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NADE SELECTED CONFERENCE PAPERS, VOLUME 7, 2001

Procrastination, Personality and Performance

Cathrine Wambach · Gretchen Hansen · Thomas Brothen

Abstract

This paper briefly reviews some theoretical perspectives on procrastination and presents the
results of research on both self-report and observed procrastination in a General Psychology
course. We taught the course using a modified PSI structure with computer mediated feedback
and testing exercises that provided the opportunity for students to delay tasks, yet still complete
the course with a desirable grade. The results found a moderate relationship between self-report
and observed procrastination, a negative relationship between course grade and procrastination,
and mixed findings for the relationship between procrastination and personality.

Procrastination is putting off a task opportunity to work with students


beyond the time when you should be starting individually as they learn psychology.
it if you expect to do a good job without There are no lectures in the course and only
experiencing considerable stress. We all the study guide assignments have due dates.
procrastinate at times, but for some students There are many advantages to this
procrastination becomes a serious obstacle pedagogy (Brothen & Wambach, 2000),
to success in school. We have had many especially for underprepared students.
opportunities to observe procrastination in Students get a great deal of feedback and
our Introductory Psychology course, which personal attention and the flexibility of the
enrolls about 240 students each semester and structure accommodates a wide variety of
includes students with diverse academic personal situations. However, it does create
preparation. In order to accommodate the opportunities for some students to postpone
broad range of learners we enroll, we use a starting their work, and others postpone the
method of instruction called PSI most anxiety producing work, namely the
(Personalized System of Instruction) (Keller, quizzes. Doing the work of reading and
1968) which we have augmented with completing the study guide is a significant
written and computer based activities. hurdle for some students.
Students read the text, complete the study Delaying tasks is a problem
guide and then use a variety of computer associated with this pedagogy, so we
quizzes to get feedback on their mastery of decided to study it more systematically. In
the material. When they are ready they take 1999 we began reviewing the literature on
chapter quizzes. Students can complete the procrastination and, with the help of a
feedback exercises in our computer graduate student in personality, Piers Steel,
classroom, or over the Internet from we collected data on the work patterns of
anywhere they have access to a computer. students in our class. We analyzed records
The students must complete the chapter of how much work students completed and
quizzes in the classroom, which gives us an when it was completed. We surveyed

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NADE SELECTED CONFERENCE PAPERS, VOLUME 7, 2001

students about procrastination, anxiety and a of procrastination. We began our


variety of other personality traits. We investigation with these questions:
interviewed students about their work habits, 1. Do procrastinators tend to have better,
created writing assignments, and observed worse, or about the same outcomes as
procrastinators when they came to class. non procrastinators?
Students who fall significantly 2. Do procrastinators experience more
behind tend to fall into three categories: anxiety than non procrastinators in
those who never start, those who work relation to deadlines?
sporadically, and those who do the 3. Do procrastinators tend to have other
preparatory work and avoid quizzes. These distinct personality traits, such as low
types correspond roughly to the types of conscientiousness?
procrastinators described in the research 4. Can we identify different types of
literature: arousal, avoidance, fear-of-failure procrastinators based on their behavior
and rebellious. in the classroom?
Arousal procrastinators enjoy 5. How do deadlines affect how students
working under pressure. They believe that pace their work in a class?
arousal facilitates their performance. They
claim they work more effectively and The methods we used to conduct this
efficiently under time pressure. Avoidance research, and the instruments we used to
procrastinators avoid unpleasant tasks. If measure variables, are described in Steel,
they don’t find an activity inherently Brothen & Wambach (2000) and Wambach
interesting they do not do it unless forced. & Brothen (2001). The computer software
These students may also have short attention used to deliver the course activities kept
spans and be easily distracted by track of when computer based work was
opportunities to do something more completed. We also recorded when study
enjoyable than the task at hand. Fear-of- guide chapters were completed. Personality
failure procrastinators want very much to related traits such as extraversion,
succeed but they lack confidence in their conscientiousness, dominance,
abilities. They are afraid that if they try they defensiveness and self-monitoring were
will fail anyway. When they do attempt the measured and students used this information
task their anxiety may be so high that it as the basis for several writing assignments.
interferes with their performance, creating a At several intervals, students were asked to
situation best described as learned report their level of anxiety and intentions to
helplessness. These students may describe do work in the following week. We
themselves as test anxious, or as having interviewed a sample of students about their
trouble taking tests. Rebellious students like work habits.
doing things their own, less effective way. Our results suggested self-reported
They do not listen to advice from others, procrastination (hereafter described as
especially those in authority. These students procrastination) and postponing tasks are
become easily frustrated and display related, but not the same thing. Both
frustration visibly. When they are frustrated procrastination and postponing tasks were
they focus on external explanations for their related to lower achievement in the course.
failure and do not respond to feedback. The correlation between procrastination and
The literature and our experience number of tests completed suggested that
suggested that postponing coursework is procrastinators did not do as well in the
more complex than suggested by the concept course as non procrastinators. However,

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NADE SELECTED CONFERENCE PAPERS, VOLUME 7, 2001

there was no relationship between may motivate arousal


procrastination and final exam score, procrastinators enough to keep
suggesting that in the end there was not them from falling too far behind.
much difference in overall mastery of the 2. Avoidance procrastinators: We
course information. Postponing tasks was never actually meet some of the
strongly correlated with tests completed. worst avoiders. Once they find
This is because students who postponed out that they cannot come to
tasks often did not get them all done, which class and just sit there, they don’t
dramatically affected their grade. come. When they do work, they
Postponing tasks was also negatively do the minimum to pass. Some
correlated with final exam score suggesting students who appear to be
that postponers achieved less mastery of the avoiders have serious problems
course material. that interfere with their student
There were also differences in the role. Others allow themselves to
ways procrastination and postponing tasks be distracted by problems that
related to personality traits. Procrastination would not create an obstacle for
was moderately correlated with other students.
conscientiousness and defensiveness, 3. Fear-of-failure procrastinators:
suggesting that describing oneself as a These procrastinators often
procrastinator may indicate a general complete the easier tasks in the
willingness to say negative things about course but put off taking quizzes.
oneself. Postponing tasks was weakly By delaying the quizzes they take
correlated with extraversion and dominance a situation that creates mild
suggesting that postponers tend to describe anxiety and turn it into one that is
themselves as somewhat more outgoing and very anxiety producing. We
forceful than other students. identify which students are
Surprisingly, there was little avoiding quizzes and coax them
relationship between anxiety and either to take the first step. Tutors are
procrastination or postponing tasks. Also, very effective in working with
students who were behind in their work this group.
expressed about the same intentions to do 4. Rebellious procrastinators: This
work in the following week as students who group is difficult to work with
were caught up. This suggests that the because they do not like to be
postponers intend to work, but somehow get pushed, display negative affect
sidetracked. when the demands of the course
Having studied the way that students are high and blame others for
go about completing work in our class, we their difficulty in completing the
have come to some conclusions about ways work. Unlike the fear-of-failure
in which we can work, or not work, with procrastinators, they are annoyed
students who postpone tasks. We vary our by the easy tasks and want to
strategies somewhat depending on the type move as quickly and with as little
of procrastinator. effort as possible. Our tutors
1. Arousal procrastinators: Arousal dislike working with them. We
seekers with talent and strong try to deal with their negative
skills can accomplish a lot in a affect by acknowledging their
short time. Regular deadlines

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NADE SELECTED CONFERENCE PAPERS, VOLUME 7, 2001

frustration and explaining the


logic of the course tasks. Brothen, T., & Wambach, C. (2000).
A research based approach to developing a
When students become frustrated by computer-assisted course for developmental
high expectations for mastery instructors are students. In, J.L. Higbee & P.L. Dwinell.
strongly tempted to reduce their expectations NADE Monograph: The Many Faces of
for mastery to avoid unpleasantness. Developmental Education. p. 59-72.
Richardson, Fiske and Okun (1983) Warrensburg, MO: National Association for
described this thoroughly in their book Developmental Education.
Literacy in the Open Access College.
However, it is only in demanding situations, Keller, F. (1968). "Goodbye
what Vygotsky called the Zone of Proximal teacher..." Journal of Applied Behavior
Development, that students have the Analysis, 1, 79-89.
opportunity to become more competent
(Wambach, Brothen & Dikel, 2000). Richardson, R., Fisk, E., & Okun, M.
Students who are motivated to achieve (1983). Literacy in the open-access college.
mastery can do so in environments that are San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
responsive. Responsive environments
provide an explicit process for achieving Steel, P., Brothen, T., & Wambach,
mastery, feedback on progress toward goals, C. (2000). Procrastination, personality,
and encouragement and guidance from the performance and mood. Personality and
teacher. Students who are not goal directed, Individual Differences 30, 95-106.
or are so impulsive that they cannot
complete schoolwork, are beyond the help of Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in
most instructors. society: The development of higher
Developmental education is engaged psychological Processes. (M. Cole, V. John-
in triage (Wambach & Brothen, 1990). We Setiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman, Eds.).
take in a large and diverse group of students. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Some easily meet the demands we set for
them. Some will not meet the demands we Wambach, C., & Brothen, T. (In
create no matter how we attempt to support Press). A case study of procrastination in a
them because they will not engage the computer assisted introductory psychology
process. W can help some of them achieve course. Research and Teaching in
by providing the appropriate supports. Developmental Education.
These students, the ones who are willing to
work but lack the skills and confidence Wambach, C., Brothen, T., & Dikel,
necessary for success, can be greatly helped T. (2000). Toward a developmental theory
by what developmental education has to for developmental educators. Journal of
offer. Developmental Education 24, 1, 2-4, 6, 8,
10, 29.
References

For further information please contact Cathrine Wambach · University of Minnesota, General
College · 128 Pleasant St. S.E. · Minneapolis, MN 55455 · Phone (612) 615-2547 · wamba001@umn.edu

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