3.

2 PERIODICITY

1
 3.2 PERIODICITY
PERIODIC TABLE a) Explain the variation in atomic radii:
- across periods 2 and 3
OVERVIEW - across the first row of transition elements
- down a group
b) Compare the atomic radius of an element and its corresponding
ionic radius.
a) Define the term isoelectronic
b) Explain the radius of isoelectronic species
c) Explain the variation in the ionic radii across Period 2 and 3
3.1 CLASSIFICATION OF d) Define the first and second Ionisation energies
ELEMENTS g) Explain the variations in the first ionisation energy:
-Across periods 2 and 3
-Down groups 1 and 2
(highlight the anomalous behaviour between elements of Group 2 &
13 and Group 15 & 16 across a period)
h) Explain the increase in the successive ionisation energies of an
a) Describe period group element (exclude transition elements)
and block ( s,p,d,f,) i) Deduce the electronic configuration of an elements and its position
in the periodic table based on successive ionisation energy data
b) Specify position of (limit proton number, Z to 20)
j) Define electronegativity
metals, metalloids and k) Explain the variation in electronegativity of elements:
non-metal in the - Across periods 2 and 3
periodic table - Down a group
l) Describe the periodicity of elements across period 3 and down
c) Deduce the position of groups 1 and 17 for following physical properties:
-Metallic character
elements in the periodic -Melting point
table from its electronic -Boiling point
configuration (Relate boiling point to the molecular structure and types of
interparticle forces)
m) Explain the acid-base character of oxides of elements in period 3
(include chemical equations)

2
 PERIODIC TABLE:The Trends
ALL Periodic Table Trends, influenced by three
factors:
1. Energy Level, n
2. EFFECTIVE Nuclear Charge
3. Shielding or screening effect

What do they influence??

 Energy levels and Shielding have an effect
on the GROUP
 EFFECTIVE Nuclear charge has an effect
on a PERIOD 4
 NUCLEAR CHARGE, Z

The nuclear charge is the total charge of all the

protons in the nucleus.
(same value as the atomic number / proton number)

Describe the charge of nucleus that pull electron

closer towards it

Number of protons increases

Nuclear charge increases
attraction between nucleus and
outermost electrons becomes stronger
 EFFECTIVE NUCLEAR CHARGE, Zeff
describe the net “positive charge” felt by an
outermost electron
Zeff = Z – S
Z = proton number
S = number of inner or core electrons
 EFFECTIVE NUCLEAR CHARGE, Zeff

Example:

11Na 17Cl

Electronic
configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5

Z
11 17
Num of shell 3 3
S (inner e-) 10 10
Zeff +1 +7
attraction
 SHIELDING / SCREENING EFFECT
The shielding effect describes the attraction between nucleus
and electron in any atom with more than one electron shell

It means, the electron in inner shells screen or shield

the electron in outermost shells from the full effect of
the nuclear charge.

 The electron(s) on the outermost

energy level has to look through
all the other energy levels to see
the nucleus.
 This will explain the shielding
effect.
 SHIELDING / SCREENING EFFECT

Shielding effect α number of shells, n

Shielding effect α number of inner electrons

Number of shells increases

Number of inner electron increases

shielding effect increases

attraction between nucleus and outer electron

become weaker
 SHIELDING / SCREENING EFFECT

Example:

11Na 19K

Electronic
configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1

Z
11 19
Num. of shell 3 4
S (inner e-)
10 18
Zeff +1 +1
attraction
 NUCLEAR ≠ EFECTIVE NUCLEAR CHARGE
CHARGE (Zeff)

Describe the charge of

nucleus that pull electron
NUCLEAR closer towards it.
CHARGE :????Number of protons ↑ nuclear
charge ↑

EFFECTIVE describe the net “positive

charge” felt by an
NUCLEAR
outermost electron.
CHARGE :???? Zeff = Z – S
11
Atomic Radius
The Trends : Atomic Radius/Size

13
 Atomic Radius
The size/radius of atom is difficult to be defined
exactly because the electron cloud has no clear
boundary.

}
Radius
Measure the Atomic Radius - this is half the
distance between the two nuclei of a diatomic
molecule. 14
 Two major factors affecting the size of
atom in the Periodic Table:
1)Effective nuclear charge (Zeff)

Zeff = Z – S

2) Shielding or Screening effect

Shielding effect α number of shells

Shielding effect α number of inner electrons

15
 FACTORS AFFECTING ATOMIC SIZE

Factor Change in Zeff Change in shielding effect

Number of protons number of shells, n

increases increases
Nuclear charge Number of inner electron
increases
Explanation increases
Zeff increases
shielding effect increases
attraction between
nucleus and outer attraction between
electrons nucleus and outer
becomes stronger electron become weaker
atomic size / radius atomic size / radius
__________ __________
 The Trends : Atomic Radius

2 trends

1. Down the group

2. Across the period

 The Trends : Atomic Radius
Group 1 Electronic Num of shell Zeff Explanation
configuration & inner e-
H 1H: 1s1 Going down a
group
Li 3Li: 1s2 2s1

Na 11Na: 1s2 2s2 2p6

3s1

19K: 1s2 2s2 2p6

K 3s2 3p6 4s1

Rb: …..

Rb
Atomic radius generally increase down a
group from top to bottom 18
 The Trends : Atomic Radius
Period 3

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

Electronic 11Na: 1s2 2s2 2p6 13Al: 1s2 2s2 2p6 18Ar: 1s2 2s2 2p6
configuration 3s1 3s2 3p1 3s2 3p6

Num of shells &

inner e-
Zeff

Explanation

Atomic radius generally decrease across a period

from left to right 19
 The Trends : Atomic radius across the first
row of transition elements
EXAMPLE:

(Unit = nm)
variation in atomic radii for transition element less uniform
the atomic size in first row transition elements decrease
from Sc to Cr but they are approximately constant from Mn
to Cu
This is because electron is filled into the inner shell (3d) but
the number of electron in 4s orbital remains the same.
The effect of nuclear charge less effective 20
 Summary of atomic radii
proton n , nuclear charge __, Zeff__, attraction __, r __

s.e

Att.

21
 Main group elements (Block s and p):
Atoms lose electron(s), forming cation to
obtain a noble–gas electronic configuration
EXAMPLE:
Al 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1 or [Ne] 3s2 3p1
Al3+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 or [Ne]
Atoms gain electron(s), forming anion to obtain
a noble–gas electronic configuration
O 1s2 2s2 2p4
O2– 1s2 2s2 2p6 or [Ne]
N 1s2 2s2 2p3
N3– 1s2 2s2 2p6 or [Ne] 23
 Transition elements:

electrons are always removed first from the

ns orbital and then from the (n – 1)d orbitals

EXAMPLE:
Fe: [Ar]4s2 3d6
Fe2+: [Ar]3d6
Fe3+: [Ar]3d5

Mn: [Ar]4s2 3d5

Mn2+: [Ar]3d5
24
ISOELECTRONIC
 ISOELECTRONIC

Definition: atoms/ions that have same electronic

configuration
Example:
Al : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1 O : 1s2 2s2 2p4
13 8

Al3+ : 1s2 2s2 2p6 O2– : 1s2 2s2 2p6

Al3+ & O2– are isoelectronic species

(same electronic configuration)

26
 EXAMPLE – 03

Group the species that are isoelectronic:

Be 2+ , F– , 7N3– , 2He , S2– ,
4 9 16 18Ar

27
 Ans: EXAMPLE – 03

Electron configuration:

Be2+ : 1s2
F– : 1s2 2s2 2p6
N3– : 1s2 2s2 2p6
He : 1s2
S2– : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
Ar : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6

Isolectronic:

28
The Trends : Ionic Radius
 The Trends : Ionic Radius
EXAMPLE: across Period 3

ion Na+ Mg2+ Al3+ P3- S2- Cl-

Radius 95 65 50 212 184 181

ion
(pm)

Cations anions
(metal remove e-) (non-metal gain e-)
 The Trends : Ionic Radius
EXAMPLE: across Period 3
EC atom 11Na 12Mg 13Al 15P 16S 16Cl
1s2 2s2 1s2 2s2 1s2 2s2 1s2 2s2 1s2 2s2 1s2 2s2
2p6 3s1 2p6 3s2 2p6 3s2 2p6 3s2 2p6 3s2 2p6 3s2
3p1 3p3 3p4 3p5
EC ion Na+ Mg2+ Al3+ P3- S2- Cl-
1s2 2s2 1s2 2s2 1s2 2s2 1s2 2s2 1s2 2s2 1s2 2s2
2p6 2p6 2p6 2p6 3s2 2p6 3s2 2p6 3s2
3p6 3p6 3p6
Radius 95 65 50 212 184 181
ion (pm)
Num of
shell (ion)
Num of
inner e-
(ion)
Zeff (ion)
SIZE CATION VS ANION

ion Na+ Mg2+ Al3+ P3- S2- Cl-

Radius 95 65 50 212 184 181
ion (pm)
EC ion 1s2 2s2 1s2 2s2 1s2 2s2 1s2 2s2 1s2 2s2 1s2 2s2
2p6 2p6 2p6 2p6 3s2 2p6 3s2 2p6 3s2
3p6 3p6 3p6
Num of
shell

Explanation
SIZE CATIONs
Explanation:
ion Na+ Mg2+ Al3+
+ 2+ 3+
Radius 95 65 50 Na Mg Al are
ion (pm) isoelectronic species
Moving from Na+ to Al3+

EC ion 1s2 2s2 1s2 2s2 1s2 2s2 Num of shells & inner e- same
2p6 2p6 2p6
Num of protons increases
Num of 2 2 2 Zeff increases
shell
Num of 2 2 2 Attraction between nucleus
inner e- and outer electron become
stronger
Zeff +9 +10 +11
Ionic size become smaller
from Na+ to Al3+
SIZE ANIONs

ion P3- S2- Cl- Explanation:

Radius 212 184 181 P3- , S2- Cl- are
ion (pm) Isoelectronic species
Moving from P3- to Cl-

Num of shells & inner e- same

EC ion 1s2 2s2 1s2 2s2 1s2 2s2
2p6 3s2 2p6 3s2 2p6 3s2 Num of protons increases
3p6 3p6 3p6
Zeff increses
Num of 3 3 3
shell
Attraction between nucleus
Num of 10 10 10 and outer electron become
inner e- stronger
Zeff +5 +6 +7
Ionic size become smaller
from P3- to Cl-
 PAST YEAR QUESTIONS
UPS 2007/2008
Compare the radius of fluoride ion F- , with that of
magnesium ion, Mg2+ .

UPS 2006/2007
Silicon and sodium are elements in period 3 of the periodic
table. The electronic configuration of Si4+ and Na+ are as
follows:
Si4+: 1s2 2s2 2p6
Na+: 1s2 2s2 2p6

The ionic radius of Si4+ is smaller than Na+ . Explain. 35

 When a anion forms,
electrons are added to the
outer level
Anions are larger than
their parent atoms

Size ion F- bigger than atom F

Size ion Cl- bigger than atom Cl

Size ion Br- bigger than atom Br

WHY??

37
Example: Cl- (anion) Vs Cl
Species Cl Cl- Explanation

Electronic Total number of e in Cl- is

Configuration more than Cl atom
repulsion between e Cl-
Z is more than Cl

Num of shells electron cloud Cl-

bigger
Num of inner e- Num of inner e in Cl- &
Cl are same
Zeff
Zeff in in Cl- & Cl are
same
attraction between
Num of nucleus and outer e-
electrons in Cl- weaker than Cl
Cation forms when electrons
are removed from the outer
level
Cations are smaller
than their parent atoms
Size ion Na+ smaller than atom Na

Size ion K+ smaller than atom K

Size ion Rb+ smaller than atom Rb

WHY??

39
Example: Na+ (cation) Vs Na
Species Na Na+ Explanation

Electronic Total num of e in Na+ is

Configuration less than Na
repulsion between e- Na+
Z is less than Na
electron cloud Na+
Num of shells
smaller
Num of inner e- Num of inner e- in Na+is
less than Na
Zeff Zeff in Na+ is higher
than Na
attraction between
Num of nucleus and outer e-
electrons in Na+ stronger than
Na
metal non-metal ion
non-metal
metal ion

Cation is always smaller than

atom from which it is formed

Anion is normally larger than

atom from which it is formed
41
 IONISATION ENERGY (IE)

First Ionisation Energy (IE1):

“Minimum energy required to remove 1 mol of
electrons from 1 mol of gaseous atoms in its
ground state.
Unit: J/mol
Removes the first electron from outermost shell
X (g)  X+(g) + e– E = IE1 > 0

EXAMPLE:
Na(g)  Na+(g) + e– E = 496 J/mol

42
 IONISATION ENERGY (IE)

Second Ionisation Energy (IE2):

“energy required to remove 1 mol of electrons
from 1 mol of unipositive gaseous ions.”

Removes the second electron

Ion+(g)  ion2+(g) + e– E = IE2 (always > IE1)

EXAMPLE:
Na+(g)  Na2+(g) + e– E = 4560 J/mol

43
FACTORS AFFECTING IONISATION ENERGY
Factor Change in Zeff Change in shielding effect

Number of protons number of shells, n

increases increases
Nuclear charge Number of inner electrons
Explanation increases increases

Zeff increases shielding effect increases

attraction between attraction between
nucleus and outer e- nucleus and outer e-
becomes stronger electron become weaker
Atomic size decreases Atomic size increases
more energy required less energy required
to remove electron to remove electron
Ionisation energy Ionisation energy
__________ __________
The Trends; First Ionisation Energy of
Elements in Block s & p

Elements in group 18

Elements in group 1

45
 The Trend: IONISATION ENERGY (IE)
Group 1 Electronic Num of shell Zeff Explanation
configuration & inner e-
H 1H: 1s1 Going down a
group
Li 3Li: 1s2 2s1 Zeff same
Number of shells,
Na 11Na: 1s2 2s2 2p6
3s1
& number of inner
electron increases
Shielding effect
19K: 1s2 2s2 2p6 increases
K 3s2 3p6 4s1 attraction between
nucleus and outer
e become weaker
Rb: …..
atomic size larger
less energy required
Rb to remove electron.
IE decrease.

Ionisation energy generally decrease down a

group from top to bottom 46
 The Trend: IONISATION ENERGY (IE)
Period 3

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

Electronic 11Na: 1s2 2s2 2p6 13Al: 1s2 2s2 2p6 18Ar: 1s2 2s2 2p6
configuration 3s1 3s2 3p1 3s2 3p6

Num of shells &

inner e-
Zeff
Number of shells & inner e remain same
Explanation Zeff increase across a period
attraction between nucleus and outer e become stronger
atomic size or radius smaller
more energy required to remove e. IE increase.
Ionisation energy generally increase across a period
from left to right 47
 General Trend in First Ionization Energies
Increasing First Ionisation Energy
Decreasing First Ionisation Energy

48
Anomalous behaviour in Ionisation energy
Ionisation energy across the period 2

The increase in
Ionisation energy
anomalous!
with proton number
Zeff = +5 is not uniform.
As shown in figure,
Zeff = +2 there are two dips in
Zeff = +6
period two
a) from Be to B
Zeff = +3 b) from N to O
 Ionisation energy across the period 3

The increase in
Ionisation energy
with proton number anomalous!
is not uniform.
As shown in figure,
Zeff = +5
there are two dips in
Zeff = +2
period three
Zeff = +6
a) from Mg to Al
b) from P to S Zeff = +3
 Why this happen?

Group 2 13
Element Be B
Electronic 1s22s2 1s22s22p1
configuration
IE (kJ/mol) 899 800

Group 15 16
Element N O
Electronic 1s22s22p3 1s22s22p4
configuration
IE (kJ/mol) 1402 1314
Between Be and B: (Group 2 & Group 13)

Element Be B

Electronic Be : 1s2 2s2 (stable) B : 1s2 2s2 2p1 (less stable)

configuration Fully-filled 2s Partially-filled 2p
Be+: 1s2 2s1 B+ : 1s2 2s2

Reason First IE of _________ is higher than __________ eventhough B is

smaller than Be

More energy is required to remove an electron from the

___________________________________ which is more stable
than the _____________________________________ , which is
less stable and easier to remove electron.

Furthermore, ___________ is needed to remove an electron in B

than Be.

Equation Be (g) Be+(g) + e– B(g) B+(g) + e–

Between N and O : (Group 15 & Group 16)

Element N O

Electronic N : 1s2 2s2 2p3 (stable) O : 1s2 2s2 2p4 (less stable)
configuration half-filled 2p partially-filled 2p
N+: 1s2 2s2 2p2 O- : 1s2 2s2 2p3

Reason
First IE of _________ is higher than __________ eventhough B
is smaller than Be

More energy is required to remove an electron from the

___________________________________ which is more stable
than the _____________________________________ , which
is less stable and easier to remove electron.

Furthermore, ___________ is needed to remove an electron in

O than N.

Equation N (g) N+(g) + e– O(g) O+(g) + 1e–

 First Ionization Energy of
Transition Elements

Scandium Titanium Vanadium

Transition elements:
In general, the IE increase gradually (but
Chromium no suddenManganese
increase of IE) Iron

Cobalt Nickel Copper 55

The Trends; First Ionization Energy of
Ionization Energies for the 1 st Row Transition Metals
Transition Elements

56
 PAST YEAR QUESTION

UPS 2010/2011

Two atoms have the electron configurations,

1st atom: 1s2 2s2 2p6
2nd atom: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
The first ionization energy of one is 2080 kJ/mol,
and that of the other is 496 kJ/mol.
Match each ionization energy with one of the given
electron configuration. Justify your answer.

57
In an atom;
IE always increase in the following order:
IE1 < IE2 < IE3 < IE4 < IE5 < IE6 ………..
When an electron is removed from a neutral atom,
the repulsion among the remaining electrons
decreases.
 They attracted more towards nucleus.

Because number of protons remain constant, more

energy is needed to remove another electron from
the positively charged ion
59
IE1 < IE2 < IE3 < IE4 < IE5 < IE6 ………..

Each electron is pulled away from an ion

with a higher and higher positive charge
However, this increase is not smooth
There is sudden increase of IE

Dif: 6777 Dif: 4513

60
 EXAMPLE: Be (Z = 4) : 1s2 2s2
3rd e–:
inner (core) e–

IE1: 1st electron removed from 2s subshell

IE2: 2nd electron removed from 2s subshell

IE3: 3rd electron removed from 1s subshell

Sudden increase of ionization

energy occurs from IE2 to IE3

 when the third electron is removed

 the 3rd electron is removed
from the inner shell

61
Successive Ionization Energies of the Elements Li ~ Na

From the data, we can deduce:

Number of valence electrons
Group number of the element

62
 5the
4the 3rde 2nde
EXAMPLE:

1ste

Nuc
Si (Z = 14) +ve 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2

786 kJ/mol IE1: 1st electron removed from 3p subshell

1580 kJ/mol IE2: 2nd electron removed from 3p subshell

3230 kJ/mol IE3: 3rd electron removed from 3s subshell

4360 kJ/mol IE4: 4th electron removed from 3s subshell

16100 kJ/mol IE5: 5th electron removed from 2p subshell

63
 IE5:16100 kJ/mol 5the 3230 kJ/mol
4the 3rde 2nde
EXAMPLE:
IE4: 4360 kJ/mol 1580 kJ/mol
1ste
786 kJ/mol
Nuc
Si (Z = 14) +ve 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2

Sudden increase in ionization energy from IE4 to IE5

The 5th electron is removed from the inner shell which
has stable noble gas electron configuration and
closer to nucleus

Much greater energy needed to remove the 5th electron

Therefore, Valence electrons = 4 Group = 14
Valence electronic configuration: 3s2 3p2
64
 EXAMPLE – 06
Deduce the group number of the element with
the following ionization energies (in kJ/mol)
and write its valence electron configuration.
IE1 IE2 IE3 IE4 IE5 IE6
1012 1903 2910 4956 6278 22,230

ANS:
Valence electrons: ns2 np3 Group = 15
65
 EXAMPLE – 07

IE1 IE2 IE3 IE4 IE5 IE6

1012 1903 2910 4956 6278 22,230
Dif: 891 Dif: 1007 Dif: 2046 Dif: 1322 Dif: 15952

Sudden increase in ionization energy from IE5 to IE6.

The 6th electron is removed from the inner shell which

has stable noble gas electron configuration and
closer to nucleus.
Much greater energy needed to remove the 6th electron.

Valence electrons = 5 Group = 15

Valence electronic configuration: ns2 np3
66
 IE1 IE2 IE3 IE4 IE5 IE6
1012 1903 2910 4956 6278 22,230

If you have trouble to determine the “sudden increase”

of ionization energy, try the following method:

IE2 IE5 IE6

= 1.88 IE3 = 1.53 IE4
= 1.70 = 1.23 = 3.54
IE1 IE2 IE3 IE4 IE5

 IE6 is the largest

IE5
 Sudden increase in ionization energy from IE5 to IE6

67
 EXAMPLE – 08
Write the full electronic configuration of the
Period 3 element with the following successive
ionization energies (in kJ/mol).
IE1 = 738 IE2 = 1450 IE3 = 7732
IE4 = 10,539 IE5 = 13,628

68
 Ans: EXAMPLE – 08

IE1 = 738 IE2 = 1450 IE3 = 7732 IE4 = 10,539 IE5 = 13,628

Dif: 712 Dif: 6282 Dif: 2807 Dif: 3089

Sudden increase in ionization energy from IE2 to IE3.

The 3rd electron is removed from the inner shell which

has stable noble gas electron configuration and
closer to nucleus.
Much greater energy needed to remove the 3rd electron.

Valence electrons = 2 Group = 2

Valence electronic configuration: 3s2 Period = 3 (n =3)
Full electron configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 ( element: Mg)
69
 EXAMPLE – 10

Which atom in the second period should have a

higher second ionization energy: Li or Be ?

70
 Ans: EXAMPLE – 10
Electron configuration: Li: 1s2 2s1 Be: 1s2 2s2

Second ionization energy:

Li+(g)  Li2+(g) + 1e– Be+(g)  Be2+(g) + 1e–
1s2 1s2 2s1
Li has higher second ionization energy than Be.
Reason,
The 2nd electron of Li is removed from the inner shell (1s)
which has stable noble gas electron configuration and
closer to nucleus.
Greater energy needed to remove the 2nd electron
in Li than Be.
71
 EXERCISE – 07

Which of the following atom should have a smaller

second ionization energy: Na or Mg ?

72
 EXERCISE – 08
EXERCISE
1. Why is the first ionisation energy beryllium is
higher than boron?

2. Why does nitrogen has higher ionisation

energy than oxygen?

3. Define the first ionisation energy.

73
 PAST YEAR QUESTION

UPS 2005/2006

The valence electronic configuration of sulphur is 3s2 3p6. if

9 electrons from sulphur had been removed continuously,
which electron undergoes the largest energy change?
Explain.
 PAST YEAR QUESTION

UPS 2014/2015

Element R and Q has electronic configuration as follows:

R: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4

Q: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3

Between Q and R, which element has higher first ionization

energy? Give reason for each element
 PAST YEAR QUESTION
UPS 2008/2009

An element X has the following successive ionisation

energies (IE):
IE1 IE2 IE3 IE4 IE5 IE6 IE7 IE8
Ionisation 786 1580 3230 4360 16000 20000 23600 29100
energy
(kJ mol-1)

i. Determine the group where X is located in the periodic

table. Explain.
ii. Write the electronic configurationof an atom of X.
Tendency for an atom to attract electrons to
itself when it is chemically combined with
another element
H–H H–F

H●
●H H●
●F

H2 HF

Linus Carl Pauling (1901-1994). American chemist. 77

 EXAMPLE:

+ –
H–F

H●
●F
HF
The electrons spend more time closer to F
F more electronegative than H
Cause F ends of the bond partially negative
and H end partially positive
H–F  polar bond

Atoms with strong attraction for the bonding

electrons have the high electronegativity. 78
Highest electronegativity value (4.0) assigned to F
79
EXAMPLE: Note: ( )  electronegativity scale

Period 2:

Li Be B C N O F
(1.0) (1.5) (2.0) (2.5) (3.0) (3.5) (4.0)

electronegativity
increase

Period 3:

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
(0.9) (1.2) (1.5) (1.8) (2.1) (2.5) (3.0)
electronegativity
increase
80
EXAMPLE: Note: ( )  electronegativity scale

Group 17:

F electronegativity decrease
(4.0)

Cl
(3.0)

Br
(2.8)

I
(2.5)
81
FACTORS AFFECTING ELECTRONEGATIVITY

Factor Change in Zeff Change in shielding effect

Number of protons number of shells, n

increases increases
Nuclear charge Number of inner electrons
Explanation increases increases

Zeff increases shielding effect increases

attraction between attraction between
nucleus and outer e- nucleus and outer e-
becomes stronger electron become weaker
Atomic size decreases Atomic size increases
tendency to attract tendency to attract
electron __________ electron __________
Electronegativity Electronegativity
__________ __________
 The Trend: Electronegativity
Group 1 Electronic Num of shell Zeff Explanation
configuration & inner e-
H 1H: 1s1 1&0 +1 Going down a
group
Li 3Li: 1s2 2s1 2&2 +1 Zeff same
Number of shells,
Na 11Na: 1s2 2s2 2p6
3s1
3 & 10 +1 & number of inner
electron increases
Shielding effect
19K: 1s2 2s2 2p6 increases
K 3s2 3p6 4s1
4 & 18 +1
attraction between
nucleus and outer
e- become weaker
Rb: …..
atomic size larger

Rb
Electronegativity generally decrease down a
group from top to bottom 83
 The Trend: Electronegativity

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

Electronic 11Na: 1s2 2s2 2p6 13Al: 1s2 2s2 2p6 18Ar: 1s2 2s2 2p6
configuration 3s1 3s2 3p1 3s2 3p6

Num of shells & 3 & 10 3 & 10 3 & 10

inner e-
Zeff +1 +3 +8
Number of shells & inner e remain same
Explanation Zeff increase across a period
attraction between nucleus and outer e- become stronger
atomic size or radius smaller

Electronegativity generally
increase across a period from left to right 84
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS

Lustrous in appearance

Most are solids with

moderate to high melting
points and much higher
boiling points
Bent or dent rather than
crack or shatter

Malleable
 flattened into sheets

Ductile  pulled into wires

85
Conduct heat and electricity well in both the
solid and liquid states(molten condition)

86
PROPERTIES OF NONMETALS
Not shiny

Relatively low melting points

Poor thermal and electrical conductors

87
 There are exceptions, example:

Graphite (C)  nonmetal  good electrical conductor

Iodine (I2)  nonmetal  shiny solid

Galium (Ga) and Cesium (Cs)  metals  low m.p

88
 METALLOIDS
Have properties between those of metals
and nonmetals
EXAMPLE:
Boron (B)
Silicon (Si)
Germanium (Ge)
Arsenic (As)
Antimony (Sb)
Tellurium (Te)
Polonium (Po)

Several metalloids play major roles in modern

electronics
89
 The Trends: METALLIC CHARACTER
Closely related to atomic size and IE.
“ The easier it is to remove electrons from an
atom, the more metallic the element.”
Decrease across period
EXAMPLE: Period 3
Element Na Mg Al Si P4 S8 Cl2 Ar

metallic character
decrease
Larger members of a group are more metallic;
smaller members in same period are less metallic
“ ATOMIC SIZE , METALLIC CHARACTER “
90
FACTORS AFFECTING METALLIC CHARACTER

Factor Change in Zeff Change in shielding effect

Number of protons number of shells, n

increases increases
Nuclear charge Number of inner electrons
Explanation increases increases

Zeff increases shielding effect increases

attraction between attraction between
nucleus and outer e- nucleus and outer e-
becomes stronger electron become weaker
Atomic size decreases Atomic size increases
ability to remove ability to remove
electron __________ electron __________
metallic character metallic character
__________ __________
 The Trend: Metallic Character
Group 1 Electronic Num of shell Zeff Explanation
configuration & inner e-
H 1H: 1s1 1&0 +1 Going down a
group
Li 3Li: 1s2 2s1 2&2 +1 Zeff same
Number of shells,
Na 11Na: 1s2 2s2 2p6
3s1
3 & 10 +1 & number of inner
electron increases
Shielding effect
19K: 1s2 2s2 2p6 increases
K 3s2 3p6 4s1
4 & 18 +1
attraction between
nucleus and outer
e- become weaker
Rb: …..
atomic size larger

Rb
Metallic Character generally increase down a
group from top to bottom 92
 The Trend: Metallic Character

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

Electronic 11Na: 1s2 2s2 2p6 13Al: 1s2 2s2 2p6 18Ar: 1s2 2s2 2p6
configuration 3s1 3s2 3p1 3s2 3p6

Num of shells & 3 & 10 3 & 10 3 & 10

inner e
Zeff +1 +3 +8
Number of shells & inner e remain same
Explanation Zeff increase across a period
attraction between nucleus and outer e- become stronger
atomic size or radius smaller

Metallic Character generally

decrease across a period from left to right 93
The Trends: METALLIC CHARACTER

94
 The Trends:
Melting Point and Boiling Point
 Melting Point and Boiling Point

Across Period 3:

Element Na Mg Al Si P4 S8 Cl2 Ar
M.P (oC) 97.8 651 660 1410 44 119 –189 –189
B.P (oC) 892 1107 2467 2680 280 446 –186 –186

The irregularity due to:

Types (strength) of chemical bonds
Structure of molecules
Types of intermolecular forces
96
 M.P and B.P of METALs

Metals have strong metallic bond

metallic bond is an electrostatic force between

positively charge of metallic ions and the sea of
delocalised valence electron.

Need high energy to overcome attractive forces

between positive charges (nucleus) and the sea
delocalised valence electrons that bind them.

97
 Electron–sea Electron–sea Electron–sea
model Na model Mg model Al

e- e- e- e- e- e- e- e- e- e- e- e-
e - e - e - e- e- e- e- e-
Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Mg2+ Mg2+ Mg2+ Mg2+ Al3+ Al3+ Al3+ Al3+
e- e- e- e-
e- e- e- e- e- e- e- e- e- e- e- e- e-
e-
Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Mg2+ Mg2+ Mg2+ Mg2+ Al3+ - Al3+ Al3+ Al3+ -
e- - e- - e- - e - e - e
e- e e - e -
e- e- e- e- e - e e e e- e- e- e-
-
Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Mg2+ Mg2+e Mg2+ Mg2+ Al3+ - Al3+ - Al3+ - Al3+ -
e- e- e- e- e - e - e - e
e- e e e

Sea of delocalized valence electron

Across a period,

Number of valence electrons ↑ and size ↓

Example: Na  Mg  Al

 More delocalized electrons

Stronger attraction between the delocalized
electrons and positively charge ions.
Strength of metallic bond ↑
Melting point and boiling point ↑

99
Melting points of group 2 metals are much higher
than the corresponding group 1 metals
Because nucleus has +2 charges and the electron
sea has twice as many valence electrons

α
100
Down Group 1 (metal elements):
Melting point and boiling point decrease
strength of metallic bond decrease
Because the size become bigger (bottom),
attraction between positively charged ions and
sea of delocalized valence electrons WEAKER.
101
 M.P and B.P of SILICON (Si)
Very high due to strong network covalent bond/
giant covalent structure/giant covalent solid
Si

Si Si
Si Si
Si
Si
Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si
Si
Each Si atom is tetrahedrally covalent bonded to
four other Si atoms infinitely. 102
 M.P and B.P OF
SIMPLE COVALENT MOLECULER STRUCTURE

M.P: Ar(40) < Cl2(71) < P4(124) < S8(256)

**Note: ( ) = molar mass (g/mol)

Molecules / Atoms are held by weak Van der

Waals forces
Size (molar mass) ↑ the stronger of Van der Waals Force

S
S S
S S S
S S
Cl2 Cl2
Van der Waals
S Force
Van der Waals Force S S
S S S
S S
103
Down Group 17 (non-metal elements):
Melting point and boiling point increase
Due to stronger intermolecular forces
between the bigger molecule (higher molar
mass)

104
 Melting Point and Boiling Point

Element Na Mg Al Si P4 S8 Cl2 Ar
ve =1 ve =2 ve =3 124 256 71 40

Structure Giant covalent Simple molecular mono

Metal structure structure covalent structure atom

Types of bond /
Intermolecular Metallic bond Strong covalent Weak Van der Waals forces
forces bond
Strength of Strength metallic Each Si atom is Strength Van der Waals forces
bond / bond depends on the tetrahedrally depends on size of
intermolecular num of valence e and covalent bonded molecule/atom
forces size of positive metal to four other Si (molecular mass)
ion atoms infinitely.
Melting &
Boiling Point Na < Mg < Al Si Ar < Cl2 < P4 < S8
between the
group

Melting & Ar < Cl2 < P4 < S8 < Na < Mg < Al <Si
Boiling Point
for all element
 PAST YEAR QUESTION

UPS 2005/2006

Why is the boiling point of phosphorous lower than silicon?

UPS 2009/2010

The boiling point of aluminium is higher than that of

magnesium. Explain.
 Acid-base character of oxides of
elements in Period 3
 Elements in Period 3:

Na Mg Al** Si** P S Cl Ar

Metals Metalloids Nonmetals

 Generally, when above elements react with oxygen,

 metal will form basic oxide;
 non-metal will form acidic oxide.;
 some metals and many metalloid will form
amphoteric oxide (both acidic and basic oxide).
107
 ACID–BASE PROPERTIES OF OXIDES

Main–Group Metal Oxides

They are ionic compounds
In water, acts as bases, producing OH–(a base)
and reacts with acids
EXAMPLE:
Na2O(s) + H2O(l)  2NaOH(aq)
basic oxide base
MgO(s) + H2O(l)  Mg(OH)2 (aq)
basic oxide base
Na2O(s) + 2HCl(aq)  2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
basic oxide salt
MgO(s) + 2HCl(aq)  MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l) 108
basic oxide salt
 Non-metal Oxides
They are covalent compounds
In water, acts as acids, producing H+(an acid)
and reacts with bases
EXAMPLE:
SO3(g) + H2O(l)  H2SO4(aq)
acidic oxide acid

P4O10(s) + 6H2O(l)  4H3PO4(aq)

acidic oxide acid

Cl2O7(l) + H2O(l)  2HClO4(aq)

acidic oxide acid 109
110
 AMPHOTERIC OXIDES
Can act as acids and as bases in water
EXAMPLE: aluminum oxide (Al2O3)

Al2O3(s) + 6HCl(aq)  2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2O(l)

A base

3Al2O3(s) + 6NaOH(aq)  6NaAlO2(aq) + 3H2O(l)

An acid

Element Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P4O10 SO3 Cl2O7

Type of ionic Gigantic Simple covalent
Compound covalent
Acid/ base basic amp. acidic
nature
Across a period 3:
Oxides: basic  amphoteric  acidic 111
 EXAMPLE – 24

Write the balance equations for the reactions

between each of the following oxides and water:
a) Li2O
b) CaO
c) SO3

112
 Ans: EXAMPLE – 24
Most metal oxide reacts with water to produce basic
solution.

Nonmetal oxide reacts with water to produce acidic

solution.
a) Li2O + H2O  2LiOH
Basic oxide base

b) CaO + H2O  Ca(OH)2

Basic oxide base

c) SO3 + H2O  H2SO4

acidic oxide acid
113
 Acid-base behavior of oxides of Period 3
P4O10
SO3(or
Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 (or Cl2O7
SO2)
P4 O 6 )
P4O10
MgO + + SO3 + Cl2O7 +
Na2O +
Adding HO H 2O H 2O
H2O  2 Insoluble Insoluble 6H2O
H 2O    
2NaOH
Mg(OH)2 4H3PO H2SO4 HClO4
4
Na2O + MgO + Al2O3 +
No
Adding H+ 2H+  6H+  No No No
reactio
HCl  2Na+ Mg2+ + 2Al3+ + reaction reaction reaction
n
+ H 2O H 2O 3H2O
P4O10
+ Cl2O7 +
Al2O3 + SiO2 + SO 3 +
12OH- OH -
Adding No No 2OH- + 2OH-  OH 
-
 2- + 
NaOH reaction reaction 3H2O  SiO32- + SO
4PO43- 4
2ClO4114
- +
 Summary of Trends
Atomic Radius IE Electronegativity

Atomic radii

IE

Electronegativity

115
116