1 OPTICAL FIBERS

1.1 Introduction

You hear about fiber-optic cables

whenever people talk about the telephone
system, the cable TV system or the Internet.
Fiber-optic lines are strands of optically pure
glass as thin as a human hair that carries
digital information over long distances.

In recent years it has become

apparent that fiber-optics are steadily
replacing copper wire as an appropriate
means of communication signal
transmission. They span the long distances
between local phone systems as well as
providing the backbone for many network
systems. Other system users include cable
Figure 6.1. Optical fiber
television services, university campuses,
office buildings, industrial plants, and electric utility companies.

A fiber-optic system is similar to the copper wire system that fiber-

optics is replacing. The difference is that fiber-optics use light pulses to
transmit information down fiber lines instead of using electronic pulses to
transmit information down copper lines.

Fiber optic cable advantages over copper:

– Speed: Fiber optic networks operate at high speeds - up into the gigabits
– Bandwidth: large carrying capacity
– Distance: Signals can be transmitted further without needing to be
"refreshed" or strengthened.
– Resistance: Greater resistance to electromagnetic noise such as radios,
motors or other nearby cables.
– Maintenance: Fiber optic cables costs much less to maintain.

Optical fibers are long, thin strands of very pure glass about the
diameter of a human hair. They are arranged in bundles called optical
cables and used to transmit light signals over long distances.
 Figure 6.2 Parts of a single optical fiber

A single optical fiber has the following parts (figure 6.2):

– Core - Thin glass center of the fiber where the light travels ;
– Cladding - Outer optical material surrounding the core that reflects the
light back into the core ;
– Buffer coating - Plastic coating that protects the fiber from damage and
moisture.

Hundreds or thousands of these optical fibers are arranged in

bundles in optical cables. The bundles are protected by the cable's outer
covering, called a jacket.

Optical fibers come in two types:

• Single-mode fibers
• Multi-mode fibers

Single-mode fibers have small

cores (about 3.5 x 10-4 inches or 9 Figure 6.3 Single mode fiber
micrometers in diameter) and transmit infrared laser light (wavelength = 1,300
to 1,550 nanometers).

Multi-mode fibers
have larger cores (about 2.5 x
10-3 inches or 62.5 microns in
diameter) and transmit infrared

Figure 6.4 Multimode fiber

light (wavelength = 850 to 1,300 nm) from light-emitting diodes (LEDs).

Some optical fibers can be made from plastic. These fibers have a large
core (0.04 inches or 1 mm diameter) and transmit visible red light (wavelength =
650 nm) from LEDs.

Figure 6.5

The light in a fiber-optic cable travels through the core (hallway) by

constantly bouncing from the cladding (mirror-lined walls), a principle called
total internal reflection (see fig. 6.5). Because the cladding does not absorb
any light from the core, the light wave can travel great distances. However,
some of the light signal degrades within the fiber, mostly due to impurities in
the glass. The extent that the signal degrades depends on the purity of the glass
and the wavelength of the transmitted light (for example, 850 nm = 60 to 75
percent/km; 1,300 nm = 50 to 60 percent/km; 1,550 nm is greater than 50
percent/km). Some premium optical fibers show much less signal degradation --
less than 10 percent/km at 1,550 nm.
 Figure 6.6 Diagram of total internal reflection in an optical fiber

When light passes from a medium with one index of refraction (m1)
to another medium with a lower index of refraction (m2), it bends or
refracts away from an imaginary line perpendicular to the surface (normal
line). As the angle of the beam through m1 becomes greater with respect
to the normal line, the refracted light through m2 bends further away from
the line.
At one particular angle (critical angle), the refracted light will not go
into m2, but instead will travel along the surface between the two media (sin
[critical angle] = n2/n1 where n1 and n2 are the indices of refraction [n1 is less
than n2]). If the beam through m1 is greater than the critical angle, then the
refracted beam will be reflected entirely back into m1 (total internal reflection),
even though m2 may be transparent (figure 6.6).
In physics, the critical angle is described with respect to the normal line.
In fiber optics, the critical angle is described with respect to the parallel axis
running down the middle of the fiber. Therefore, the fiber-optic critical angle =
(90 degrees - physics critical angle).

In an optical fiber,
the light travels through
the core (n1, high index of
refraction) by constantly
reflecting from the
cladding (n2, lower index
of refraction) because the
angle of the light is
always greater than the
critical angle. Light
reflects from the cladding
Figure 6.7 Total internal reflections in an optical fiber no matter what angle the
fiber itself gets bent at,
even if it's a full circle.
 Because the cladding does not absorb any light from the core, the light
wave can travel great distances. However, some of the light signal degrades
within the fiber, mostly due to impurities in the glass. The extent that the signal
degrades depends upon the purity of the glass and the wavelength of the
transmitted light (for example, 850 nm = 60 to 75 percent/km; 1,300 nm = 50 to
60 percent/km; 1,550 nm is greater than 50 percent/km). Some premium optical
fibers show much less signal degradation -- less than 10 percent/km at 1,550 nm.

Figure 6.8

1.2 Characteristics of Optical Fibers

Optical-fiber systems have many advantages over metallic-based

communication systems. These advantages include interference, attenuation, and
bandwidth characteristics. Furthermore, the relatively smaller cross section of
fiber-optic cables allows room for substantial growth of the capacity in existing
conduits. Fiber-optic characteristics can be classified as linear and nonlinear.

– Linear characteristics include attenuation, chromatic dispersion

(CD), polarization mode dispersion (PMD), and optical signal-to-
noise ratio (OSNR).

– Nonlinear characteristics are influenced by parameters, such as bit

rates, channel spacing, and power levels.

The key optical performance parameters for fibers are attenuation,

dispersion and mode-field diameter. Optical fiber performance parameters can
vary significantly among fibers from different manufacturers, in ways that can
affect a system’s performance. It is important to understand how to specify the
fiber that best meets the system’s requirements.
1.2.1 Interference
Light signals traveling via a fiber-optic cable are immune from
electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio-frequency interference (RFI).
Lightning and high-voltage interference is also eliminated. A fiber network is
best for conditions in which EMI or RFI interference is heavy or safe operation
free from sparks and static is a must. This desirable property of fiber-optic cable
makes it the medium of choice in industrial and biomedical networks. It is also
possible to place fiber cable into natural-gas pipelines and use the pipelines as
the conduit.

1.2.2 Linear Characteristics

Attenuation
Several factors can cause attenuation, but it is generally categorized as
either intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic attenuation is caused by substances
inherently present in the fiber, whereas extrinsic attenuation is caused by
external forces such as bending.
Attenuation is the reducing of signal strength or light power over the
length of the light-carrying medium. Fiber attenuation is measured in decibels
per kilometer (dB/km).

Figure 6.9 Attenuation vs. wavelength

Intrinsic Attenuation
Intrinsic attenuation results from materials inherent to the fiber. It is
caused by impurities in the glass during the manufacturing process. As precise
as manufacturing is, there is no way to eliminate all impurities. When a light
signal hits an impurity in the fiber, one of two things occurs: It scatters or it is
absorbed.

Intrinsic loss can be further characterized by two components:

– Material absorption
– Rayleigh scattering

Extrinsic Attenuation
Extrinsic attenuation can be caused by two external mechanisms:
macrobending or microbending. Both cause a reduction of optical power. If a
bend is imposed on an optical fiber, strain is placed on the fiber along the region
that is bent. The bending strain affects the refractive index and the critical angle
of the light ray in that specific area. As a result, light traveling in the core can
refract out, and loss occurs.

Dispersion
Dispersion is the smearing or broadening of an optical signal that results
from many discrete wavelength components traveling at different rates (see
Figure 6.10). In digital transmission, dispersion limits the maximum data rate or
information-carrying capacity of a single-mode fiber-link. In analog
transmission, dispersion can cause a waveform to become significantly distorted
and can result in unacceptable levels of a composite second-order distortion
(CSO).

Dispersion vs. Wavelength

Fiber dispersion varies with wavelength and is controlled by fiber design
(see Figure 6.11). The wavelength at which dispersion equals zero is zero-
dispersion wavelength. This is the wavelength at which fiber has its maximum
information-carrying capacity. For standard single-mode fibers, this is in the
region of 1310 nm.

Figure 6.10 Signal Dispersion

 Figure 6.11 Dispersion and Wavelength
Dispersion is expressed as the time increase in signal width (in
picoseconds) per unit divided by the source spectral width (in nm) per unit times
the length of fiber (in km).
Chromatic dispersion consists of two kind of dispersion. Material
dispersion refers to the pools spreading caused by the specific composition of
the glass. Waveguide dispersion is the pulse spreading that occurs as the light
travels in both the core and the inner cladding glasses. The two types can be
balanced to produce a wavelength of zero dispersion at 1310 nm.
Chromatic Dispersion
Chromatic dispersion is the spreading of a light pulse as it travels down a
fiber. Light has a dual nature and can be considered from an electromagnetic
wave as well as quantum perspective. This enables us to quantify it as waves as
well as quantum particles. During the propagation of light, all of its spectral
components propagate accordingly. These spectral components travel
at different group velocities that lead to dispersion called group velocity
dispersion (GVD). Dispersion resulting from GVD is termed chromatic
dispersion due to its wavelength dependence. The effect of chromatic dispersion
is pulse spread.
Polarization Mode Dispersion
Polarization mode dispersion (PMD) is caused by asymmetric distortions
to the fiber from a perfect cylindrical geometry. The fiber is not truly a
cylindrical waveguide, but it can be best described as an imperfect cylinder with
physical dimensions that are not perfectly constant. The mechanical stress
exerted upon the fiber due to extrinsically induced bends and stresses caused
during cabling, deployment, and splicing as well as the imperfections resulting
from the manufacturing process are the reasons for the variations in the
cylindrical geometry.
PMD is not an issue at low bit rates but becomes an issue at bit rates in
excess of 5 Gbps. PMD is noticeable at high bit rates and is a significant source
of impairment for ultra-long-haul systems. PMD compensation can be achieved
by using PMD compensators that contain dispersion-maintaining fibers with
degrees of birefringence in them.
Dispersion-Shifted Fiber
Optical fibers also can be manufactured to have the zero dispersion
wavelengths in the 1550 nm region, which coincides with fiber’s lowest
attenuation point. Dispersion-shifted fiber can allow for greater transmission
capacity over great distances than would be possible with single-mode fiber.
Transmission in the 1550nm Window
Optical fibers also can be manufactured to have the zero-dispersion
wavelength in the 1550 nm region, which is also the point where silica-based
fibers have inherently minimal attenuation. These fibers are referred to as
nonzero dispersion-shift fiber (NZDSF). These fibers are primarily used in
applications that require both long-distance and high-capacity transmission
rates.
For applications such as the interconnection of headings, delivery of
programming to remote node sites, high-speed communication networks, and
regional and metropolitan rings (used primarily for competitive access
applications), NZDSF fiber can improve system reliability; increase capacity,
and lower system costs (see Figure 6.12).

Figure 6.12 Wavelength and Dispersion

Optical Signal-to-Noise Ratio
The optical signal-to-noise ratio (OSNR) specifies the ratio of the net
signal power to the net noise power and thus identifies the quality of the signal.
Attenuation can be compensated for by amplifying the optical signal. However,
optical amplifiers amplify the signal as well as the noise. Over time and
distance, the receivers cannot distinguish the signal from the noise, and the
signal is completely lost. Regeneration helps mitigate these undesirable effects
before they can render the system unusable and ensures that the signal can be
detected at the receiver. Optical amplifiers add a certain amount of noise to the
channel. Active devices, such as lasers, also add noise. Passive devices, such as
taps and the fiber, can also add noise components. In the calculation of system
design, however, optical amplifier noise is considered the predominant source
for OSNR penalty and degradation.
Mode-Field Diameter
Mode-field diameter (MFD) describes the size of the light-carrying
portion of the fiber. This region includes the fiber core as well as a portion of the
surrounding cladding glass. MFD is an important parameter for determining a
fiber’s resistance to band-induced loss as well. MFD, rather than core diameter,
is the functional parameter that determines optical performance when a fiber is
coupled to a light source, connected, spliced or bent. It is a function of
wavelength, core diameter, and the refractive-index difference between the core
and the cladding. These last two are fiber design and manufacturing parameters.
Cut-Off Wavelength
Cut-off wavelength is the wavelength above which a single-mode fiber
supports only one mode or ray of light. An optical fiber that is single-mode at a
particular wavelength has two or more modes at wavelengths shorter than the
cut-off wavelength.The effective cut-off wavelength of a fiber is dependent on
the length of fiber and its deployment: the longer the fiber, the shorter the
effective cut-off wavelength. Or, the smaller the band radius of a loop of the
fiber is, the shorter the effective cut-off wavelength will be.

1.2.3 Non-linear Characteristics

Self-Phase Modulation
Phase modulation of an optical signal by itself is known as self-phase
modulation (SPM). SPM is primarily due to the self-modulation of the pulses.
Generally, SPM occurs in single-wavelength systems. At high bit rates,
however, SPM tends to cancel dispersion. SPM increases with high signal power
levels. In fiber plant design, a strong input signal helps overcome linear
attenuation and dispersion losses.

Cross-Phase Modulation
Cross-phase modulation (XPM) is a nonlinear effect that limits system
performance in wavelength-division multiplexed (WDM) systems. XPM is the
phase modulation of a signal caused by an adjacent signal within the same fiber.
XPM is related to the combination (dispersion/effective area). CPM results from
the different carrier frequencies of independent channels, including the
associated phase shifts on one another.

Four-Wave Mixing
FWM can be compared to the intermodulation distortion in standard
electrical systems. When three wavelengths (λ1, λ 2, and λ 3) interact in a
nonlinear medium, they give rise to a fourth wavelength (λ 4), which is formed
by the scattering of the three incident photons, producing the fourth photon. This
effect is known as four-wave mixing (FWM) and is a fiber-optic characteristic
that affects WDM systems.

Stimulated Raman Scattering

When light propagates through a medium, the photons interact with
silica molecules during propagation. The photons also interact with themselves
and cause scattering effects, such as stimulated Raman scattering (SRS), in the
forward and reverse directions of propagation along the fiber. This results in a
sporadic distribution of energy in a random direction. SRS refers to lower
wavelengths pumping up the amplitude of higher wavelengths, which results in
the higher wavelengths suppressing signals from the lower wavelengths. One
way to mitigate the effects of SRS is to lower the input power. In SRS, a low-
wavelength wave called Stoke's wave is generated due to the scattering of
energy. This wave amplifies the higher wavelengths. The gain obtained by using
such a wave forms the basis of Raman amplification. The Raman gain can
extend most of the operating band (C- and L-band) for WDM networks. SRS is
pronounced at high bit rates and high power levels. The margin design
requirement to account for SRS/SBS is 0.5 dB.
Stimulated Brillouin Scattering
Stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) is due to the acoustic properties of
photon interaction with the medium. When light propagates through a medium,
the photons interact with silica molecules during propagation. The photons also
interact with themselves and cause scattering effects such as SBS in the reverse
direction of propagation along the fiber. In SBS, a low-wavelength wave called
Stoke's wave is generated due to the scattering of energy. This wave amplifies
the higher wavelengths. The gain obtained by using such a wave forms the basis
of Brillouin amplification. The Brillouin gain peaks in a narrow peak near the C-
band. SBS is pronounced at high bit rates and high power levels. The margin
design requirement to account for SRS/SBS is 0.5 dB.

1.3 Materials Used for the Fabrication of Optic Fibers and Optic Cables

Depending on the application, the materials used to fabricate the optical

fiber vary. Ever since the introduction of fiber optics technology, the optical
fiber has proven to be a versatile and relatively efficient means of transporting
light energy and information. Fiber optics communications systems are in
widespread use, and find application for communicating a wide variety of
information, including telephone, video, and audio information.
Before we can make a classification of the materials used in the process
of fabrication it is necessary to underline some properties that this materials
should have. So, no matter of the composition they are used, the materials
should meet the following requirements:
 – very good transparency to the wavelength of the optical signal ;
– stability of chemical properties in time(for long periods of time) ;
– they should be easily processed in each phase of the technologic
process.
A primary classification of the materials used in the fabrication of optic
fibers will look like the following:
– pure Silica dioxide, and some mixtures of this with others oxides in
small quantities (also known as dopants) ;
– multi-composite glasses ;
– plastic materials.

This classification was made on the experience of the producers of optic

fibers. These are the materials that are mostly used in the process of fabrication
in the entire world.
Considering the requirements that the optic fiber should meet, the
manufacturer chooses the materials with the best properties to meet these
requirements. For example, for producing optic fibers used to transmit data at
small distances there are used plastic materials. Although plastic materials have
optic characteristics inferior to those of glasses, for small distances the
attenuation of the optic signal along the fiber does not represent a real problem.
Besides, the polymers don’t require high temperatures in the process of
fabrication. Overall, plastic materials are more often used for the fabrication of
the cladding.
From many points of view, Silica dioxide based materials and multi-
composite glasses are net superior to plastic materials.

One may say that the differences between the above groups of materials
are taken into account when a method of fabrication is chosen. In other words a
fabrication technology can be used only if the materials have properties to allow
that technology.
Due to the large range of chemical compositions (between silica dioxide
and glasses), it is hard to establish the boundary between these two classes.
Some properties of silica dioxide materials and glasses are:
– both have an amorphous structure ;
– both are anisotropic ;
– they require a high temperature in processing ;
– they are stable and homogeneous after cooling.

The parameter that makes a sharp classification between glasses with a

high concentration of SiO2 the multi-composite glasses is the melting
temperature (and implicitly the temperature at which the fiber is drawn): the
multi-composite glasses melt at 800-1200˚C and the SiO2 melts at 2000˚C.
 Some disadvantages in using the glasses with a high concentration of
SiO2 are:
– the velocity in the drawing phase is small ;
– the processes must be done at high temperatures, where it is difficult to
have a good control on the fiber geometry .

On the other hand these disadvantages are compensated by a very good

quality of the optic fibers.

Environmental Performance
While cable design and construction play key role in environmental
performance, optimum system performance requires the user to specify fiber
that will operate without undue loss from microbending.
Microbends are small-scale perturbations along the fiber axes, the
amplitude of which are on order of micrometers. These distorsions can cause
light to leak out of a fiber. Microbending may be induced at very cold
temperatures because the glass has a different coefficient of thermal expansion
from the coating and cabling materials. At low temperatures, the coating and
cable become more rigid and contract more than the glass. Consequently,
enough loads may be exerted on the glass to cause microbends. Coating fiber
ribbon and cabling materials are selected by manufacturers to minimize loss due
to microbending.
To ensure that a cabled fiber provides the best performance for a specific
application, it is important to work with an optical fiber cable supplier to specify
the fiber parameters just reviewed as well the geometric characteristics that
provide the consistency necessary for acceptable splicing and connectorizing.

Splicers and Connectors

Optical fibers are connected to terminal equipment by optical fiber
connectors. These connectors are usually of a standard type such as FC, SC, ST,
LC, or MTRJ.
Optical fibers may be connected to each other by connectors or by
splicing, that is, joining two fibers together to form a continuous optical
waveguide. The generally accepted splicing method is arc fusion splicing, which
melts the fiber ends together with an electric arc. For quicker fastening jobs, a
"mechanical splice" is used.Joining lengths of optical fiber is more complex than
joining electrical wire or cable. The ends of the fibers must be carefully cleaved,
and then spliced together either mechanically or by fusing them together with an
electric arc. Special connectors are used to make removable connections.

As optical fiber move closer to the customer, where cable lengths are
shorter and cables have higher fiber counts, the need for joining fibers becomes
greater: splicing and connecting play a
critical role both in the cost of installation
and in system performance.
A splice is a device to connect one
fiber optic cable to another permanently. It
is the attribute of permanence that
distinguishes a splice from connectors.
The object of splicing and
connecting is to match, precisely, the core
of one optical fiber with that of another in
order to produce a smut channel through
which light signals can continue without
alteration and interruption. Figure 6.13 Connectors
There are two ways in which fibers are
joined:
– Splices, which form permanent
connections between fibers in the
system ;
– Connectors, which provide
remittable connections, typically at
termination points.

There are two principal types of splices:

fusion and mechanical:

– Fusion Splicing
Fusion splicing provides a fast,
reliable, low-loss, fiber-to-fiber connection Figure 6.14 Splicer
by creating a homogenous joint between
the two fiber ends. The two fibers are
melted or fused together by heating the fiber ends typically using an electric arc.
Fusion splices provide the highest-quality joint with the lowest loss (in the range
of 0.04 dB to 0.1 dB) and are practically nonreflective.

– Mechanical Splicing
Mechanical splicing, is an alternative method of making a permanent
connection between fibers. In the past, the disadvantages of mechanical splicing
have been slightly higher losses, less-reliable performance, and a cost associated
with each splice. However, advances into the technology have significantly
improved its performance. System operators typically use mechanical splicing
for emergency restoration because it is fast, inexpensive, and easy.
 There also exists Chemical Splicing . Chemical splicing shall only be
used for temporary joining of fiber optics (i.e., testing).

1.4 Technologies for fabrication of the optic fibers

Glass optical fibers are almost always made from silica, but some other
materials, such as fluorozirconate, fluoroaluminate, and chalcogenide glasses,
are used for longer-wavelength infrared applications. Like other glasses, these
glasses have a refractive index of about 1.5. Typically the difference between
core and cladding is less than one percent.
Plastic optical fibers (POF) are commonly step-index multimode fibers
with a core diameter of 0.5 mm or larger. POF typically have higher attenuation
coefficients than glass fibers, 1 dB/m or higher, and this high attenuation limits
the range of POF-based systems.
There is a wide range of materials that can be used; the only condition
that must be respected is that these materials to ensure the optic properties and
the parameters required by the process of fabrication.
An important aspect that has great influence upon the performances of the
optic fiber is the presence of impurities in the material.

1.4.1 Technologies for fibers made of multicomposite glasses

Optical fibers made from multicomposite glasses have a great

attenuation than those with high concentration of silicium dioxide. This is due to
the impurities, and especially to the ions of the transitions metals (determine
large absorption bands for visible and infrared spectrum).
There are some methods to determine the concentration of impurities in
the material:
– atomic absorption;
– mass spectrometry;
– X-rays.
– Techniques to purify the materials used for fiber optic fabrication are:
– solvent extraction;
– precipitation.

Double Crucible technology for fabricating step index optic fibers

This procedure is still of actuality because of the fact that it is not so
complex and the fibers obtained by this method have a wide variety of
applications. Although the fibers obtained by Double Crucible method from
multicomposite glasses have qualitative parameters smaller than those of the
fibers realized from SiO2 , the first are still fabricated, having a great
applicability in the domain of transmitting information to short distances. The
parameters of these fibers allow the transmission at short distances; the
attenuation (of the fiber) in this case, although high, doesn’t affect the
transmission.
The crucibles are put one into another (concentrically), and they have in
the lower part a circular hole through which the melted glass flows. The
crucibles are made of materials like platinum or some alloys of platinum
because they permit work temperatures up to 1400˚C.
Impurities in the glass may appear from the platinum crucible (ions of
Pt); these ions raise the capacity of absorption of light especially in the domain
UV. It was demonstrated that the use of iridium as a composite material for the
crucibles gives a very high attenuation factor to the fibers.
The speed of the drawing of the glass from this double crucible is
0.5-5 m/s. The diameters of the holes of the crucibles are about: 0.5 mm (inner
crucible, that gives the core of the fiber) and 3 mm (external crucible, that gives
the cladding).
The process is realized in steps:
1. the preparation of the glass with the desired composition(in another
crucible at 800˚C) ;
2. the drawing of the fiber .
This last phase of the process is quite difficult because it requires a very
strict management of the fiber geometric dimensions, in some well-definite
values.

Defects of the fiber introduced by the double crucible method are:

– introduction of impurities from the crucible (ions of Pt);
– possibility to have gas bubbles;
– nonhomogeneous parts in the melted material;
– concentricity deviations (between core and cladding);
– variations of the diameter of core (or cladding);

Double Crucible technology for fabricating Graded Index optic

fibers
This technology’s main idea is to maintain a contact at high
temperatures, for a longer period of time, between the material of the core and
that of the cladding. In this way there will be ion diffusion between these two
materials, and so a graded index will appear.
Using a good calibration of the double crucible, one can control the
diffusion process and in this way can be obtained the desired profile of the
refractive index: from a step variation to a quasiparabolic variation.
 „Stem in the Tube“ technology
In this method, a glass stem with a high refractive index is introduced
into a glass tube with a smaller refractive index. This system represents the
material from which, inside an oven, the optic fiber is drawn.
This method permits a better control upon the geometric characteristics
of the fiber. If the stem and the tube are melted with the same linear velocity
(inside the oven) during the drawing, the ratio between the diameter of the core
and the diameter of the cladding of the drawn fiber is represented by the ratio
between the diameter of the stem and that of the tube (inner one).
Defects that may be introduced are:
– gas bubbles;
– other inclusions.

Phase separation technology

This procedure consists in the preparation of a glass having a medium
purity and then a process of thermal and chemical purification. At high
temperatures the glass (being instable) determines a process of separations in
two phases: a Silica based phase and an „ionic“ phase (including the most of the
impurities). The glass is then treated with an acid solution which dissolves the
ionic phase, eliminating the impurities. It results porous rods of glass that can be
consolidated to obtain the fiber. The variation of the refractive index can be
done by introducing a doping element.
Through this method, that has the advantage that is very simple, can be
realized both step index optic fibers and graded index optic fibers.

6.4.2 Technologies for fibers with high concentration of SiO2

Standard optical fibers are made by first constructing a large-diameter

preform, with a carefully controlled refractive index profile, and then pulling the
preform to form the long, thin optical fiber. The preform is commonly made by
three chemical vapor deposition methods: inside vapor deposition, outside vapor
deposition, and vapor axial deposition.

Chemical vapor deposition

In order to work with glasses that have a high concentration of SiO2 (80-
90%), which have superior optical properties, there is necessary to assure very
high work temperatures, and the method of double crucible is not efficient
anymore. Therefore new procedures have developed, procedures that raised the
quality of optic fibers, but the equipments used became also very complex.
All the technologies based on the chemical deposition from the vapor
phase have in common the existence of three stages:
– the realization of the preform ;
 – the drawing of the fiber from the perform ;
– testing the fibers.

In the first stage, there is realized a rod made of glass having the desired
composition. This glass rod is named preform. In the second stage, this preform
is heated at 1800-2000˚C, in order to be drawn in fibers. This last stage of
drawing is almost identical in all the technologies based on chemical deposition.

The realization of the preform

There are basically two categories of technologies:
– technologies that use internal deposition in vapor phase ;
– technologies that use external deposition in vapor phase.
There are also known methods that use hydrogen or oxygen heaters, and
some that use plasma generators or lasers.

Internal oxidation in vapor phase

The main idea is to depose layers of glass with high concentration of
SiO2 on the inner walls of a tube made from SiO2 glass. In this way it is reduced
the risk of contamination with impurities. During the deposition there are added
dopants to the silicium dioxide; they have the role to modify the refractive index
of the glass.
It is important to know that controlling the concentration of the dopants
means in fact controlling the numerical aperture and the refractive index. There
can be obtained preformes for fibers with step index or with graded index.
Each layer deposed has a thickness of about 5-15μm. Normally there can
be deposed 80-100 layers, meaning a total thickness of about 1 mm.
The dopants make the difference between the refractive index of the core
and that of the cladding. There are some considerations upon the types of
dopants that must be taken into account:
– if there is added P or B2O3 there will be obtained a glass for the optic
cladding (because these substances decrease the refractive index) ;
– if there is added P2O5 , GeO2 or TiO2 will result glasses for the core of
the fiber (they raise the refractive index) ;
– a raise of the refractive index may be obtained by doping the SiO2 with
Al2O3, Ta2 O5, Zr O2, or Nb2O3.

It also has to be taken into account the fact that adding dopants, the
thermal dilation coefficient of the material will change. If the material of the
core has a dilation coefficient greater than the material of the cladding, then
during the cooling, the core will tend to extend and the cladding to compress.
The internal strains will have a variable repartition. They produce fissures in the
glass. That’s why it must be maintained a specific concentration of dopants, and
their type must be carefully chosen.
 In order to realize the preform, in the chemical deposition phase, the
process starts with the component substances in liquid state. The deposition of
the layers will take place at 1500ºC, through vaporization. At the end the
preform looks like a tube made of successive layers of glass, which have
different composition, inorder to realize the profile of the desired refractive
index. The closing of the preform is made by heating it at 1900ºC; the section of
the tube lowers, and the hole disappears. Through this operation the glass won’t
fissure at cooling, and it is avoided the inclusion of impurities. A disadvantage
would be the evaporation of some part of the dopant oxide in the inner layers,
but it can be removed by doping in excess these layers.

External
oxidation in vapor
phase
This process
consists in the
deposition of glass
(obtained through the
same reactions like in
internal oxidation) on
the external surface of
a silicium rod. The
Figure 6.15 CVD process for making the preform concentration of
blank internal oxidation dopants is modified
after a layer is
deposed, and then it starts deposing the next layer. In this way it is obtained a
radial variation of the refractive index.

“Verneuil” method - continuous realization of the preform

This method implies a continuous growing of the preform, in axial
direction. This axial growing process is realized by the deposition of fine
particles of oxides. To the rod, on which is made the deposition, is applied a
longitudinal movement and a rotation one, in the same time. In the axial
direction it is deposed the material (vaporous state) of the core; in a lateral
direction it is deposed the material for the cladding. The profile of the refractive
index can be controlled by controlling the directions in which the vaporous
materials are deposed.

The drawing of the fibers from the preform

 This process will determine the
final geometric characteristics of the
fiber, having a direct influence on the
qualitative parameter of the fiber:
attenuation of the transmitted signal.
Once the preform blank has
been tested, it gets loaded into a fiber
drawing tower.

This process is realized using

three basic components:
– a system that ensures a controlled
movement of the preform;
– an oven ;
– a system of drawing the fiber.
The preform is fixed in the
feeding system. This will ensure is
controlled advance into the oven where
the heating takes place, at 2000ºC.

The drawing of the fiber must be

made with a velocity of 0.5-1.5 m/s.
The diameter of the resulted fiber can Figure 6.16 Diagram of a fiber
be computed with the following drawing tower used to draw optical
relation: glass fibers from a preform blank

Vp Sf
 (6.1)
Vf Sp

Where:
Vp is the speed of the preform;
Vf is the speed the fiber is drawn;
Sf is the cross section area of the fiber;
Sp is the cross section area of the preform.

The diameter of the fiber is measured continuously with an optic system

placed between the drawing area and the roll the fiber is wrapped. Overall, there
is control system that manages the speed of the preform and the speed of
drawing. The optic fiber is also covered with a polimer which assures its
protection.
 The development of this technology went to a diversification of the
systems used. The most common are:
– electric oven (with resistor) ;
– electric oven (with induction) ;
– carbon dioxide laser ;
– oxygen and hydrogen burner.

In order to measure the diameter of the fiber there can be applied:

– projection method ;
– interferometer method.

From the point of view of the material used for the protection of the fiber,
this can be plastic material or synthetic resins. In the last years there has
developed a large palette of such materials, which basically must have the
following special characteristics:
– the deposed layer must have an uniform thickness, that means that it
has to be concentric with the optic fiber; if it isn’t there will appear
some internal strains, after cooling, strains that can lead to the
deformation of the optic fiber (it will curve it) ;
– the protection layer must be nonabrasive and has to maintain its
chemical and physical properties in time ;
– it has to present a quick bonding to the fiber ;
– must have a short solidification time ;
– the dilation coefficient of the protective substance has to be as
closed as possible to that of the glass in order to avoid the strains
that may result from the different work temperatures , strains that
could brake the fiber ;
– the protective material must be easy to be dissolved with some
special solvent, if there appears the need to correct the optic fiber.

In principal, the covering of the optic fiber with protective material is

correct if there is respected some relation between the speed of the fiber and the
viscosity of the solution, during the hole process of covering.

The last operation to be done is the cooling of the protection layer. This
is done in a cylindrical oven, who maintains a controlled temperature, which
permits the evaporation of the solvent in the short time the fiber passes through
that oven.

A more complex case is represented when the optic fiber needs to be

plaited with other fibers in order to obtain an optic cable. In this situation this
protection layer is not sufficient and there must be added some other protection.
 Testing the Finished Optical Fiber
The finished optical fiber is tested for complying the following :
– Tensile strength - Must withstand 100,000 lb/in2 or more
– Refractive index profile - Determine numerical aperture as well as
screen for optical defects
– Fiber geometry - Core diameter, cladding dimensions and coating
diameter are uniform
– Attenuation - Determine the extent that light signals of various
wavelengths degrade over distance
– Information carrying capacity (bandwidth) - Number of signals
that can be carried at one time (multi-mode fibers)
– Chromatic dispersion - Spread of various wavelengths of light
through the core (important for bandwidth)
– Operating temperature/humidity range
– Temperature dependence of attenuation
– Ability to conduct light underwater - Important for undersea
cable

1.5 Graded-Index Fibers

In fiber optics, a graded-index or gradient-index fiber is an optical fiber

whose core has a refractive index that decreases with increasing radial distance
from the fiber axis (the imaginary central axis running down the length of the
fiber). Because parts of the core closer to the fiber axis have a higher refractive
index than the parts near the cladding, light rays follow sinusoidal paths down
the fiber. Graded-index fiber, as compared to multimode step-index fiber, has
the advantage that there is a considerable decrease in modal dispersion.
The most common refractive index profile for a graded-index fiber is
almost parabolic. The parabolic profile results in continual refocusing of the rays
in the core, and minimizes modal dispersion.
 The mainstream fibers manufactured and marketed today are singlemode
(SM) and multimode (MM). The diagram below provides more information on
both of these fiber types.

Figure 6.17 Comparison between MM and SM fibers

1.5.1 Step index multimode fiber

In the case of a multimode fiber, the core diameter is relatively large

compared to a wavelength of light. Core diameters range from 50 micrometers
(µm) to 1,000 µm, compared to the wavelength of light of about 1 µm. This
means that light can propagate through the fiber in many different ray paths, or
modes, hence the name multimode.

Two basic types of multimode fibers exist:

– step index multimode fiber
– graded index multimode fiber

The simpler and older type is a step index fiber, which is generally made
by doping high-purity fused silica glass (SiO2) with different concentrations of
materials like titanium, germanium, or boron.
 The main characteristic of the step index fiber is that the index of
refraction (the ability of a material to bend light) is the same all across the core
of the fiber. Also there is a sharp decrease in refractive index at the core-
cladding interface so that the cladding is of a lower refractive index. The step-
index profile corresponds to a power-law index profile with the profile
parameter approaching infinity. The step-index profile is used in most single-
mode fibers and some multimode fibers.

Figure 6.18 Step-index optic fiber

The fact that the index of refraction is uniform within the core leads to
rays of light being propagated as shown below.

This consists of a homogeneous core of refractive index n1 surrounded

by a cladding of slightly lower refractive index n2. If r describes the radial
distance from the core centre and a the core radius :
n(r )  n1 , a  r  0 (6.2)
n (r )  n 2 , r > a (6.3)
The relative index difference  is given by :
  (n12  n22 ) / 2n12  (n1  n2 ) / n1 (6.4)

Light is guided by total internal reflection.  is of the order of 1% or less

for fibers based on fused silica.

With all these different ray paths or modes of propagation, different rays
travel different distances, and take different amounts of time to transit the length
of a fiber. This being the case, if a short pulse of light is injected into a fiber, the
various rays emanating from that pulse will arrive at the other end of the fiber at
different times. The output pulse will be of longer duration than the input pulse.
This phenomenon is called “modal dispersion” (pulse spreading), and limits the
number of pulses per second that can be transmitted down a fiber and still be
recognizable as separate pulses at the other end. Therefore, this limits the bit rate
or bandwidth of a multimode fiber. For step index fibers, wherein no effort is
made to compensate for modal dispersion, the bandwidth is typically 20 to 30
MHz over a length of one kilometer of fiber, expressed as “MHz-km”.

1.5.2 Graded index multimode fiber

In the case of a graded index multimode fiber, the index of refraction

across the core is gradually changed from a maximum at the center to a
minimum near the edges, hence the name graded index. The value of n1
decreases as the distance r from the center of the fiber increases.

The value of n1 decreases until it approaches the value of the refractive

index of the cladding n2. The value of n1 must be higher than the value of n2 to
allow for proper mode propagation. Like the step-index fiber, the value of n2 is
constant and has a slightly lower value than the maximum value of n1. The
relative refractive index difference ∆ is determined using the maximum value of
n1 and the value of n2 .

The optimum index profile is near-parabolic. If r describes the radial

distance from the core centre, n1 the refractive index at the core centre, a the
core radius, the refractive index profile is:
p 1/ 2
 r 
n(r )  n1 1  2   ,r<a (6.5)
  a  

n (r )  n 2 , r > a (6.6)
Where: r 2  x 2  y 2 , x and y being the transverse coordinates. The parameter p is
a characteristic of the doped profile.
For a step-index profile:
p   for r < a
p  0 for r > a
If p = 2 the index profile is parabolic.

This design takes advantage of the phenomenon that light travels faster
in a low-index-of-refraction material than a high-index material.

Light propagates in multimode graded-index fibers according to

refraction and total internal reflection. The gradual decrease in the core's
refractive index from the center of the fiber causes the light rays to be refracted
many times. The light rays become refracted or curved, which increases the
angle of incidence at the next point of refraction. Total internal reflection occurs
when the angle of incidence becomes larger than the critical angle of incidence.
The light rays or modes of propagation that travel near the edges of the
core travel faster for a longer distance, thereby transiting the fiber in
approximately the same time as the “low-order modes”, or rays traveling more
slowly near the center of the core.

Figure 6.19 MM Graded-index fiber

If a short pulse of light is launched into the graded index fiber, it may
spread some of it, during its transit of the fiber, but much less than in the case of
a step index fiber. Therefore, multimode-graded index fibers have the ability to
transport pulses closer together without spreading into each other than do the
step index fibers. They can support a much higher bit rate or bandwidth. Typical
bandwidths of graded index fibers range from 200 MHz-km to well over 1 GHz-
km. The actual bandwidth depends on how well a particular fiber’s index profile
minimizes modal dispersion, and on the wavelength of light launched into the
fiber.

The axial numerical aperture NA of a multimode graded-index fiber is at

its maximum value at the fiber axis. This NA(0) is approximately equal to
n1√(2∆).

However, the NA for graded-index fibers varies as a function of the radial

distance (r). NA varies because of the refractive index grading in the fiber's core.
The NA decreases from the maximum, NA(0), to zero at distances greater than
the core-cladding boundary distance (r>a). The NA, relative refractive index
difference ∆, profile parameter α, and normalized frequency V determine the
number of propagating modes Mn in multimode graded-index fibers.

Mn = V2 / 2; (6.7)
 V = [2πα / λ] * NA; (6.8)

A multimode graded-index fiber with the same normalized frequency as a

multimode step-index fiber will have approximately one-half as many
propagating modes. However, multimode graded-index fibers typically have
over one-hundred propagating modes.

1.5.3 Single-Mode Fiber

In the case of a single-mode fiber, the core diameter of about 9 µm is

much closer in size to the wavelength of light being propagated, about 1.3 µm.
This limits the light transmission to a single ray or mode of light to propagate
down the core of the fiber.

Figure 6.20. SM Step-index fiber

Two slightly different constructions of standard single-mode fibers are in

use today. These are matched clad and depressed clad. These terms refer to the
refractive index profile of the fibers.
The cladding is a glass layer immediately surrounding the core of the
fiber. In the matched clad design (long advocated by Corning Incorporated), the
index of refraction of the cladding is the same as, or “matches”, that of the
surrounding substrate glass.
In the depressed clad design (long advocated by Lucent Technologies),
the index of refraction of the cladding is lower than, or “depressed” with respect
to, the surrounding substrate glass.
These fiber designs are generally perceived as interchangeable and
compatible. The depressed clad fiber has a slightly smaller core diameter, and is
reputed to be slightly less bend-sensitive in small bends.
 In single-mode fibers, all the multiple-mode or multimode effects
described above are eliminated. However, one pulse-spreading mechanism
remains. Just as in the multimode fibers, different wavelengths of light travel at
different speeds, causing short pulses of light injected into the fiber to spread as
they travel. This phenomenon is called “chromatic dispersion”. The amount of
pulse spreading depends on the spectral width or number of wavelengths or
colors the light source produces.
The lasers typically used as light sources for single-mode systems
produce a relatively pure light output, with a narrow spectral width, reducing the
chromatic dispersion effect in single-mode fibers. Nonetheless, the pulse
broadening produced by chromatic dispersion ultimately limits the bandwidth of
single-mode systems.

1.6 Coupling in a Step-Index Fiber

The increasing use of optical fibers for light wave communications, local
area networks, or sensors, requires techniques for splicing and coupling. The
implementation of optical fibers depends to a large extent on the availability of
low cost connectors and devices in order to couple a single-mode fiber to
integrated optical components or to couple small sources (laser diode or LED) to
optical fibers. Major problems are difficulties in establishing and maintaining a
precise and critical alignment. This requires careful mechanical polishing of
waveguide ends. A further problem is the difference between diameters of the
two parts or between sections of two light spots (for example between a circular
fiber and a rectangular waveguide).

1.6.1 Fiber Ends

 Figure 6.21 Principle of fiber tool
For splicing two fiber ends or for coupling light into a fiber, flat end
faces are required. There are several methods of preparing fiber end faces. The
first method is grinding and polishing. A second method is fiber cleaving (see
Figure 6.18).
The fiber is bent under tension and scribed with a small carbide, sapphire
or diamond head. High quality ends perpendicular to the fiber axis can be
obtained. At the silica fiber end face in air the power reflection due to the
Fresnel coefficient is around 3.5%. In cases like coupling to laser source this
power loss cannot be tolerated. For these applications it is important to reduce
the reflection factor. Another method of avoiding reflection losses is to polish
the fiber obliquely. This method is used in fiber connectors.

1.6.2 Coupling from Fiber to Fiber

Common connectors
for optical fibers simply
bring the fiber ends into
direct contact (butt
coupling). Low loss splices
between optical fibers are
indispensable for achieving
optical fiber transmittance
systems. Splicing is a most
important problem for
single-mode fibers.
Alignment losses are due to
lateral, longitudinal and
angular offset (see Figure Figure 6.22 Types of splice misalignment:
6.22). Lateral offset is the (a) Longitudinal, (b) tilt, (c) lateral offset
largest cause of insertion loss.

1.6.3 Coupling from Semiconductor Laser or LED into Fibers

 Coupling structures from semiconductor laser or LED to multimode fiber
are shown in the Figure 6.23.

Multimode fiber
Large diameter optical fibers and fiber bundles are currently used in a
growing number of applications.
The fiber can support a large number of modes, so the electromagnetic
theory of energy launching into the optical fiber becomes very complicated. The
energy coupled to an optical multi-mode fiber can be calculated using
geometrical analysis. One must consider not only rays that cross the fiber axis
(meridian rays), but also those that never meet the axis along their path (skew
rays).

Figure 6.23 Coupling structures from semiconductor laser or LED to

multimode fiber

Using a cylindrical coordinate system (r;  c; z) in which the fiber axis

represents the z axis (see Figure 6.16), a point (r;  ), centre of a surface element
dS = r dr d  on the source emits rays in a direction defined by the angle  that
they form with the z axis and by the azimuth angle  with the radius. The total
energy Wo emitted by the source of area As is calculated from its energy I(r;  ;
 ;  ) by integrating the following equation in the emission solid angle :
dW0  I ( r , , ,  ) r sin drd dd over  from 0 to p/2
(6.9)
In the same way the energy Wi collected and guided by the fiber of area
Af is obtained by integrating the equation above over the surface As  Af , and
over

 from 0 to  ca, where  ca is the maximum angle for all rays.

The launching efficiency is :
 = Wi / Wo
(6.10)
If the source is an LED emitting uniformly, independently of  , and
having a Lambertian distribution, we have :
I ( )  I 0 cos( ) , and :
As =  b2 (b = radius of the LED).
So we obtain:
2 2
W0  I 0 b
(6.11)

Figure 6.24 Graded-index fiber

2 2 2
Wi  I 0 a sin  ca
(6.12)
and if Af < As we have :
  (a 2 sin 2  ca ) / b 2
(6.13)
It can be demonstrated that the launching efficiency increases with the
fiber acceptance angle.

Single-mode fiber
Moreover, in transmitter modules, sensors or instruments, maximum
coupling efficiency of the semiconductor laser beam into a single-mode fiber
and a low optical feedback into the laser are required. There are several factors
that reduce the coupling efficiency of a laser diode to single-mode fiber coupling
arrangement. They are ellipticity of the laser diode light, differences in the field
shapes and the spot size mismatch of the fields. The laser diode has an elliptic
near field given by the function:
2 1/ 2 1 x2 y2
 ( x, y )  ( ) [ ] exp{[( 2 )  2 ]} (6.14)
 ( x y )1/ 2 x  y
with the assumption of Gaussian field distribution and  x being the spot size in
the x-direction perpendicular to the junction plane and  y - the spot size in the y
-direction parallel to the junction plane.

1.7 Optical Cables

The optic fibers have a quite good mechanical resistance, but there exist
external factors that can diminish that resistance: strong torsions (with small
bending rays), chemical agents, and so on. In the communication systems, the
optic fibers can be plaited, in this way resulting optic cables. Optic cables can be
unifilar or multifilar.
In the last years there was a huge developing process of the optic cables.
There were realized unifiber connectors that have losses of radiation of the order
of a few tens of a dB. This made the technology of unifiber (or mono-fiber)
cables to impose in front of that of multi-fiber cables, especially in the
transmissions at long distances.
The multi-fiber cables remain very useful in sort distance transmissions,
in the internal cabling of ships, planes, generally in cases where the transmission
of pulses is less than a few Megabits/s.
The main properties an optic cable should have are presented below:
– high resistance at stretching ;
– resistance at water vapors ;
– thermal stability at work temperatures ;
– flexibility ;
– easy to be interconnected and installed ;
– low price and cheap maintenance.

1.7.1 Optical Cable Design

Optic fibers are incorporated in the cable by winding them around a

central element of resistance. There are special procedures of winding the fibers
in order to eliminate the mechanical strains that appear. Generally, these strains
are compensated by special winding, which makes the optic fiber suffer
successive compressions and stretches, in the end the resultant tension tending to
be zero.
Optic cables have some other resistance elements, made of materials with
high elasticity index (module). Those materials are chosen depending on the
bending rays of the fibers, and on the allowed mechanical strains. The most used
materials for the resistance materials are: Kevlar, FRP, steel.
The optic cable has itself a covering and a protection layer. There are also
cables with external elements of resistance.
Another structure for the optic cables is represented by a plane structure
(Standley and Miller). This presents the advantage that a group of fibers
disposed in plan can be easily interconnected fiber to fiber. The structure
presents like sandwich: the fibers are buried in a polyethylene band which is
situated between two protection bands. This structure has some limitations,
because its optic properties depend on the ratio: t/d, where t is the distance
between the centers of the fibers, and d is the diameter of the fibers. When this
ratio increases the optic properties decrease. Anyway this band structure is used
on a large scale in telephonic communications at long distances.

Optical fibers have small cross sectional areas. Without protection, optical
fibers are fragile and can be broken. The optical cable structure protects optical
fibers from environmental damage. Cable structure includes buffers, strength
members, and jackets. Many factors influence the design of fiber optic cables.
The cable design relates to the cable's intended application.

Properly designed optical cables perform the following functions:

– protection from damage and breakage during installation and over the
fiber's lifetime;
– stable fiber transmission characteristics are provided, as compared to
un-cabled fibers; stable transmission includes stable operation in
extreme climate conditions;
– physical integrity of the optical fiber is maintained by reducing the
mechanical stresses placed on the fiber during installation and use;
static fatigue caused by tension, torsion, compression, and bending can
reduce the lifetime of an optical fiber

1.7.2 Fiber Buffers

Coatings and buffers protect the optical fiber from breakage and loss
caused by micro bends. During the fiber drawing process, the addition of a
primary coating protects the bare glass from abrasions and other surface
contaminants. For additional protection, manufacturers add a layer of buffer
material. The buffer material provides additional mechanical protection for the
fiber and helps preserve the fiber's inherent strength.
Manufacturers use a variety of techniques to buffer optical fibers. The
types of fiber buffers include:
a) tight-buffered;
b) loose-tube;
 c) gel-filled loose-tube.

Figure 6.25.a) Tight-buffered

Figure 6.25.b) Loose-tube

Figure 6.25.c) Gel-filled loose-tube

The choice of buffering techniques depends on the intended application.
In large fiber count commercial applications, manufacturers use the loose-tube
buffers. In commercial building and Navy applications, manufacturers use tight
buffers.

1.8 Fiber-Optic Relay Systems

Fiber-optic relay systems consist of the following:

– Transmitter - Produces and encodes the light signals
– Optical fiber - Conducts the light signals over a distance
– Optical regenerator - May be necessary to boost the light signal (for
long distances)
– Optical receiver - Receives and decodes the light signals
 1.8.1 Fiber Optic Transmitters

As stated previously, a fiber optic transmitter is a hybrid electro-optic

device. It converts electrical signals into optical signals and launches the optical
signals into an optical fiber. A fiber optic transmitter consists of an interface
circuit, a source drive circuit, and an optical source. The interface circuit accepts
the incoming electrical signal and processes it to make it compatible with the
source drive circuit. The source drive circuit intensity modulates the optical
source by varying the current through it.
The optical signal is coupled into an optical fiber through the transmitter
output interface.

Although semiconductor LEDs and LDs have many similarities, unique

transmitter designs result from differences between LED and LD sources.
Transmitter designs compensate for differences in optical output power,
response time, linearity, and thermal behavior between LEDs and LDs to ensure
proper system operation. Nonlinearities caused by junction heating in LEDs and
mode instabilities in LDs necessitate the use of linearizing circuits within the
transmitter in some cases.
Fiber optic transmitters using LDs require more complex circuitry than
transmitters using LEDs. The basic requirement for digital systems is for drive
circuitry to switch the optical output on and off at high speeds in response to
logic voltage levels at the input of the source drive circuit.
Because LDs are threshold devices, LDs are supplied with a bias just
below the threshold in the off state. This bias is often referred to as prebias. One
reason for prebiasing the LD is to reduce the turn-on delay in digital systems.

Most LD transmitters contain output power control circuitry to

compensate for temperature sensitivity. This circuitry maintains the LD output
at a constant average value by adjusting the bias current of the laser. In most
cases LED transmitters do not contain output power control circuitry. LD and
LED transmitters may also contain cooling devices to maintain the source at a
relatively constant temperature. Most LD transmitters either have an internal
thermo electric cooler or require a relatively controlled external temperature.

Because LDs require more complex circuitry than LEDs, fiber optic
transmitters using LDs are more expensive.

Transmitter output interfaces generally fall into two categories:

– Fiber optic connectors;
 – Fiber optic pigtails.

Fiber optic connectors

The transmitter output interface may consist of a fiber optical connector.
The optical source may couple to the output optical connector through an
intermediate optical fiber. One end of the optical fiber is attached to the source.
The other end terminates in the transmitter optical output connector. The optical
source may also couple to the output optical connector without an intermediate
optical fiber. The optical source is placed within the transmitter package to
launch power directly into the fiber of the mating optical connector. In some
cases lenses are used to more efficiently couple light from the source into the
mating optical connector.

Fiber optic pigtails

Optical pigtails are attached to the transmitter optical source. This pigtail
is generally routed out of the transmitter package as a coated fiber in a loose
buffer tube or a single fiber cable. The pigtail is either soldered or epoxied to the
transmitter package to provide fiber strain relief. The buffer tube or single fiber
cable is also attached to the transmitter package to provide additional strain
relief.

1.8.2 Fiber Optic Regenerators

Some signal loss occurs when the light is transmitted through the fiber,
especially over long distances (more than a half mile, or about 1 km) such as
with undersea cables. Therefore, one or more optical regenerators are spliced
along the cable to boost the degraded light signals.

An optical regenerator consists of optical fibers with a special coating

(doping). The doped portion is "pumped" with a laser. When the degraded signal
comes into the doped coating, the energy from the laser allows the doped
molecules to become lasers themselves. The doped molecules then emit a new,
stronger light signal with the same characteristics as the incoming weak light
signal. Basically, the regenerator is a laser amplifier for the incoming signal.

1.8.3 Fiber Optic Receivers

In fiber optic communications systems, optical signals that reach fiber

optic receivers are generally attenuated and distorted. The fiber optic receiver
must convert the input and amplify the resulting electrical signal without
distorting it to a point that other circuitry cannot use it.
 Figure 6.26 Attenuated and distorted optical signals

As stated previously, a fiber optic receiver consists of an optical detector,

an amplifier, and other circuitry. In most fiber optic systems, the optical detector
is a PIN photodiode or APD. Receiver performance varies depending on the
type of detector used. The amplifier is generally described as having two stages:
the preamplifier and the postamplifier. The preamplifier is defined as the first
stage of amplification following the optical detector. The postamplifier is
defined as the remaining stages of amplification required to raise the detector's
electrical signal to a level suitable for further signal processing. The preamplifier
is the dominant contributor of electrical noise in the receiver. Because of this, its
design has a significant influence in determining the sensitivity of the receiver.

The output circuitry processes the amplified signal into a form suitable for
the interfacing circuitry. For digital receivers, this circuitry may include low-
pass filters and comparators. For analog receivers, this circuitry may also
include low-pass filters.

Receiver sensitivity, bandwidth, and dynamic range are key operational

parameters used to define receiver performance. One goal in designing fiber
optic receivers is to optimize receiver sensitivity. To increase sensitivity,
receiver noise resulting from signal-dependent shot noise and thermal noise
must be kept at a minimum. A more detailed discussion of receiver shot and
thermal noise is provided later in this chapter.

In addition to optimizing sensitivity, optical receiver design goals also

include optimizing the bandwidth and the dynamic range. A receiver that has the
ability to operate over a wide range of optical power levels can operate
efficiently in both short- and long-distance applications. Because conflicts arise
when attempting to meet each goal, trade-offs in receiver designs are made to
optimize overall performance.
 Receiver noise
Noise corrupts the transmitted signal in a fiber optic system. This means
that noise sets a lower limit on the amount of optical power required for proper
receiver operation. There are many sources of noise in fiber optic systems. They
include the following:
- noise from the light source;
- noise from the interaction of light with the optical fiber;
- noise from the receiver itself.

Receiver noise includes:

- thermal noise;
- dark current noise;
- quantum noise.
Noise is the main factor that limits receiver sensitivity.

Noise introduced by the receiver is either signal dependent or signal

independent. Signal dependent noise results from the random generation of
electrons by the incident optical power. Signal independent noise is independent
of the incident optical power level.

Thermal noise is the noise resulting from the random motion of electrons
in a conducting medium. Thermal noise arises from both the photodetector and
the load resistor. Amplifier noise also contributes to thermal noise. A reduction
in thermal noise is possible by increasing the value of the load resistor.
However, increasing the value of the load resistor to reduce thermal noise
reduces the receiver bandwidth. In APDs, the thermal noise is unaffected by the
internal carrier multiplication.

Shot noise is noise caused by current fluctuations because of the discrete

nature of charge carriers. Dark current and quantum noises are two types of
noise that manifest themselves as shot noise. Dark current noise results from
dark current that continues to flow in the photodiode when there is no incident
light. Dark current noise is independent of the optical signal. In addition, the
discrete nature of the photodetection process creates a signal dependent shot
noise called quantum noise.

Quantum noise results from the random generation of electrons by the

incident optical radiation.