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Ultrasonic Inspection
Revised by Yoseph Bar-Cohen, Douglas Aircraft Company, McDonnell Douglas Corporation; Ajit K. Mal, University of California, Los Angeles;
and the ASM Committee on Ultrasonic Inspection*

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Major Variables in Ultrasonic Inspection

The major variables that must be considered in ultrasonic inspection include both the characteristics of the ultrasonic waves used
and the characteristics of the parts being inspected. Equipment type and capability interact with these variables; often, different
types of equipment must be selected to accomplish different inspection objectives.

The frequency of the ultrasonic waves used affects inspection capability in several ways. Generally, a compromise must be
made between favorable and adverse effects to achieve an optimum balance and to overcome the limitations imposed by
equipment and test material.

Sensitivity, or the ability of an ultrasonic inspection system to detect a very small discontinuity, is generally increased by using
relatively high frequencies (short wavelengths). Resolution, or the ability of the system to give simultaneous, separate indications
from discontinuities that are close together both in depth below the front surface of the testpiece and in lateral position, is directly
proportional to frequency band-width and inversely related to pulse length. Resolution generally improves with an increase of
frequency.

Penetration, or the maximum depth (range) in a material from which useful indications can be detected, is reduced by the use of
high frequencies. This effect is most pronounced in the inspection of metal that has coarse grain structure or minute
inhomogeneities, because of the resultant scattering of the ultrasonic waves; it is of little consequence in the inspection of
fine-grain, homogeneous metal.

Beam spread, or the divergence of an ultrasonic beam from the central axis of the beam, is also affected by frequency. As
frequency decreases, the shape of an ultrasonic beam increasingly departs from the ideal of zero beam spread. This characteristic
is so pronounced as to be observed at almost all frequencies used in inspection. Other factors, such as the transducer (search unit)
diameter and the use of focusing equipment, also affect beam spread; these are discussed in greater detail in the sections "Beam
Spreading" and "Acoustic Lenses" in this article. Sensitivity, resolution, penetration, and beam spread are largely determined by
the selection of the transducer and are only slightly modified by changes in other test variables.

Acoustic Impedance. When ultrasonic waves traveling through one medium impinge on the boundary of a second medium, a
portion of the incident acoustic energy is reflected back from the boundary while the remaining energy is transmitted into the
second medium. The characteristic that determines the amount of reflection is the acoustic impedance of the two materials on
either side of the boundary. If the impedances of the two materials are equal, there will be no reflection; if the impedances differ
greatly (as between a metal and air, for example), there will be virtually complete reflection. This characteristic is used in the
ultrasonic inspection of metals to calculate the amounts of energy reflected and transmitted at impedance discontinuities and to
aid in the selection of suitable materials for the effective transfer of acoustic energy between components in ultrasonic inspection
systems.

The acoustic impedance for a longitudinal wave, Zl, given in grams per square centimeter-second, is defined as the product of
material density, , given in grams per cubic centimeter, and longitudinal wave velocity, Vl, given in centimeters per second:
Zl = Vl (Eq 2)

The acoustic properties of several metals and nonmetals are listed in Table 1. The acoustic properties of metals and alloys are
influenced by variations in structure and metallurgical condition. Therefore, for a given testpiece the properties may differ
somewhat from the values listed in Table 1.

Table 1 Acoustic properties of several metals and nonmetals

Acoustic
Sonic velocities, 105 cm/s
Density ( ), impedance (Z1)(d),
Material g/cm3 Vl(a) Vt(b) Vs(c) 106 g/cm2 · s
Ferrous metals
Carbon steel, annealed 7.85 5.94 3.24 3.0 4.66
Alloy steel
Annealed 7.86 5.95 3.26 3.0 4.68
Hardened 7.8 5.90 3.23 ... 4.6
Cast iron 6.95-7.35 3.5-5.6 2.2-3.2 ... 2.5-4.0
52100 steel
Annealed 7.83 5.99 3.27 ... 4.69
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Hardened 7.8 5.89 3.20 ... 4.6

D6 tool steel
Annealed 7.7 6.14 3.31 ... 4.7
Hardened 7.7 6.01 3.22 ... 4.6
Stainless steels
Type 302 7.9 5.66 3.12 3.12 4.47
Type 304L 7.9 5.64 3.07 ... 4.46

Type 347 7.91 5.74 3.10 2.8 4.54

Type 410 7.67 5.39 2.99 2.16 4.13

Type 430 7.7 6.01 3.36 ... 4.63

Nonferrous metals
Aluminum 1100-O 2.71 6.35 3.10 2.90 1.72
Aluminum alloy 2117-T4 2.80 6.25 3.10 2.79 1.75
Beryllium 1.85 12.80 8.71 7.87 2.37
Copper 110 8.9 4.70 2.26 1.93 4.18
Copper alloys
260 (cartridge brass, 70%) 8.53 3.83 2.05 1.86 3.27
464 to 467 (naval brass) 8.41 4.43 2.12 1.95 3.73

510 (phosphor bronze, 5% A) 8.86 3.53 2.23 2.01 3.12

752 (nickel silver 65-18) 8.75 4.62 2.32 1.69 4.04

Lead
Pure 11.34 2.16 0.70 0.64 2.45
Hard (94Pb-6Sb) 10.88 2.16 0.81 0.73 2.35
Magnesium alloy M1A 1.76 5.74 3.10 2.87 1.01
Mercury, liquid 13.55 1.45 ... ... 1.95
Molybdenum 10.2 6.25 3.35 3.11 6.38
Nickel
Pure 8.8 5.63 2.96 2.64 4.95
Inconel 8.5 5.82 3.02 2.79 4.95

Inconel X-750 8.3 5.94 3.12 ... 4.93

Monel 8.83 5.35 2.72 2.46 4.72

Titanium, commercially pure 4.5 6.10 3.12 2.79 2.75
Tungsten 19.25 5.18 2.87 2.65 9.98
Nonmetals

Air(e) 0.00129 0.331 ... ... 0.00004

Ethylene glycol 1.11 1.66 ... ... 0.18

Glass
Plate 2.5 5.77 3.43 3.14 1.44
Pyrex 2.23 5.57 3.44 3.13 1.24
Glycerin 1.26 1.92 ... ... 0.24
Oil
Machine (SAE 20) 0.87 1.74 ... ... 0.150
Transformer 0.92 1.38 ... ... 0.127
Paraffin wax 0.9 2.2 ... ... 0.2
Plastics
Methylmethacrylate (Lucite, Plexiglas) 1.18 2.67 1.12 1.13 0.32
Polyamide (nylon) 1.0-1.2 1.8-2.2 ... ... 0.18-0.27
Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon) 2.2 1.35 ... ... 0.30
Quartz, natural 2.65 5.73 ... ... 1.52
Rubber, vulcanized 1.1-1.6 2.3 ... ... 0.25-0.37
Tungsten carbide 10-15 6.66 3.98 ... 6.7-9.9
Water
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Liquid(f) 1.0 1.49 ... ... 0.149

(g) 0.9 3.98 1.99 ... 0.36
Ice

(a) Longitudinal (compression) waves.

(b) Transverse (shear) waves.
(c) Surface waves.
(d) For longitudinal waves Z1 = V1.
(e) At standard temperature and pressure.
(f) At 4 °C (39 °F).
(g) At 0 °C (32 °F)

The percentage of incident energy reflected from the interface between two materials depends on the ratio of acoustic impedances
(Z2/Z1) and the angle of incidence. When the angle of incidence is 0° (normal incidence), the reflection coefficient, R, which is
the ratio of reflected beam intensity, Ir, to incident beam intensity, Ii, is given by:

R = Ir/Ii = [(Z2 - Z1)/(Z2 + Z1)]2

(Eq 3)
= [(r - 1)/(r + 1)]2
where Z1 is the acoustic impedance of medium 1, Z2 is the acoustic impedance of medium 2, and r equals Z2/Z1 and is the
impedance ratio, or mismatch factor. With T designating the transmission coefficient, R + T = 100%, because all the energy is
either reflected or transmitted, and T is simply obtained from this relation.

The transmission coefficient, T, can also be calculated as the ratio of the intensity of the transmitted beam, It, to that of the
incident beam, Ii, from:

T = It/Ii = 4Z2Z1/(Z2 + Z1)2

(Eq 4)
= 4r/(r + 1)2

When a longitudinal ultrasonic wave in water (medium 1) is incident at right angles to the surface of an aluminum alloy 1100
testpiece (medium 2), the percentages of acoustic energy reflected and transmitted are calculated as shown below (the
calculations are based on data from Table 1):
Impedance ratio (r) = Z2/Z1 = 1.72/0.149 = 11.54
Reflection coefficient (R) = [(r - 1)/(r + 1)]2 = (10.54/12.54)2 = 0.71 = 71%
Transmission coefficient (T) = 1 - R = 0.29 = 29%

The same values are obtained for R and T when medium 1 is the aluminum alloy and medium 2 is water. For any pair of
materials, reversing the order of the materials does not change the values of R and T.

Angle of Incidence. Only when an ultrasonic wave is incident at right angles on an interface between two materials (normal
incidence; that is, angle of incidence = 0°) do transmission and reflection occur at the interface without any change in beam
direction. At any other angle of incidence, the phenomena of mode conversion (a change in the nature of the wave motion) and
refraction (a change in direction of wave propagation) must be considered. These phenomena may affect the entire beam or only a
portion of the beam, and the sum total of the changes that occur at the interface depends on the angle of incidence and the
velocity of the ultrasonic waves leaving the point of impingement on the interface. All possible ultrasonic waves leaving this
point are shown for an incident longitudinal ultrasonic wave in Fig. 5. Not all the waves shown in Fig. 5 will be produced in any
specific instance of oblique impingement of an ultrasonic wave on the interface between two materials. The waves that propagate
in a given instance depend on the ability of a waveform to exist in a given material, the angle of incidence of the initial beam, and
the velocities of the waveforms in both materials.
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Fig. 5 Diagram showing relationship (by vectors) of all possible reflected and refracted waves to an incident
longitudinal wave of velocity Vl(1) impinging on an interface at angle l relative to normal to the interface. See
text for explanation of vectors.

The general law that describes wave behavior at an interface is known as Snell's law. Although originally derived for light waves,
Snell's law applies to acoustic waves (including ultrasound) and to many other types of waves. According to Snell's law, the ratio
of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of reflection or refraction equals the ratio of the corresponding wave
velocities. Snell's law applies even if mode conversion takes place. Mathematically, Snell's law can be expressed as:
sin /sin = V1/V2 (Eq 5)
where is the angle of incidence, is the angle of reflection or refraction, and V1, and V2 are the respective velocities of the
incident and reflected or refracted waves. Both and are measured from a line normal to the interface.

Equation 6 is the general relationship applying to reflection and refraction, taking into account all possible effects of mode
conversion for an incident longitudinal ultrasonic wave, as shown in Fig. 5:
sin l/Vl(1) = sin 'l/Vl(1) = sin 't/Vt(1)
(Eq 6)
sin l/Vl(2) = sin t/Vt(2)
where l is the angle of incidence for incident longitudinal wave in material 1, 'l is the angle of reflection for reflected
longitudinal wave in material 1 = l, 't is the angle of reflection for reflected transverse wave in material 1, l is the angle of
refraction for refracted longitudinal wave in material 2, t is the angle of refraction for refracted transverse wave in material 2,
Vl(1) is the velocity of incident longitudinal wave in material 1 = velocity of reflected longitudinal wave in material 1, Vt(1) is the
velocity of reflected transverse wave in material 1, Vl(2) is the velocity of refracted longitudinal wave in material 2, andVt(2) is the
velocity of refracted transverse wave in material 2.

For quantities that are shown in Fig. 5 but do not appear in Eq 6, s is the angle of refraction for refracted surface (Rayleigh)
wave in material 2 = 90°, and Vs(2) is the velocity of refracted surface (Rayleigh) wave in material 2. Equation 6 can apply to
similar relationships for an incident transverse (instead of longitudinal) wave by substituting the term sin t/Vt(1) for the first
term, sin l/Vl(1). Correspondingly, in Fig. 5, the incident longitudinal wave at angle l, (with velocity Vl(1) in material 1)
would be replaced by an incident transverse angle t equal to 't (with velocity Vt(1)).

Critical Angles. If the angle of incidence ( l, Fig. 5) is small, sound waves propagating in a given medium may undergo mode
conversion at a boundary, resulting in the simultaneous propagation of longitudinal and transverse (shear) waves in a second
medium. If the angle is increased, the direction of the refracted longitudinal wave will approach the plane of the boundary ( l
90°). At some specific value of l, l will exactly equal 90°, above which the refracted longitudinal wave will no longer
propagate in the material, leaving only a refracted (mode-converted) shear wave to propagate in the second medium. This value
of l is known as the first critical angle. If l is increased beyond the first critical angle, the direction of the refracted shear wave
will approach the plane of the boundary ( t 90°). At a second specific value of l, t will exactly equal 90°, above which
the refracted transverse wave will no longer propagate in the material. This second value of l is called the second critical angle.

Critical angles are of special importance in ultrasonic inspection. Values of l between the first and second critical angles are
required for most angle-beam inspections. Surface wave inspection is accomplished by adjusting the incident angle of a
contact-type search unit so that it is a few tenths of a degree greater than the second critical angle. At this value, the refracted
shear wave in the bulk material is replaced by a Rayleigh wave traveling along the surface of the testpiece. As mentioned earlier
in this article, Rayleigh waves can be effectively sustained only when the medium on one side of the interface (in this case, the
surface of the testpiece) is a gas. Consequently, surface wave inspection is primarily used with contact methods.

In ordinary angle-beam inspection, it is usually desirable to have only a shear wave propagating in the test material. Because
longitudinal waves and shear waves propagate at different speeds, echo signals will be received at different times, depending on
which type of wave produced the echo. When both types are present in the test material, confusing echo patterns may be shown
on the display device, which can lead to erroneous interpretations of testpiece quality. Frequently, it is desirable to produce shear
waves in a material at an angle of 45° to the surface. In most materials, incident angles for mode conversion to a 45° shear wave
lie between the first and second critical angles. Typical values of l for all three of these--first critical angle, second critical
angle, and incident angle for mode conversion to 45° shear waves--are listed in Table 2 for various metals.

Table 2 Critical angles for immersion and contact testing, and incident angle for 45° shear wave transmission, in
various metals
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First critical angle, Second critical angle, 45° shear wave incident
degrees(a), for: degrees(a), for: angle, degrees(a), for:
Immersion Contact Immersion Contact Immersion Contact
Metal testing(b) testing(c) testing(b) testing(c) testing(b) testing(c)
Steel 14.5 26.5 27.5 55 19 35.5
Cast iron 15-25 28-50 ... ... ... ...
Type 302 stainless steel 15 28 29 59 19.5 37
Type 410 stainless steel 11.5 21 30 63 20.5 39
Aluminum alloy 2117-T4 13.5 25 29 59.5 20 37.5
Beryllium 6.5 12 10 18 7 12.5
Copper alloy 260 (cartridge brass, 70%) 23 44 46.5 ... 31 67
Inconel 11 20 30 62 20.5 38.5
Magnesium alloy M1A 15 27.5 29 59.5 20 37.5
Monel 16.5 30 33 79 23 44
Titanium 14 26 29 59 20 37

(a) Measured from a direction normal to surface of test material.

(b) In water at 4 °C (39 °F).
(c) Using angle block (wedge) made of acrylic plastic

Beam Intensity. The intensity of an ultrasonic beam is related to the amplitude of particle vibrations. Acoustic pressure (sound
pressure) is the term most often used to denote the amplitude of alternating stresses exerted on a material by a propagating
ultrasonic wave. Acoustic pressure is directly proportional to the product of acoustic impedance and amplitude of particle motion.
The acoustic pressure exerted by a given particle varies in the same direction and with the same frequency as the position of that
particle changes with time. Acoustic pressure is the most important property of an ultrasonic wave, and its square determines the
amount of energy (acoustic power) in the wave. It should be noted that acoustic pressure is not the intensity of the ultrasonic
beam. Intensity, which is the energy transmitted through a unit cross-sectional area of the beam, is proportional to the square of
acoustic pressure.

Although transducer elements sense acoustic pressure, ultrasonic systems do not measure acoustic pressure directly. However,
receiver-amplifier circuits of most ultrasonic instruments are designed to produce an output voltage proportional to the square of
the input voltage from the transducer. Therefore, the signal amplitude of sound that is displayed on an oscilloscope or other
readout device is a value proportional to the true intensity of the reflected sound.

The law of reflection and refraction described in Eq 5 or 6 gives information regarding only the direction of propagation of
reflected and refracted waves and says nothing about the acoustic pressure in reflected or refracted waves. When ultrasonic waves
are reflected or refracted, the energy in the incident wave is partitioned among the various reflected and refracted waves. The
relationship among acoustic energies in the resultant waves is complex and depends both on the angle of incidence and on the
acoustic properties of the matter on opposite sides of the interface.

Figure 6 shows the variation of acoustic pressure (not energy) with angle of reflection or refraction ( 'l, l, or t, Fig. 5) that
results when an incident longitudinal wave in water having an acoustic pressure of 1.0 arbitrary unit impinges on the surface of
an aluminum testpiece. At normal incidence ( l = 'l = l = 0°), acoustic energy is partitioned between a reflected longitudinal
wave in water and a refracted (transmitted) longitudinal wave in aluminum. Because of different acoustic impedances, this
partition induces acoustic pressures of about 0.8 arbitrary unit in the reflected wave in water and about 1.9 units in the transmitted
wave in aluminum. Although it may seem anomalous that the transmitted wave has a higher acoustic pressure than the incident
wave, it must be recognized that it is acoustic energy, not acoustic pressure, that is partitioned and conserved. Figure 7 illustrates
the partition of acoustic energy at a water/steel interface.
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Fig. 6 Variation of acoustic pressure with angle of reflection or refraction during immersion ultrasonic inspection of
aluminum. The acoustic pressure of the incident wave equals 1.0 arbitrary unit. Points A and A' correspond to the
first critical angle, and point B to the second critical angle, for this system.

Fig. 7 Partition of acoustic energy at a water/steel interface. The reflection coefficient, R, is equal to 1 - (L + S),
where L is the transmission coefficient of the longitudinal wave and S is the transmission coefficient of the
transverse (or shear) wave.

In Fig. 6, as the incident angle, 1, is increased, there is a slight drop in the acoustic pressure of the reflected wave, a
corresponding slight rise in the acoustic pressure of the refracted longitudinal wave, and a sharper rise in the acoustic pressure of
the refracted transverse wave. At the first critical angle for the water/aluminum interface ( 1 = 13.6°, 1 = 90°, and t = 29.2°),
the acoustic pressure of the longitudinal waves reaches a peak, and the refracted waves go rapidly to zero (point A', Fig. 6).
Between the first and second critical angles, the acoustic pressure in the reflected longitudinal wave in water varies as shown
between points A and B in Fig. 6. The refracted longitudinal wave in aluminum meanwhile has disappeared. Beyond the second
critical angle ( l = 28.8°), the transverse wave in aluminum disappears, and there is total reflection at the interface with no
partition of energy and no variation in acoustic pressure, as shown to right of point B in Fig. 6.

Curves similar to those in Fig. 6 can be constructed for the reverse instance of incident longitudinal waves in aluminum
impinging on an aluminum/water interface, for incident transverse waves in aluminum, and for other combinations of wave types
and materials. Details of this procedure are available in Ref 1. These curves are important because they indicate the angles of
incidence at which energy transfer across the boundary is most effective. For example, at an aluminum/water interface, peak
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transmission of acoustic pressure for a returning transverse wave echo occurs in the sector from about 16 to 22° in the water
relative to a line normal to the interface. Consequently, 35 to 51° angle beams in aluminum are the most efficient in transmitting
detectable echoes across the front surface during immersion inspection and can therefore resolve smaller discontinuities than
beams directed at other angles in the aluminum.

Reference cited in this section

1. A.J. Krautkramer and H. Krautkramer, Ultrasonic Testing of Materials, 1st ed, Springer-Verlag, 1969
Copyright © 2002 ASM International®. All Rights Reserved.

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