine controlled
by pressure-reducing valve and throttle valve 189
6.12 Flow and T/S diagrams for co-generation with an ORC process (above) and
process in the T/s-diagram 190
6.13 ORC equipment 191
6.14 Flow and T/s diagrams of a closed gas turbine cycle with recuperation 193
6.15 V-shaped Stirling engine 194
6.16 T/s diagram of the Stirling cycle 195
6.17 CHP biomass combustion plant with Stirling engine 195
6.18 Stirling engines 196
6.19 Power-to-heat ratio as a function of the plant size of biomass-fuelled CHP
plants in Finland and Sweden with 1–20MWe 197
6.20 Percentage of heat and electric power production in heating plants, CHP plants
and power plants (qualitative figures) 198
6.21 Comparison of heat, CHP and power plant efficiencies by an exergetically
weighted efficiency (ex = e + h) 199
7.1 Geographic distribution of power plants that have experience with co-firing
biomass with coal, as of 2004 204
7.2 Distribution of firing systems with coal-fired power plants that have
experience with co-firing biomass 204
7.3 Effects of biomass co-firing at a coal-fired power station 205
7.4 Wood co-firing system at the Gelderland Power Plant of Electrabel 210
7.5 Straw shredder at Studstrup power plant 213
7.6 Straw pre-processing equipment at Studstrup Unit 4 214
7.7 Biomass co-firing system at St Andrea, Austria 215
7.8 BIOCOCOMB system 217
7.9 Original layout of the AMERGAS biomass gasification plant at the
Amer Power Plant in Geertruidenberg, the Netherlands 218
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Tables
1.1 Primary energy consumption by energy source and region in 2006, PJ/year 3
2.1 Overview of the usefulness of various model types for certain purposes 34
2.2 Characteristics of solid biomass fuels and their most important effects 39
2.3 Moisture content, gross calorific value, net calorific value, bulk density and
energy density of biomass fuels 40
2.4 C, H and O concentrations as well as amounts of volatile matter
in biomass fuels 41
2.5 N, S and Cl concentrations in biomass fuels 41
2.6 Fuel-specific ash content of biomass fuels 43
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9.1 Emissions from a typical 2000MW fossil fuel power station using coal,
oil or natural gas 293
9.2 Pollutants from biomass combustion and their impacts on climate,
environment and health 302
9.3 Arithmetic average emission levels from small-scale biomass combustion
applications 305
9.4 Arithmetic average emission values from wood combustion applications 306
9.5 Emissions mainly influenced by combustion technology and process
conditions 306
9.6 Emissions mainly influenced by fuel properties 307
9.7 Emissions from small industrial woodchip combustion applications in the
Netherlands 307
9.8 Emissions from industrial wood-fired installations, using particle board,
woodchips, MDF and bark 308
9.9 Emissions from straw-fired CHP plants 309
9.10 Effect of optimization on emissions and efficiency 313
9.11 Summary of typical sizes of particles removed by various particle control
technologies 320
9.12 Summary of separation efficiency for different particle control technologies
based on full-scale measurements 320
9.13 Characteristics of a settling chamber 321
9.14 Characteristics of a cyclone 323
9.15 Characteristics of an electrostatic filter 324
9.16 Temperature resistance of bag filter materials 327
9.17 Overview of LCP and WID 339
9.18 Emission limits for residential heating boilers fired with solid biomass fuels
with a nominal heat output of up to 300kW 339
9.19 Emission limits for steam boilers and hot water boilers in industrial and
commercial plants 340
9.20 Overview of most relevant emission limits in the Netherlands for solid
biomass combustion 344
9.21 Distribution of ash fractions for biomass fuels 351
9.22 Average particle and bulk densities 352
9.23 Average concentrations of plant nutrients in ash fractions from bark,
woodchip and sawdust combustion plants 352
9.24 Average concentrations of plant nutrients in ash fractions from straw and
cereal combustion plants 353
9.25 Average concentrations of plant nutrients in ash fractions of
combustion plants using wood residues and waste wood 353
9.26 Average concentrations of heavy metals in ash fractions of bark,
woodchips and sawdust incinerators 354
9.27 Average concentrations of heavy metals in ash fractions of straw and cereal
combustion plants 354
9.28 Average concentrations of heavy metals in ash fractions of residual
and waste wood incinerators 355
9.29 Organic carbon, chlorine and organic contaminants in biomass ashes 356
9.30 pH value and electrical conductivity of biomass ashes 357
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9.31 Si, Al, Fe, Mn and carbonate concentrations in biomass ashes by fuel type 358
9.32 Possibilities for influencing the composition and characteristics of ashes 363
9.33 Conditions for a controlled and ecologically friendly ash utilization 363
9.34 Logistics of a smooth-running closed-cycle economy for biomass ashes 364
9.35 Limiting values for concentrations of heavy metals in biomass ashes used
on agricultural land and in forests and guiding values for soils according
to existing Austrian regulations 367
9.36 Contents of Cd, Pb and Zn in the condensate after separating the sludge and
condensate 368
10.1 Policies in selected EC countries for promoting bio-electricity production 388
Box
10.1 The dead koala RECs problem 389
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Preface
Combustion technologies are commercially available throughout the world. They play a
major role in energy production from biomass. For further implementation of biomass
combustion, however, combustion technology needs to be optimized to meet demands for
lower costs, increased fuel flexibility, lower emissions and increased efficiency.
IEA Bioenergy Task 32, Biomass Combustion and Cofiring, aims to accelerate the
market introduction of improved combustion systems in its member countries by exchanging
technical and non-technical information. This relates both to stand-alone small and medium-
scale combustion plants as well as co-firing of biomass in existing coal power plants.
This second edition of the handbook again is the result of a collective effort of the
members of Task 32. The first edition was produced in response to the many questions asked
of us with respect to developments in biomass combustion technologies for both domestic
and industrial use as well as for co-firing in coal power plants. It was spread around the world
and translated into different languages.
Because of the speed of technology development in this field we believed it was
necessary to update the handbook. Thanks to the joint efforts of all of our task members,
this second edition is now available.
We feel that it represents a comprehensive overview of important issues and topics con-
cerning biomass combustion and co-firing. It was carefully compiled on the basis of available
literature sources, national information and experiences as well as suggestions and comments
from equipment suppliers. The compilers especially benefited from the large number of
international experts in this field that participated as authors. Although the figures and
performance data will soon be outdated because of the speed of technological developments
in this field, the general principles and combustion concepts explained will no doubt remain
useful. Further, the reader is invited to regularly visit the internet site of our Task
(www.ieabcc.nl) where updates and additional background information are provided.
We herewith express our deepest thanks to all who have contributed to this handbook.
We trust this handbook will be a tangible contribution to the dissemination of valuable
knowledge.
List of Contributors
Introduction
In a broad sense, energy conversion is the capacity to promote changes and/or actions
(heating, motion, etc.), and biomass includes all kinds of materials that were directly or
indirectly derived not too long ago from contemporary photosynthesis reactions, such as
vegetal matter and its derivatives: wood fuel, wood-derived fuels, fuel crops, agricultural
and agro-industrial by-products, and animal by-products. Bioenergy is the word used for
energy associated to biomass, and biofuel is the bioenergy carrier, transporting solar energy
stored as chemical energy. Biofuels can be considered a renewable source of energy as long
as they are based on sustainable biomass production [1].
Worldwide, there is a growing interest in the use of solid, liquid and gaseous biofuels
for energy purposes. There are various reasons for this, such as:
• political benefits (for instance, the reduction of the dependency on imported oil);
• employment creation – biomass fuels create up to 20 times more employment than
coal and oil; and
• environmental benefits such as mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions, reduction of
acid rain and soil improvements.
Figure 1.1 Many countries have abundant resources of unused biomass readily available
3226 J&J Handbook/Biomass 16/11/07 11:12 AM Page 2
Large amounts of wood and other solid biomass residues remain unused so far and could
potentially be made available for use as a source of energy. In addition to this, wood and
other biomass energy crops could be grown. There is, for instance, a policy debate on
whether trees should be used to sequester carbon or to replace fossil fuels. Trees and other
forms of biomass can act as carbon sinks but at the end of their growing life there must be
plans for using the biomass as a source of fuel to offset fossil energies or as very long-lived
timber products.* Otherwise, the many years of paying to sequester and protect the carbon
in trees will simply be lost as they decay and/or burn uncontrollably.
Solid biofuels could provide a significant part of the energy demand if appropriate tech-
nologies were introduced. For this reason, many countries around the world have become
involved in modern applications of wood and biomass to energy technologies. These are not
only research or pilot projects; there are actual investment projects that exploit wood and
other biomass fuels to generate heat and/or electricity for use by industries, utilities,
communities and single households through more efficient, convenient and modern
technologies. These projects prove that biomass energy can be a technically efficient, econo-
mically viable, and environmentally sustainable fuel option in the environment in which it
operates.
* This does not apply to primary forests where preserving biodiversity is of major importance.
3226 J&J Handbook/Biomass 16/11/07 11:12 AM Page 3
Introduction 3
Table 1.1 Primary energy consumption by energy source and region in 2006, PJ/year
Modern Traditional Other Conventional Total Modern
biomass biomass renewables energy primary biomass
energy as % of
primary
energy
World 16,611 33,432 13,776 409,479 473,319 3.5%
OECD 8442 42 6783 222,369 237,636 3.6%
OECD North America 4158 – 3276 112,959 120,393 3.5%
US and Canada 3801 – 2898 106,281 112,980 3.4%
Mexico 357 – 399 6678 7392 4.8%
OECD Pacific 882 42 798 36,561 38,283 2.4%
OECD Asia 504 42 525 31,374 32,445 1.6%
OECD Oceania 378 – 252 5208 5838 6.5%
OECD Europe 3402 – 2688 72,828 78,939 4.3%
OECD Europe – EU 3129 – 1785 69,384 74,298 4.2%
Transition economies 693 – 1176 44,688 46,536 1.5%
Russia 273 – 672 26,901 27,867 1.0%
Developing countries 7434 33,432 5817 136,269 182,994 4.1%
China 315 8988 1323 49,602 60,144 0.5%
East Asia 1092 3633 1197 20,202 26,145 4.2%
Indonesia 126 1680 357 5418 7560 1.7%
South Asia 1302 9828 504 18,627 30,261 4.3%
India 1092 8043 357 15,582 25,074 4.4%
Latin America 2394 1239 2373 15,834 21,840 11.0%
Brazil 1680 357 1176 5502 8736 19.2%
Middle East 21 63 105 19,341 19,551 0.1%
Africa 2310 9702 315 12,726 25,074 9.2%
Note: OECD = Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.
Source: Interpolated from data in [3], other renewables includes solar, wind, hydro, geothermal, wave and ocean energy;
conventional energy includes coal, oil, gas and nuclear energy.
4 The Handbook of Biomass Combustion and Co-firing
Many countries around the globe have developed a growing interest in the use of
biomass as an energy source, and therefore various technological developments in this field
are ongoing. Although major technological developments have already been achieved, most
bioenergy technologies are not yet commercially feasible without political support. In order
to achieve wider application of modern bioenergy technologies, individual countries have
set varying targets and implemented promotional policies. As a result of increased support
for bioenergy technologies, major progress has been made. Chapter 10 provides an
overview of approaches and progress made in selected countries.
Biomass combustion
system design
Figure 1.3 Influencing parameters for the optimal design of biomass combustion systems
3226 J&J Handbook/Biomass 16/11/07 11:12 AM Page 5
Introduction 5
Figure 1.4 Wood-fired heating plant used for district heating in Wilderswil, Switzerland
Note: Thermal capacity 6.4MWth on woodchips + 3MWth back-up on fuel oil.
Source: Courtesy of Schmid AG, Switzerland
available literature sources, national information and experiences as well as suggestions and
comments from equipment suppliers. As technological developments in the field of biomass
combustion occur very rapidly and are often difficult to keep track of, this handbook is not to
be regarded as complete. Nevertheless, it represents a comprehensive overview of important
issues and topics concerning biomass combustion, and the reader may especially benefit from
the large number of international experts in this field who participated as authors.
In Chapter 2, the basic principles of combustion are explained and the various biomass
fuels are characterized regarding their physical and chemical parameters and their influence
on the combustion process.
Chapter 3 provides information on possible biomass fuel pre-treatment options and
fuel-feeding technologies.
Chapter 4 describes currently available biomass combustion technologies for domestic
space heating.
Chapter 5 describes the biomass combustion technologies currently applied or under
development for industrial utilization of biomass fuels. Moreover, technological
possibilities to increase the efficiency of biomass combustion plants are discussed, and
technological and economic standards regarding the proper dimensioning of biomass
combustion systems are given.
Chapter 6 covers the various technologies for power production based on biomass
combustion.
In Chapter 7, various concepts for biomass co-firing technologies and applications are
explained and discussed. Typical technical problems are explained and guidelines for co-
firing presented.
Inorganic components in biomass have direct influence on the eventual formation of
slag deposits, corrosion of boiler components, aerosol formation and utilization options for
the ashes formed. Chapter 8 is dedicated to ash characteristics and the behaviour of ash in
biomass combustion systems.
Chapter 9 is devoted to environmental aspects of biomass combustion. It provides over-
views of average gaseous and solid emissions from combustion installations and describes
possible primary and secondary measures for emission reduction. Furthermore, biomass
ashes are characterized and possible treatments and utilizations are pointed out. Finally, this
chapter offers an overview of the various environmental regulations in 19 European
countries regarding emissions limits for biomass combustion facilities.
Chapter 10 provides an overview of trends and policies with regard to the implement-
ation of biomass combustion systems.
Finally, Chapter 11 supplies an overview of needs and ongoing activities concerning
research and development in the field of biomass combustion.
1.4 References
1 UN FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION (FAO) (1997) Bioenergy Terminology and
Bioenergy Database, Wood Energy Programme, Wood and Non-Wood Products Utilization Branch
(FOPW)/FAO (ed.), Rome, Italy
2 WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION, see www.who.int
3 IEA (2004) World Energy Outlook, IEA
References
1 Introduction
33 ZHANG, J., SMITH, K. R., MA, Y., YE, S., JIANG, F., QI,
W., LIU, P., KHALIL, M. A., RASMUSSEN, R. A. and Thorneloe,
S. A. (2000) ‘Greenhouse gases and other airborne
pollutants from household stoves in China: A database for
emission factors’, Atmospheric Environment, vol 34,
pp4537–4549