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Control of a DC Microgrid

Marko Gulin
University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computing
Department of Control and Computer Engineering
Unska 3, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
marko.gulin@fer.hr

Abstract—A microgrid is a part of a distribution network to enable it is called a microgrid. Most commonly used energy
embedding multiple distributed generation systems (mostly non- storage devices in a microgrid are batteries, supercapacitors,
conventional renewable energy sources like photovoltaic panels, flywheels, and fuel cells with electrolyser (EL). This type of
small wind turbines etc.) and storage systems with local loads,
which can be disconnected from the upstream network under energy storage is termed as distributed storage and the energy
emergency conditions or as planned. The microgrid concept storage devices are termed as distributed storage devices.
naturally arose to cope with the penetration of renewable energy Microgrid is defined as a cluster of distributed generation
sources, which can be realistic if the final user is able to generate, sources, distributed storage devices and distributed loads that
store, control and manage part of the energy that it will consume. operate so as to improve the reliability and quality of the
The power connection between microgrid components can be
done through a direct current (DC) link or an alternating current local power supply and of the power system in a controlled
(AC) link. In this paper we describe operation modes (grid- manner [3]. The microgrid concept naturally arose to cope
connected, islanded) and control methods of a DC microgrid. with the penetration of renewable energy sources, which can
Index Terms—Distributed generation and storage, DC micro- be realistic if the final user is able to generate, store, control
grid, Microgrid operation modes, Active load sharing, Droop and manage part of the energy that it will consume [4].
control methods
The power connection between microgrid components, i.e.
distributed generation sources, storages and loads, can be done
I. I NTRODUCTION
through a direct current (DC) link or an alternating current
Around the world, conventional fossil-fuelled power system (AC) link. In this paper a DC link microgrid is considered,
is facing problems of gradual depletion of fossil fuel resources, with emphasis on its control and power management in grid-
poor energy efficiency and environmental pollution [1]. These connected and islanded operation mode.
problems have led to a new trend of generating power locally Microgrid control must insure that: (i) new distributed
at distribution voltage level by using small-scale conventional generation and storage systems can be added or removed from
biomass-fuelled energy sources like gas and diesel micro- the microgrid seamlessly, (ii) equal and stable current sharing
turbines, together with non-conventional renewable energy between parallel power converters (i.e. sources) is enabled, (iii)
sources like photovoltaic panels, wind turbines etc., and other output voltage fluctuations can be corrected, and (iv) desired
non-conventional sources like fuel cells. This type of power power flow from/to the microgrid together with technically
generation is termed as distributed generation and the involved and economically viable operation is enabled. There is a fairly
energy sources are termed as distributed generation sources. large number of methods for paralleling power converters
Distributed generation can offer considerable social and eco- (PCs). From the viewpoint of the operating mechanism to
nomic benefits, including reduced power network losses and current sharing and output voltage level management, control
the exploitation of renewable energy resources [2]. methods are classified into two basic categories: (i) active load
The integration of renewable energy sources poses a chal- sharing, and (ii) droop control methods.
lenge because their output is intermittent and variable and The report is structured as follows. In Section II a micro-
in principle requires an energy storage to enable time-shift grid concept is introduced. In Section III a microgrid power
between energy production and consumption. If only one re- management in grid-connected and islanded operation mode
newable energy source is considered, the integration is simple is described. In Section IV a commonly used DC microgrid
– for stand-alone use the source is connected with a storage control methods are described.
and load, while in the grid-connected case the source injects
the power directly into the power network, whereas the issues II. A MICROGRID CONCEPT
of power balancing are left to be handled by distribution and/or Due to the ever-increasing demand for high-quality and
transmission system operators. Considerable improvements reliable electric power, the concept of distributed generation
may however be achieved when heterogeneous distributed and energy storage has attracted widespread attention in recent
energy sources are used in a bulk for local or grid power years. Distributed generation and storage systems consist of
supply, like easier grid integration and smart power manage- relatively small-scale generation and energy storage devices
ment, with benefits both locally and on the grid-side. The that are interfaced with low- or medium-voltage distribution
required power and information communication infrastructure networks through power converters and can offset the local
power consumption, or even export power to the upstream Figure 1 shows the schematic diagram of a microgrid which
network if their generation surpasses the local consumption. embeds (i) distributed generation sources such as photovoltaic
An upcoming philosophy of operation which is expected to panels, small wind turbine, and fuel cells, (ii) distributed
enhance the utilization of distributed generation and energy storage devices such as batteries, supercapacitors and flywheel,
storage is known as the microgrid concept. and (iii) distributed loads. Each distributed generation source
The main benefits of microgrids are high energy efficiency, and storage device is interfaced with a common link through
high quality and reliability of the delivered electric power, a power converter. The microgrid is galvanically isolated from
more flexible power network operation, and environmental the utility grid and can be easily disconnected from the grid
and economical benefits [5]. However, to achieve a stable through the main switch for maintenance purposes. In a case of
and secure operation, a number of technical, regulatory and power shortage that can occur when utility grid is not available,
economic issues have to be resolved before microgrids can non-critical loads can be disconnected from the microgrid
become commonplace. In this paper we deal with control through an emergency switch. Worth noting, microgrid can
methods for integrating distributed generation and energy stor- also embed combined heat and power systems that exploit
age systems into a microgrid, as well with power management waste heat for domestic purposes where heat flows can be
in grid-connected and islanded operation mode. managed in addition to electrical energy flows.
The main components of a microgrid are: (i) distributed
generation sources such as photovoltaic panels, small wind Distributed generation systems
PV panels Wind turbine Fuel cells H2 tank
turbines, fuel cells, diesel and gas microturbines etc., (ii)
distributed energy storage devices such as batteries, super-
EL
capacitors, flywheels etc., and (iii) critical and non-critical
loads. Energy storage devices are employed to compensate
for the power shortage or surplus within the microgrid. They PC PC PC PC
also prevent transient instability of the microgrid by providing DC LINK
power in transient. The transient power shortage in a microgrid
can be compensated for by fast energy storage devices in the PC PC PC PC
microgrid, or by the utility grid through a bidirectional power
converter when operating in grid-connected mode.
The issue of the power quality in microgrids is an im-
portant issue due to the presence of an appreciable number
Utility grid Batteries Flywheel FER building
of sensitive loads whose performance and lifespan can be
Distributed storage systems Distributed loads
adversely affected by voltage sags, harmonics and imbalances.
In a microgrid, most distributed generation sources and storage Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of a DC microgrid
devices employ power converters which can rapidly correct
indicated imperfections, even in the presence of nonlinear and
unbalanced loads [5]. The selection of an appropriate power III. M ICROGRID OPERATION MODES
converter mainly depends on the generation source and storage A microgrid is connected into the utility grid through a
device type, and on the used power connection between the bidirectional power converter, that continuously monitors both
microgrid components. sides and manages power flow between them. If there is a
The power connection between microgrid components can fault in the utility grid, the power converter will disconnect the
be done through a DC link or an AC link. Many non- microgrid from the grid, creating an islanded energy system.
conventional energy sources generate low-voltage DC power, The microgrid can continue to operate in the islanded mode,
e.g. photovoltaic panels, fuel cells etc. Most of these sources that is primarily intended to enhance system reliability and
supply power to an AC utility grid and require costly and service continuity, and it is typically unplanned. However, it
inefficient power converters, even where the power may can also be introduced intentionally for maintenance purposes
ultimately be delivered to a DC device. However, power through the main switch. In some cases, islanded operation is
transmission through a low-voltage DC link produces more the only mode of operation, e.g. in off-grid remote electrifica-
losses than transmission through a high-voltage AC link. tion system. Concludingly, there are two operation modes for
With development of a microgrid control methods along a microgrid: (i) grid-connected, and (ii) islanded mode.
with cost-effective and efficient power converters, a DC link Consider a DC microgrid that consists of (i) distributed
microgrid can become a promising solution for integrating generation sources such as photovoltaic panels, wind turbine
distributed generation sources, storages and loads. Adding and fuel cells stack with electrolyser, (ii) distributed storage
intelligence to a DC microgrid controllers further enables devices such as batteries and supercapacitors, and (iii) critical
consumer engagement with utility grid through smart metering and non-critical loads, all connected in parallel into the com-
and ultimately with dynamic demand management, and this mon DC link through corresponding power converters. The
could reduce costs associated with periods of high and low power flow of the systems in the considered DC microgrid is
power consumption. shown in Figure 2.
Generation systems
H2 B. Islanded mode
PV WT FC HT EL
When a DC microgrid must be separated from the utility
PGRID PLOAD grid and switch to the islanded mode, the grid-tied power
converter releases control of the DC link voltage level, and one
AC grid Bidirectional of the converters in the microgrid must take over that control.
power converter
BAT SC Since each converter of distributed generation sources is used
for optimal control of its belonging source, only the converters
Storage systems Critical loads Non-critical loads of the energy storage elements are free to regulate the DC link
Fig. 2. A DC microgrid power flow
voltage level. During the islanded mode, the battery plays the
main role in regulating the DC link voltage level, and the
supercapacitor plays a secondary role in responding of the
The sum of the output power of the photovoltaic panels, sudden power requirement as an auxiliary source/sag, i.e. for
the wind turbine and the fuel cells, i.e. distributed generation peak shaving during transients.
sources, is defined as:
IV. M ICROGRID CONTROL METHODS
PDG = PP V + PW T + PF C , (1)
Microgrid control must insure that: (i) new distributed
where PP V , PW T and PF C are photovoltaic panels, wind generation and storage systems can be added or removed from
turbine and fuel cells output power. the microgrid seamlessly, (ii) equal and stable current sharing
The distributed generation systems supply unidirectional between parallel power converters (i.e. sources) is enabled, (iii)
power to the DC microgrid and play a role as the main energy output voltage fluctuations can be corrected, and (iv) desired
source. Since energy storage devices control the power balance power flow from/to the microgrid together with technically
of a DC microgrid by charge and discharge, the power flow and economically viable operation is enabled. There is a fairly
is bidirectional and the reference power for energy storage large number of methods for paralleling power converters.
devices is defined as: From the viewpoint of the operating mechanism to current
sharing and output voltage level management, control methods
PDS = PBAT +PSC +PEL = PGRID +PDG −PLOAD , (2)
are classified into two basic categories: (i) active load sharing,
where PBAT and PSC are batteries and supercapacitors charg- and (ii) droop control methods. It is also possible to design
ing power, PEL is the electrolyser power, PLOAD is required a hybrid control method combining good aspects of active
power of all loads connected into the DC microgrid, critical load sharing and droop control method, but this will not be
and non-critical, and PGRID is the utility grid power. further discussed. A microgrid control is often implemented in
The loads are assumed to demand unidirectional power a hierarchical manner, with three control loops: (i) tertiary loop
from the microgrid. According to a varying local demand, manages the power flow from/to the microgrid, (ii) secondary
the distributed storage systems realize a power balance, and loop corrects output voltage fluctuations, and (iii) primary loop
thus make a continuous high-quality power supply to the performs current sharing control between power converters.
load possible [6]. In a case of power shortage that can occur Figure 3 shows the equivalent circuit of two DC power
when utility grid is not available, non-critical loads can be supplies connected in parallel sharing a common load through
disconnected from the microgrid. resistive output impedances. If there is some voltage difference
In the following subsections, a simple algorithm of power between sources, this will circulate a current between DC
management for DC microgrid is described. It must be noted sources, and in order to reduce the circulating current a
that this is not the only option power management. In future primary control loop is applied.
work, the problem of the optimal power management will be
handeled by the control algorithm. R1 Vo R2

A. Grid-connected mode I1 I2
In the grid-connected operation mode, the grid-tied power
V1 −
+
IL −
+
V2
converter has control over the DC link voltage level. If the
output sum of the power of the distributed generation systems
is sufficient to charge the storage devices, any excessive power
is supplied to the utility grid. If the sum of the power of the
distributed generation and storage systems is deficient with Fig. 3. Two parallel-connected DC power supplies
respect to the load demand, the required power is supplied
from the utility grid. In the grid-connected mode, power man- The output voltage Vo , i.e. the DC link voltage, can be
agement is performed in a complementary manner between expressed as:
storage devices and as a result a DC microgrid can operate Vo V1 V2
= + − IL , (3)
safely and efficiently. Rp R1 R2
where IL is the total load current, and Rp is the parallel C. Circular chain control
resistance defined as:
The circular chain control, shown in Figure 4(c), consists
1 1 1 of the current reference of each module taken from the other
= + . (4)
Rp R1 R2 module, forming a control ring. Note that the current reference
of the first unit is obtained from that of the last unit to form a
In a case of sudden rise of the load current IL , the output
circular chain information. This strategy can be expressed as:
voltage Vo drops. In order to restore its nominal voltage level,
a secondary control loop is applied.

iN , k = 1,
i∗k = (7)
ik−1 , k = 2, . . . , N.
V. ACTIVE LOAD SHARING
The current limitation control is a variant of the circular
The first category of control methods, named the ac-
chain control. In this case, the load voltage is controlled by
tive load-sharing technique [7]–[26], need intercommunication
the master module, whereas the slave modules are only for
link. Although these links limit the flexibility of the microgrid
sharing the load current. Except for the master module, the
and degrade its redundancy, both tight current sharing and
current command of the slave is generated by its previous
low-output-voltage fluctuations can be achieved. The following
module and limited in amplitude. In this scheme, any module
section provides a review of the existing active load sharing
can be the master (dedicated, rotating, high-crest current).
control methods for parallel converters available in literature
[4]. The active load sharing control methods can be classified
into three different types: (i) centralized control, (ii) master- i∗1 i∗2 i∗N vref
i1 i2 iNiload
slave control (MS), and (iii) circular chain control (3C). CL CL CL vo CCB

A. Centralized control MOD MOD MOD Load


1 2 N
The centralized control, shown in Figure 4(a), consists of
dividing the total load current iL by the number of modules (a) Centralized control of a DC microgrid
(MODs) N , so that this value becomes the current reference
i∗k of each module k: im i∗s i∗s
is2 isN
CL CL CL
iL vref
i∗k = , k = 1, 2, . . . , N. (5)
N MOD MOD MOD
M VL S2 SN Load
The current reference value is subtracted by the current vo
of each module, obtaining the current error ∆ik , which is
processed through a current control loop (CL). An outer (b) Master-slave control of a DC microgrid
control loop in the centralized control, i.e. voltage control
i∗1 i∗2 i∗N
loop (VL), adjusts the load voltage. Using this approach, it
is necessary to measure the total load current iL , so it cannot CL i1 CL i2 CL iN
be used in a large distributed systems. Consequently, a central
MOD MOD MOD Load
control board (CCB) is necessary. 1 2 N

B. Master-slave control
(c) Circular chain control of a DC microgrid
In the master-slave control, the master module regulates
Fig. 4. Active load sharing control methods
output voltage. Hence, the master current im fixes the current
references of the rest of the modules (slaves) as:

i∗s = im , s = 2, . . . , N. (6) VI. D ROOP CONTROL METHOD

Consequently, as shown in Figure 4(b), the master acts as a The second category of control methods, named the droop
voltage source converter, whereas the slave works as a current control method [27]–[34], is able to avoid critical communi-
source converter. If the master unit fails, another module will cation links. The absence of critical communications between
take the role of master in order to avoid the overall failure the modules improves the reliability without restricting the
of the system. There exist different variants of this control physical location of the modules. The droop method is based
method, depending on the role of the master: (i) dedicated, on a well-known concept in large-scale power systems, which
where the master is one fix module, (ii) rotary, where the consists of drooping the frequency of the AC generator when
master is arbitrarily chosen, and (iii) high-crest current, where its output power increases [4]. The droop method achieves
the module that brings the maximum current automatically higher reliability and flexibility in the physical location of the
becomes the master. modules since it only uses local power measurements.
A. Virtual output impedance to generate, store, control and manage part of the energy that
In the virtual output impedance control, shown in Figure 5, it will consume. The power connection between microgrid
current at the module output is sensed and sent back to the components can be done through a direct current (DC) link or
module input via virtual impedance RD , where is compared an alternating current (AC) link.
with the output voltage reference at no load: In this paper we describe operation modes and control
methods of a DC microgrid. A microgrid can operate in a grid-
vo∗ = vref − io RD , (8) connected mode or in an islanded operation mode. From the
where io is the module output current, RD is the virtual output viewpoint of the operating mechanism to current sharing and
impedance, and vref is the output voltage reference at no load. output voltage management, control methods can be classified
as an active load sharing and droop methods. The main differ-
vref δvo vref δvo
ence between aforementioned control methods is that droop
vo vo vM G control methods do not require fast communication between
VL RD VL RD VL
components (i.e. generation sources and storage devices), thus

io1 ioN vM G improving system reliability and flexibility at the cost of the
CL CL
DC link voltage level stability.
MOD MOD Load
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