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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Child Abuse & Neglect

Behavioral and musical characteristics of the children who

are exposed to child maltreatment and poverty in South
Korea: A survey夽
Jinah Kim a,b,∗ , Kwanghyuk Kim c
a
Department of Arts Therapy, College of Medical Science, Jeonju University, Hyojadong 3 ga, 1200, Wansangu, Jeonju 560-759,
South Korea
b
Arts Therapy Research Center, Research Institute of Health Science, Jeonju University, South Korea
c
Department of Social Welfare, College of Social Science, Jeonju University, Hyojadong 3 ga, 1200, Wansangu, Jeonju 560-759,
South Korea

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A preliminary survey was conducted on primary school aged children (N = 302) between
Received 7 January 2013 seven to twelve years of age, who attend the local Community Child Centers (CCC) in the
Received in revised form 15 February 2014 economically deprived areas of Jeollabukdo in South Korea for the purpose of identifying
Accepted 13 March 2014
the children who have been exposed to on-going child maltreatment and poverty, and
Available online xxx
their needs. Both standardized and non-standardized self-report types of surveys were
carried out and completed by both the children and the teachers of the CCC. As would be
Keywords: expected, emotional and behavioral problems are more pronounced by the children who
Child abuse are exposed to child maltreatment and poverty compared to the children who were not
Poverty exposed to these adversities, or who were not poor. The more severely abused children in
Behavioral problems terms of frequency and co-occurrence of different abuses appear to display more behavioral
Musical experience problems than less severely abused children. Teachers reported that the children who were
able to play a musical instrument and had arts therapy experiences appear to have less
behavioral problems, particularly delinquent and aggressive behavior in comparison to the
children who did not have such ability and experiences. Through the survey, it was possible
to identify the children in need of therapeutic intervention and discover clinically relevant
information. Clinical implications will be discussed further.
© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction

South Korea has gained a reputation for rapid economic development as one of the fastest growing developed countries.
However, there have been long standing issues of underprivileged and vulnerable sections in the society who have been left
behind from these economic developments (H. Kim, 2010; Kim, 2013; Lee, Kim, Lee, & Lee, 2009; Korean Ministry of Health
& Welfare, 2010).
“Gongbubang (study room)” started as one of social movements in the mid-1980s for children from working poor families
in city slums in South Korea. Gongbubang was a voluntary organization with the strong belief that education is a key
factor for upward mobility to escape the poverty (Kim, 2013; H. Kim, 2010; Lee, Kim, Lee, & Lee, 2009). Therefore, the

夽 This work was supported by the Korea Research Foundation Grant funded by the Korean Government (KRF-2009-32A-B00203).
∗ Corresponding author.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2014.03.005
0145-2134/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: Kim, J., & Kim, K. Behavioral and musical characteristics of the children
who are exposed to child maltreatment and poverty in South Korea: A survey. Child Abuse & Neglect (2014),
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initial priority of Gongbubang was to assist children with their school work for better grades, and to prepare them for
post-secondary education, which will ensure job and economic security. Volunteers of Gongbubang discovered that many
of these children were exposed to on-going child maltreatment, domestic violence and alcoholism. Therefore the priority
shifted from assisting children with school work to child protection and basic care (H. Kim, 2010; Kim, 2013; K. Kim, 2010; Lee
et al., 2009). The Korean government gradually began to recognize the need for child protection and care in the economically
deprived neighborhoods. In 2004, the government made amendments in child welfare policies and the child welfare law,
and subsequently legalized Gongbubang as Community Child Centers (CCCs), providing social and financial support. CCCs
have now extended child welfare services (i.e., day and night care after school, providing free meals and child protection)
to children under single-parent and grand-parents’ care, and children with both parents working (H. Kim, 2010; Kim, 2013;
Lee et al., 2009). The majority of children who attend the local CCCs are from low-income, working families below middle
class. All participating children in this study have attended local CCCs after school in Jeollabukdo. Due to strong Confucian
values of education, it is common for Korean children to attend extra-curricular activities after school that local CCCs tend
to provide. (i.e., English, math, arts, etc.), and help children with their homework.
Under the influence of Confucianism, Korean culture has a steady hierarchical order in the family and places high value
on family fealty (Chang, Rhee, & Weaver, 2006; Lee & Kim, 2007, 2009; Park, 2001). Although parental dedication to one’s
children is a common feature in child rearing, corporal punishment is viewed as a necessary way to educate children by
some parents. In some cases, this provides the rationalization of physical abuse (Ju & Lee, 2010; Kim, 2013; Lee & S. Kim,
2005, Lee & K. Kim, 2007; Park, 2001). Within that culture, child abuse that occurs within the home environment has been
difficult to recognize, or intervene (Ju & Lee, 2010; Kim, 2009; H. Kim, 2010; Kim, 2013; K. Kim, 2010; Park, 2001). Social
recognition and help for the abused children tend to readily focus on severe types of child maltreatment such as sexual
and severe physical abuse that needs immediate medical attention. Incidents of other types of child maltreatment such as
relatively less severe types of maltreatment – neglect, emotional and physical abuse within the home environment are easily
regarded as a private family matter, leaving the children without support, or appropriate intervention (Ju & Lee, 2010; Kim,
2013; Lee & Kim, 2007). Therefore, the study primarily deals with three types of child maltreatment (physical, emotional
abuse and neglect) that happen within some families in Jeollabukdo, Korea.
A substantial body of studies have indicated a strong association of poverty with child maltreatment (Coulton, Korbin, &
Su, 1999; Drake & Pandey, 1996; Gelles, 1992; Gillham et al., 1998; Ju & Lee, 2010; Lee and Kim, 2007, 2009). Kim and Ko
(1990) reported higher incidents of severe physical abuse in the students from the impoverished areas than the students from
affluent areas. Kim (1995) determined that the mother’s employment in low income families often led to child neglect since
child caring has generally been regarded as the mother’s responsibility in Korea. Lee and Kim (2005) investigated the role of
neighborhood poverty on child maltreatment. They found poorer neighborhoods with higher rates of government income
support had higher divorce rates and higher substantiated child maltreatment rates than neighborhoods without such
conditions. Previous studies conducted in the last two decades attributed the significant risk factors for child maltreatment
to the social-economic aspects such as persisting economic hardship affecting the level of family poverty (the increasing
number of people below the poverty line) and family life (the rising divorce rate, single-parenthood, family violence and
family dissolution) (Ju & Lee, 2010; D. Kim, 1995; K. Kim, 2009, 2010; Lee & S. Kim, 2005; Lee & K. Kim, 2007, 2009; Lee
et al., 2009). Several authors of these studies explained the relationship between poverty and child maltreatment based on
two major theories. According to human capital theory, impoverished parents do not have enough resources for appropriate
child care and protection, leaving their children at higher risk of child maltreatment than the children who are not poor.
Moreover, economic stress in family life often leads the family to be in discord among their members and distressed parents
are more likely to employ stricter or harsher measures in child rearing, which may develop into child maltreatment (family
process model).
There have been accumulating studies investigating the effects of child maltreatment, especially by state run studies
(Korean Association for the Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect, 2000; Korean Ministry of Health and Welfare, 2000,
2010). These studies have confirmed that developmentally adverse effects of poverty and child abuse on children tend to
increase according to the severity, length of exposure, and the age of the child: abused children tend to display internalized
(depressive, anxious, withdrawn behaviors) and externalized behavioral problems (aggressive and delinquent behaviors).
Kim (2009) investigated effects of different types of child abuse on children that the co-occurrence of emotional abuse with
other types of abuses was found to be most damaging to the children while effects of physical abuse alone was relatively
less damaging. Ju and Lee (2010) also found numerous cases of co-occurrences in physical and emotional abuse with severe
neglect among 357 severely abused children placed in child protective care. Many of these children were from low income
working families. Previous research has pointed out the strong correlation between adverse childhood experiences to later
adult mental health problems. (Afifi, Brownridge, Cox, & Sareen, 2006; Kim, 2009; Korean Association for the Prevention of
Child Abuse and Neglect, 2000; Korean Ministry of Health and Welfare, 2000, 2010; Lee & Kim, 2011; Van der Kolk, 2005).
As mentioned before, many parents in South Korea routinely send their children to extra-curricular classes after school
despite the heavy financial burden. Piano lesson is one of the most popular extra-curricular activities in South Korea. There
have been many studies indicating active involvement with music, such as how piano lessons in childhood have long-
lasting positive effects for the developing mind and brain of the individuals throughout their life-time (Costa-Giomi, 2004;
Hallam, 2010; Hogan & Huesman, 2008; Schellenberg, 2006; Wetter, Koerner, & Schwaninger, 2009). Dunbar, Kaskatis,
MacDonald, and Barra (2012) discovered active involvement with the music-making process such as drumming, singing,
and dancing to music, which trigger an endorphin release resulting in elevated positive affects where mere music listening

Please cite this article in press as: Kim, J., & Kim, K. Behavioral and musical characteristics of the children
who are exposed to child maltreatment and poverty in South Korea: A survey. Child Abuse & Neglect (2014),
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2014.03.005
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does not. They claim that active involvement of music-making enhances social and community bonding, and discusses the
mechanisms of community bonding through music-making While these studies discussed mainly positive effects of music,
there has been public concern on a causative relationship between certain genres of music such as pop, heavy metal and
rock with aggressive behaviors, suicidal thoughts, and poor mental health (Baker & Bor, 2008; North & Hargreaves, 2005;
Scheel & Westerfeld, 1999). Listening to pop music is often the favorite indoor activity chosen by children and adolescents
in South Korea. Therefore, it will be relevant to investigate musical experiences and preferences, and their effects on the
developmental aspects of children in this study.
This is the first part of a larger longitudinal study focusing on effects of music therapy on children with ongoing childhood
adversities. Since the 1990s, there have been some studies advocating positive effects of music therapy on children and
adolescents with histories of child abuse (Coulter, 2000; Kim, 2013; Lindberg, 1995; Pavlicevic, 1994; Rogers, 1995). The
findings of these music and music therapy studies may have significant clinical implications for children with a history of
childhood adversities.
To the present knowledge of the authors, there has been no systematic investigation on behavioral and musical char-
acteristics of the children who have experienced both child maltreatment and poverty in South Korea, nor elsewhere. The
purpose of this preliminary investigation is to identify children who have been exposed to child maltreatment and poverty,
and to discover their musical and behavioral characteristics as well as their potential needs for therapeutic intervention. In
this study, child maltreatment is defined according to recent Article 2 of the Korean Child Welfare Law, as violence against
children including physical, emotional abuse, and neglect by adults. As sexual abuse was beyond the scope of this study,
sexual abuse was not included.

Methods

Ethical approval was obtained from the Human Research Ethics Board at Jeonju University, South Korea, and was reg-
istered with the Current Controlled Trials. Informed consents were obtained from the primary care giver (parents, or
grandparents) and that of assents from children who attended the local CCCs, South Korea.

Participants

We advertised a three-year music therapy project on child abuse and poverty to 200 local Community Child Centers
(CCCs) in Jeollabukdo. Some CCCs (13) responded with enthusiastic interest and began to participate in this study. After
obtaining informed institutional consent from the local CCCs, we recruited primary school children between the ages of
seven to 12 from these local CCC (N = 302). The majority of children who participated in this study were from low income
families below middle class.

Measures

A survey was administered using both standardized and non-standardized tools completed by the children and the
teachers from the CCC during March–April, 2010.
The Self Esteem Scale. The SES is a self-report scale consisting of a four-point Likert scale (Rosenberg, 1965). The higher
scores refer to a better self-esteem and it was completed by the children.
The Child Behavior Checklist. The Korean version of the CBCL (Oh, Ha, Lee, & Hong, 2007; Achenbach, 1991) is an informant-
based three-point Likert-type scale. In this study, two forms of the CBCL were used: Teacher Report Forms completed by
the teachers from the CCC, and Youth Self-Reports (YSR) completed by the children. The CBCL is designed to investigate
emotional and behavioral problems in both children and adolescents. This study employed five sub-scales that were relevant
for the children who were exposed to dual adversities (poverty and child abuse): depressed/anxious, withdrawn, attention
problems, aggressive and delinquent behavior subscales. The higher scores represent more problems.
Child Abuse Screening Checklist. A self-report type of child abuse checklist was used to identify children who have expe-
rienced abuse and neglect at home. The Conflict Tactic Scale (Straus, 1979) was amended in line with needs of the Korean
society and culture. A final version of the child abuse screening checklist was developed by the Korean Institute of Social
Health (Kim et al., 2003). It consists of three sub-scales: Physical, emotional abuse, and neglect. The physical abuse ques-
tionnaire consists of items such as ‘I was kicked, and/or bitten, and/or punched with fists by a parent’. The emotional abuse
includes items like ‘I was scolded by a parent till I felt ashamed,’ while the neglect questionnaire contained statements like
‘my parents leave me alone till it gets dark’. Each sub-scale consists of a five-point Likert scale (0 = never, 1 = once or twice a
year, 2 = every two to three months, 3 = every month, 4 = every week). For the purpose of statistical analyses, all frequencies
of child maltreatment (from once a year up to every week) were defined as child abuse. In this study, child maltreatment
and abuse will be used interchangeably as an inclusive term for physical, emotional abuse, and neglect.
Poverty Screening. An income-to-needs ratio was calculated based on the minimum living costs defined by the Ministry
for Health, Welfare and Family Affairs of the Korean government. In this study, children from families below the poverty
line are purposefully targeted. When the household’s mean monthly income is less than the minimum living costs (income-
to-needs ratio < 1) with no other resources, the families are on government income support for basic living. In this study,
poverty is defined by the income-to-needs ratio and the fact that the family is on government income support.

Please cite this article in press as: Kim, J., & Kim, K. Behavioral and musical characteristics of the children
who are exposed to child maltreatment and poverty in South Korea: A survey. Child Abuse & Neglect (2014),
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2014.03.005
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Musical Questionnaires. Children were asked about their favorite music genre, whether they listen to any music (mostly
songs) when they feel bad, instruments they can play, extracurricular music lessons after school, and previous experiences
of arts therapies (music, art, dance and movement therapy).

Data Analyses

Data was analyzed using the SPSS 19.0. Cronbach’s alpha was used to determine the reliability of each measure. Overall,
the teacher’s measures ranged from .78 up to .93 and the children’s measures from .63 up to .85 indicating that all measures
were either acceptable or reliable (Nunnally, 1978).
The homogeneity test was calculated using Chi-square/Fisher’s exact tests and the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) in order
to determine clinically relevant differences among three groups of children regarding demographic information (Table 1).
The ANOVA was employed to learn the effects of childhood adversities on children’s behavioral problems. Scheffe’s Post Hoc
test was conducted in order to detect the differences among three groups of children (Tables 2–4). An independent t-test
was applied in order to investigate whether different musical experiences produced differences in children’s behavioral
problems and their self-esteem (Table 5).

Results

Demographic Statistics on Children with or without Childhood Adversities

Table 1 shows the analysis of the pooled scores regarding demographic information. In this table, analyses were done
in four groups: all children who participated (n = 302), children without abuse and poverty experience (n = 126), children

Table 1
Demographic statistics on children with or without childhood adversities.

Variable Total NA (n = 126) AO (n = 22) DA (n = 149) 2 /F

Gender 11.180**
Male 151(50.8) 53(42.1) 8(36.4) 90(60.4)
Female 146(49.2) 73(57.9) 14(63.6) 59(39.6)
Child age 9.31 ± 1.78 9.43 ± 1.71 9.33 ± 1.83 9.20 ± 1.84 .565
Father age 41.60 ± 5.65 41.32 ± 5.09 41.00 ± 5.32 41.94 ± 6.15 .316
Mother age 38.38 ± 5.58 38.38 ± 5.29 37.56 ± 3.54 38.53 ± 6.12 .201
Marital status 6.634†
Married 148(60.7) 62(62.0) 14(62.0) 72(57.6)
Divorced 59(24.2) 19(19.0) 3(15.8) 37(29.6)
Separated 17(7.0) 9(9.0) 1(5.3) 7(5.6)
Died 9(3.7) 5(5.0) 1(5.3) 3(2.4)
Other 11(4.5) 5(5.0) 0(0.0) 6(4.8)
Favorite 11.923†
Music genre Korean pop 187(67.8) 75(64.1) 14(66.7) 98(71.0)
Children’s 50(18.1) 24(20.5) 3(14.3) 23(16.1)
Drama/Movie 19(6.9) 7(6.0) 2(9.5) 10(7.2)
Classic 9(3.3) 5(4.3) 1(4.8) 3(2.2)
Korean Folk 4(1.4) 3(2.6) 1(0.7)
Western pop 2(0.7) 1(0.9) 1(0.7)
Commercial 2(0.7) 2(1.4)
Church 3(1.1) 2(1.7) 1(4.8)
Song to listen to when feeling bad 1.156
No 222(75.0) 98(77.8) 17(77.3) 108(72.5)
Yes 74(25.0) 28(22.2) 5(22.7) 41(27.5)
Music lessons 6.588*
Yes 153(51.9) 65(51.6) 17(77.3) 71(48.0)
No 142(48.1) 61(48.4) 5(22.7) 77(52.0)
*Arts Therapies 2.283
Yes 50(16.9) 18(14.4) 6(27.3) 26(17.6)
No 245(83.1) 107(85.6) 16(72.7) 122(82.4)
Ability to play instruments 5.266
Piano 160(64.5) 72(66.7) 13(65.0) 75(62.5)
Guitar 20(8.1) 7(6.5) 2(10.0) 11(9.2)
Violin 31(12.5) 18(16.7) 2(10.0) 11(9.2)
Others 121(48.8) 51(47.2) 8(40.0) 62(51.7)
Academic achievement 5.676
Low 198(66.7) 76(60.3) 13(59.1) 109(73.2)
High 99(33.3) 50(39.7) 9(40.9) 40(26.8)

2 /Fisher exact (†) tests: N (%); ANOVA for age – mean and standard deviation (±); NA = children with no abuse and poverty experience; AO = children with
abuse experience only; DA = children with double childhood adversities (abuse and poverty).

Please cite this article in press as: Kim, J., & Kim, K. Behavioral and musical characteristics of the children
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Table 2
Group differences in childhood adversities and behavioral characteristics.

Childhood adversities and behavioral problems

NA AO DA F

Self-esteem 28.29 ± 5.70 27.45 ± 5.12 28.11 ± 5.06 .231

Teacher
Dep/Anx 15.96 ± 3.83 15.86 ± 3.30 16.49 ± 4.50 .633
Attention 14.54 ± 4.07 13.59 ± 2.91 15.26 ± 4.14 2.185
Withdrawn 11.63 ± 3.19 11.18 ± 1.92 11.94 ± 3.30 .691
Delinquent 13.15 ± 2.11 13.18 ± 2.02 13.59 ± 2.53 1.310
Aggressive 23.78 ± 6.43 23.05 ± 4.75 25.32 ± 7.35 2.263
Child
Dep/Anx 17.60 ± 4.03b 18.50 ± 4.75ab 19.84 ± 5.32a 7.586**
Attention 14.63 ± 4.08b 16.00 ± 3.60ab 16.56 ± 3.88a 8.162***
Withdrawn 11.64 ± 3.17b 12.68 ± 2.48ab 13.32 ± 3.49a 8.818***
Delinquent 13.55 ± 2.05b 14.32 ± 1.91ab 14.55 ± 2.32a 7.224**
Aggressive 22.87 ± 4.43b 24.33 ± 3.97ab 26.53 ± 5.74a 17.616***

a,b: Scheffe’s Post Hoc test; NA = children with no abuse and poverty experience; AO = children with abuse experience only; DA = children with double
childhood adversities (abuse and poverty).
**
p < .01.
***
p < .001.

Table 3
Co-occurrence of different types of abuse and its effects.

Single Double Triple F

Dep/Anx 18.92 ± 4.99b 18.82 ± 4.11b 24.00 ± 6.29a 11.773***

Attention 15.85 ± 3.44b 15.96 ± 3.83b 19.63 ± 4.53a 12.164***
Withdrawn 12.69 ± 2.82b 12.87 ± 3.29b 15.78 ± 4.14a 10.144***
Delinquent 14.31 ± 2.17 14.45 ± 2.07 15.33 ± 2.83 2.147
Aggressive 25.73 ± 5.23b 25.51 ± 4.77b 29.52 ± 7.16a 5.797**

Scheffe’s Post-Hoc test: there is no significant difference where same letters were presented in the same line (=.05). Single: One type of abuse; Double:
co-occurrence of two types of abuse; Triple: co-occurrence of three types of abuse (neglect, physical, and emotional abuse).
**
p < .01.
***
p < .001.

who experienced abuse only (n = 22), and children who experienced abuse and poverty (n = 149). Almost two thirds of the
children were from families below the poverty line (n = 202).
There were no significant differences among different groups of children regarding demographic information and music
questionnaires, except for gender (p < .01) and extracurricular music lessons (p < .05). The majority of those who experienced
both abuse and poverty were male (60.4%). About half (51.9%) of total 302 children had extracurricular music lessons, while
77.3% of children who were abused, but not poor had music lessons. The parents of the children who experienced child abuse
and poverty had the highest divorce rate (29.6%), though not statistically significant.
Although statistically not significant, these are the general findings of the music related questionnaires: the children’s
favorite music genre was as follows: Korean pop song (67.8%); children’s songs including animation (18.1%); drama/movie
music (6.9%); classic (3.3%), etc. When being asked whether they listen to music when they feel bad, the children who
experienced both abuse and poverty appeared to listen to music somewhat more (27.5%) than the other two groups of
children (22.2% ∼22.7%). Children who experienced abuse only had the highest rate (27.3%) in previous experiences of arts
therapies. Academic achievement at school almost reached a significance (p = .059). Children who experienced both abuse
and poverty had a much lower school achievement than the other two groups of children.

Group Differences in Childhood Adversities and Behavioral Characteristics

Table 2 shows an analysis of the pooled scores (means and standard deviations) made by the teachers and the children
on both internalized and externalized problems, and the children’s self-esteem in three groups of children. The results of the
ANOVAs indicated that the children who were exposed to abuse and poverty scored higher in internalizing and externalizing
problems, indicating these children were markedly more depressed and anxious (p < .01), more withdrawn (p < .001), had
more attention problems (p < .001), more aggressive (p < .001) and more delinquent (p < .01) than the children who did not
have such adversity, or who were not poor. The teacher’s results were quite similar though it did not reach significance.

Co-occurrence of Different Types of Abuse and its Effects

Effects of co-occurrence in different types of abuse on children using the YSR were conducted. The results of the ANOVAs
indicated that there were significant differences between the children who experienced three types of abuses (i.e., neglect,

Please cite this article in press as: Kim, J., & Kim, K. Behavioral and musical characteristics of the children
who are exposed to child maltreatment and poverty in South Korea: A survey. Child Abuse & Neglect (2014),
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Table 4
Differences in severity of abuse experience and its effect.

Mild Moderate Severe F

P Teacher
Dep/Anx 16.16 ± 3.42 17.68 ± 5.83 17.38 ± 4.93 .832
Attention 14.13 ± 3.58b 15.61 ± 3.77ab 18.25 ± 4.40a 4.072*
Withdrawn 11.94 ± 3.26 12.71 ± 3.33 11.29 ± 1.25 .803
Delinquent 13.16 ± 2.19 14.10 ± 3.31 14.38 ± 3.58 1.079
Aggressive 24.13 ± 5.96 25.48 ± 8.37 27.75 ± 10.38 .783
Child
Dep/Anx 18.97 ± 4.31b 21.10 ± 6.12ab 25.63 ± 7.39a 4.813*
Attention 15.03 ± 2.95b 17.78 ± 4.43b 20.13 ± 5.33a 7.024**
Withdrawn 13.16 ± 2.70 14.22 ± 4.16 15.88 ± 3.83 2.074
Delinquent 13.84 ± 1.78b 14.97 ± 2.38ab 16.25 ± 3.65a 4.180*
Aggressive 25.63 ± 4.08 26.09 ± 6.37 31.13 ± 8.66 3.011

E Teacher
Dep/Anx 17.09 ± 5.00 18.88 ± 6.77 17.50 ± 4.02 .795
Attention 14.88 ± 4.67 16.00 ± 4.02 15.79 ± 3.55 .574
Withdrawn 12.00 ± 3.33 12.50 ± 3.71 11.78 ± 2.44 .281
Delinquent 13.50 ± 2.85 14.52 ± 3.22 13.55 ± 2.31 1.043
Aggressive 25.38 ± 8.12 27.44 ± 8.81 26.60 ± 7.29 .461
Child
Dep/Anx 19.00 ± 4.20b 23.17 ± 6.15a 22.70 ± 6.34a 4.887*
Attention 16.81 ± 4.02 18.84 ± 4.03 18.25 ± 4.51 1.802
Withdrawn 13.09 ± 3.46 15.20 ± 4.60 14.50 ± 3.61 2.160
Delinquent 14.06 ± 1.98b 15.80 ± 2.48a 15.05 ± 2.76a 3.846*
Aggressive 26.19 ± 5.61 28.56 ± 6.47 28.50 ± 7.52 1.213

N Teacher
Dep/Anx 15.87 ± 4.26 16.36 ± 4.81 18.06 ± 4.90 1.523
Attention 15.15 ± 4.37 14.97 ± 3.97 17.17 ± 4.36 1.995
Withdrawn 12.00 ± 3.32 11.81 ± 3.25 12.06 ± 3.25 .065
Delinquent 12.98 ± 1.46b 13.81 ± 2.47ab 14.67 ± 4.23a 3.621*
Aggressive 24.54 ± 6.75 24.97 ± 7.08 27.17 ± 9.64 .882
Child
Dep/Anx 18.59 ± 3.92b 19.57 ± 5.43ab 22.59 ± 6.74a 4.037*
Attention 16.11 ± 3.17b 16.29 ± 4.27b 18.94 ± 3.83a 4.087*
Withdrawn 12.33 ± 2.31b 13.42 ± 4.06ab 15.17 ± 3.47a 5.010**
Delinquent 14.04 ± 1.85b 14.68 ± 2.41ab 15.78 ± 2.65a 4.242*
Aggressive 25.89 ± 5.19 26.14 ± 5.58 28.94 ± 6.17 2.223

P: physical abuse, E: emotional abuse, N: neglect.

*
p < .05.
**
p < .01.
***
p < .001.

physical and emotional abuse) and the children who experienced one or two types of abuse, indicating children who were
exposed to the multiple type of abuses were markedly more depressed, anxious, withdrawn, aggressive, and had more
attention problems than children with one or two types of abuse experiences.

Differences in Severity of Abuse Experience and its Effect

According to children’s rating, the results of the ANOVA indicated that children who were exposed to severe physical
abuse were more depressed and anxious (p < .05), delinquent (p < .05) and had more attention problems (p < .01); to severe
neglect, more depressed and anxious (p < .05), withdrawn (p < .01), delinquent (p < .05) and attention problem (p < .05) than
children who were exposed to mild and moderate abuse experiences. For emotional abuse, behavioral problems of the
children were more pronounced by moderate abuse than severe and mild abuses, particularly for depressive and anxious,
and delinquent behavior (p < .05). The rest of the results showed similar clinical tendencies that severe exposure to physical
abuse and neglect seemed to produce more marked externalized and internalized behavioral problems, while moderate
exposure to emotional abuse, showed more marked behavioral problems, although not statistically significant. In general,
the independence t-test indicated that there were significant differences between teachers’ and children’s ratings (p < .01)
in almost every scale (except aggressive behavior) where children’s ratings were higher (more problems) than teachers’
ratings.

Music and Arts Related Experiences and Behavioral Characteristics of the Children Exposed to Abuse and Poverty

We investigated whether certain musical (music lessons, playing instruments, and music listening) and arts therapy
experiences (music, art, dance and movement therapy) had any impact on the behavior of the children who were exposed

Please cite this article in press as: Kim, J., & Kim, K. Behavioral and musical characteristics of the children
who are exposed to child maltreatment and poverty in South Korea: A survey. Child Abuse & Neglect (2014),
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2014.03.005
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J. Kim, K. Kim / Child Abuse & Neglect xxx (2014) xxx–xxx 7

Table 5
Music and arts related experiences and behavioral characteristics of the children exposed to child abuse and poverty.

Ability to play musical instruments Songs to listen when feeling bad

Yes No t Yes No t

Self-esteem 29.23 ± 5.52 27.89 ± 4.96 1.242 28.49 ± 5.64 27.98 ± 4.86 .507
Teacher
Dep/anx 15.54 ± 2.53 16.64 ± 4.78 −1.743 15.90 ± 3.48 16.64 ± 4.80 −.896
Attention 14.35 ± 2.23 15.39 ± 4.39 −1.867 14.39 ± 3.38 15.52 ± 4.32 −1.508
Withdrawn 11.46 ± 2.83 12.02 ± 3.40 −.812 11.03 ± 2.71 12.25 ± 3.45 −2.226*
Delinquent 12.50 ± 0.76 13.84 ± 2.72 −4.621*** 13.88 ± 2.91 13.50 ± 2.38 .810
Aggressive 22.08 ± 3.77 25.99 ± 7.77 −3.865*** 26.34 ± 7.83 24.91 ± 7.19 1.060
Child
Dep/anx 21.15 ± 5.50 19.53 ± 5.27 1.388 20.83 ± 5.41 19.42 ± 5.27 1.442
Attention 17.35 ± 4.60 16.39 ± 3.73 .989 16.66 ± 4.02 16.52 ± 3.86 .194
Withdrawn 14.85 ± 3.96 12.97 ± 3.31 2.231 13.56 ± 3.61 13.20 ± 3.46 .567
Delinquent 15.12 ± 2.52 14.43 ± 2.28 1.369 14.71 ± 2.19 14.49 ± 2.39 .516
Aggressive 27.35 ± 6.39 26.39 ± 5.61 .797 27.37 ± 6.24 26.25 ± 5.54 1.055

Music lessons Previous experience in arts therapies

Yes No t Yes No t

Self-esteem 28.97 ± 5.60 27.23 ± 4.33 2.099* 29.23 ± 5.52 27.88 ± 4.94 1.242
Teacher
Dep/anx 16.51 ± 4.54 16.49 ± 4.52 .027 15.54 ± 2.53 16.69 ± 4.80 −1.743
Attention 14.60 ± 3.49 15.88 ± 4.62 −1.902 14.35 ± 2.23 15.45 ± 4.42 −1.867
Withdrawn 11.49 ± 3.09 12.36 ± 3.47 −1.589 11.46 ± 2.83 12.04 ± 3.40 −.812
Delinquent 13.33 ± 2.14 13.86 ± 2.84 −1.265 12.50 ± 0.76 13.83 ± 2.71 −4.621***
Aggressive 25.23 ± 7.17 25.48 ± 7.58 −.210 22.08 ± 3.77 26.01 ± 7.74 −3.865***
Child
Dep/anx 20.27 ± 5.73 19.47 ± 4.95 .902 19.56 ± 5.26 21.15 ± 5.50 −1.388
Attention 16.87 ± 4.34 16.23 ± 3.43 .994 16.39 ± 3.71 17.35 ± 4.60 −.989
withdrawn 13.86 ± 3.58 12.84 ± 3.36 1.778 12.99 ± 3.31 14.85 ± 3.96 −2.231*
Delinquent 14.35 ± 2.13 14.74 ± 2.50 −1.012 14.43 ± 2.27 15.12 ± 2.25 −1.280
Aggressive 26.58 ± 6.27 26.49 ± 5.28 .088 26.36 ± 5.60 27.35 ± 6.39 −.731
*
p < .05.
** p < .01.
***
p < .001.

to childhood adversities. The results of the independence t-test indicated that children who can play musical instruments
appeared to the teachers to be less delinquent and less aggressive than children who cannot play musical instruments. The
children who listened to music when they felt bad appeared to the teachers to be less withdrawn than the children who
did not listen to music (p < .05). The children who had music lessons had higher self-esteem than the children who did
not (p < .05). Regarding previous experiences in arts therapies, the children who had previous arts therapy experiences had
higher self-esteem and lower mean scores in all CBCL and YSR sub-scales, particularly delinquent and aggressive scales by
the teachers’ measures (p < .001), and withdrawn scales by the children (p < .05) indicating certain clinical tendencies of arts
therapies on children’s internalized and externalized behavior, although some scales are not significant.
Regarding musical experiences (ability to play instruments, songs to listen to when feeling bad, music lessons), the
results of children’s and teachers’ ratings were slightly contradictory to each other, even though most results did not reach
significance. While the teacher’s mean scores indicated that children who had musical experiences scored lower in almost
every scale (except a few) than the children who did not have such experiences, the children’s mean scores indicated
otherwise.

Discussion

The first goal of the study was to identify children who were exposed to abuse and poverty, and these effects on the
children. As would be expected, the results of the YSR (children’s ratings) have indicated that the children who experienced
both abuse and poverty were markedly more depressed and anxious, withdrawn, aggressive, delinquent and reported more
attention problems than the children who did not experience such adversities, or at least who were not poor. The mean
scores of the CBCL (teachers’ rating) indicated analogous tendencies with the YSR although statistically not significant. The
results were consistent with previous findings (Korean Association for the Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect, 2000;
Korean Ministry of Health and Welfare, 2000, 2010).
Further analyses revealed that when multiple abuses (neglect, physical and emotional) co-occurred, the children were
at a highest risk of having emotional and behavioral problems, except for the delinquent behavior. For neglect and physical
abuse, severely abused children were more depressed and anxious, delinquent, and had more attention problems than less
severely abused children. The results are consistent with previous studies, which found that physical abuse often co-occurred

Please cite this article in press as: Kim, J., & Kim, K. Behavioral and musical characteristics of the children
who are exposed to child maltreatment and poverty in South Korea: A survey. Child Abuse & Neglect (2014),
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2014.03.005
G Model
CHIABU-2750; No. of Pages 10 ARTICLE IN PRESS
8 J. Kim, K. Kim / Child Abuse & Neglect xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

with emotional abuse and neglect (Ju & Lee, 2010; Korean Association for the Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect, 2000;
Korean Ministry of Health and Welfare, 2000, 2010), and problems were greater when different types of abuse were inflicted
alongside emotional abuse on children (Kim, 2009). What is unexpected was the effects of moderate emotional abuse.
Moderate emotional abuse produced the highest mean scores of all the scales, especially higher depressive and anxious, and
delinquent behavior ratings by the children, indicating moderate emotional abuse produced more depressed and anxious,
and delinquent behavior than severe and mild emotional abuse. How would a child respond to a prolonged verbal and
emotional mistreatment that happens every so often? What happens if a child becomes accustomed to severe emotional
abuse in everyday life? I wonder whether the moderate emotional abuse is a kind of threshold for a child that if the emotional
abuse is over that threshold (severe), the child becomes less able to react since severe emotional abuse becomes a part of
one’s life.
In this study, all children lived either with their own parent(s), or their grandparent(s), and most offenders were the
children’s primary caregivers at home. There have been strong debates whether less severe forms of physical punishment,
emotional abuse, and neglect are to be considered as child maltreatment in the cultural context of South Korea. For example,
corporal punishment by the parents, or leaving primary school children at home without adult supervision until it becomes
dark, is often regarded as a private family matter, perhaps harsh, but not abusive. However, in this study, these acts were
counted as maltreatment in accordance with the U.N. definition of the Rights of The Child (United Nation, 2011) and recent
Article 2 of the Korean Child Welfare Law. Many abused children in Korea tend to attribute the cause of abuse to themselves
(Ju & Lee, 2010; Kim, 2009; Korean Association for the Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect, 2000; Korean Ministry of
Health and Welfare, 2000). Lee and Kim (2011) pointed out that such cultural acceptance and tolerance of abusive acts by
the primary caregivers at home may have influenced children to not remember the events. Therefore, a cultural context
should be taken into account when interpreting such results.
There was a lack of significant group differences (children without adversities; abused children; poor and abused children)
regarding demographic information. This might be due to the fact that the study was conducted through local CCCs in the
economically deprived areas of Jeollabukdo, South Korea. Most children were from below middle class, which is generally
considered as poor compared to the general public in South Korea, although only two third (n = 202) of the children were
identified as coming from families below the poverty line. Therefore, a future study should include children outside the
deprived areas in order to compare poor children with children from middle class families. The majority of the children who
were exposed to abuse and poverty were male (60.4%) while there was not much difference in boy and girl ratios (50.8:
49.2) among total participants. Previous studies in South Korea (Kim, 2009; Lee & Kim, 2011) reported that males were more
subjected to physical abuse, while females emotional and sexual abuse. It would have been relevant to find out effects of
gender differences in child abuse and poverty, however it was beyond the scope of this study.
The results on the preferred music genre of children will be useful when planning effective treatment programs for music
therapy. Children’s most preferred music genre was Korean pop music followed by children’s songs, and drama/movie music.
It is also understandable that poor and abused children had fewer opportunities for music lessons compared to other groups
of children.
The effects of music and arts therapy related experiences on the behavior of the children who were exposed to abuse
and poverty were analyzed, which may be clinically relevant for the professionals working with this population. The results
of teachers’ ratings indicated that children who played instruments and had arts therapies, displayed less externalized
behavioral problems (aggressive and delinquent behavior); children who listened to songs when feeling bad, were less
withdrawn than children who did not have such experiences. Music can evoke a great range of intense emotion (Baker &
Bor, 2008; North & Hargreaves, 2005; Scheel & Westerfeld, 1999). As Korean pop music is very popular among primary
school children in Korea, listening to favorite songs may have provided a means for self-expression and exploration of wide
range of emotions otherwise difficult to express and explore for these children. This may be the reason why the children who
listened to songs when feeling bad appeared to be less withdrawn. Dunbar et al. (2012) claimed that playing music appeared
to produce positive affects with ready endorphin release, and also enhances social bonding between players, creating a sense
of community, which may have buffering effects on children’s externalized behavioral problems.
Although statistically not significant, there was a conspicuous clinical tendency in the mean scores of the teachers’ and
children’s ratings regarding musical experiences (ability to play instruments, songs to listen to when feeling bad, music
lessons). While teachers’ mean scores indicated that children with musical experiences scored lower in almost every scale
(except a few) than the children did not have such experiences, the children’s mean scores indicated otherwise. When
considering the general effects of musical experiences as discussed above, it would not be difficult to understand. The
children with more musical experiences may have had more chances of expressing and exploring their own feelings that
they might be more in touch with their feelings, and therefore more able to express negative feelings associated with abuse
experiences since music is highly related with emotional responses, and emotional self-expression. Kim (2013) also reported
that some abused children were less able to recognize negative aspects of their feeling states during the pre-test period, but
more able to report their feeling state after the completion of music therapy, resulting in worsening behavioral problems
at the post-test period, whereas teachers’ report indicated exactly the opposite direction. Musical experiences routinely
involve emotional expression, emotional release, emotional communication and social bonding, which may have either
channeling or sublimating effects on the negative feelings associated with childhood adversities (Lindberg, 1995; Pavlicevic,
1994; Rogers, 1995; Kim, 2013). Therefore, the teachers may report less behavioral problems on children with musical

Please cite this article in press as: Kim, J., & Kim, K. Behavioral and musical characteristics of the children
who are exposed to child maltreatment and poverty in South Korea: A survey. Child Abuse & Neglect (2014),
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2014.03.005
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J. Kim, K. Kim / Child Abuse & Neglect xxx (2014) xxx–xxx 9

experiences than children without such experiences. Kim (2013) and Lindberg (1995) also reported similar situation in their
study.
As this survey utilized both self-reporting and informant-based rating scales, the possibility of a personal bias could be the
limitation of this study. Therefore it might also be premature to establish causal relations between predictors and outcomes
based on survey data. The cultural context as discussed earlier should be carefully considered when interpreting the results.
Community-based intervention, working closely with child social services, schools and parents will be needed in the future.
As this is a preliminary survey, it is not certain whether the findings are generalizable to other children in similar situations.
Therefore further investigation is needed.

Acknowledgments

I thank children, their families, and the teachers at the local CCC.

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