Mathematics

Selected Safety Calculations and their General Considerations

Please click and select from the following subjects:

1. Chemical Hazards

2. Linear Kinematics

3. Dynamic of Particles

4. Pressure

5. Archimedes Principle

6. Inferential Statistics

7. Set Theory, probability, and Statistics

8. Structural Hazards

9. References
 Chemistry
Please click to select from the following subjects:
1. Density and Specific Gravity

2. Temperature Conversion

3. Atoms and Isotopes

4. Molecular Weight and Mole

5. Balanced Chemical Equations

6. Valence and Chemical Bonding

7. Oxidation-Reaction Reductions

8. Terminologies and Calculations related to “Solutions”

9. Avogadro’s Number

10. Vapor Pressure and Heat

11. Gas Laws

Cl2
 Density and specific gravity
Density is defined as the mass of a substance contained in one unit of its
volume.

mass of object
Density = mass per unit volume =
volume of object

Specific gravity of a liquid or solid is defined as the ratio of the mass of the
liquid or solid to the mass of an equal volume of water. The ratio of density of a
gas or vapor to density of air is called vapor density.

mass of solid or liquid

specific gravity =
mass of an equal volume of water at 4 C

Example
A cylindrical object with a height of 2 feet and a diameter of 1 foot has a mass
of 3 lbs. What is the density of this object? What is the value of its specific
gravity? Density of water = 62.4 lbm/ft3.
Solution
First we calculate the volume of the cylinder.
volume  (3.14 R 2 )  H
Where R is the radius and H is the height of cylinder

volume  (3.14  0.5 2 )  2

volume  1.57 ft 3
mass
density 
volume
3 lbs
density 
1.57ft 3
density  1.91 lbs / ft 3

density of the object

specific gravity 
density of water
1.91
specific gravity   3.06  10 2
62.4
 Temperature conversion
To convert between Celsius and Fahrenheit temperature scales use:

 F  32
= C
1.8

where C is degrees Celsius and F is degrees Fahrenheit.

To convert to absolute temperature scales use:

o
R = oF + 460
o
K = oC + 273

where oR and oK denote the Rankine and Kelvin temperature scales

respectively.

Example
Convert 20 C to the Rankine temperature scale.

Solution
We know
R  F  460
First we convert degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit.
  F  32
 20
1.8
or
 F  32  36  68
 R  68  460  528
 Atoms
All matter is made up of atoms. An atom contains a central nucleus made up of
positively charged particles, the protons, and electrically neutral particles,
called neutrons. Almost all of the mass of an atom is contained in the nucleus
which is surrounded by negatively charged particles, the electrons, rotating
around it in orbits, as shown in Figure 1.
The number of electrons and protons in any atom are equal, so that the atom, in
its normal state, is neutral. The number of protons in any atom is called the
atomic number, and the number of protons and neutrons the atomic mass.

ns
tr o


ec
el

 protons

neutrons
nucleus

Figure 1. - Atomic Structure.

 Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of a given matter with the same atomic number, but different
atomic mass, i.e., the number of protons in all atoms are equal but the number
of neutrons are different.
 Molecular weight
The sum of the atomic weight of different atoms making a compound is called
the molecular weight of that compound.
 Mole
The average chemical experiment involves the reaction of an enormous number
of molecules. In order to simplify calculations, one mole of a substance is
defined as the mass of that substance which contains exactly 6.023  1023
molecules (Avogadro’s number). In order to convert the mass of a given
substance to moles, we divide the mass by the molecular weight of that
substance, thus:

mass
Mole =
molecular weight

mass expressed in grams

Gram mole =
molecular weight

mass expressed in pounds

Pound mole =
molecular weight

mass expressed in kilograms

Kilogram mole =
molecular weight

Example
A drum contains 90 lbs of water (H2O). Calculate the number of pound moles,
gram moles, and kilogram moles of water in the drum. The atomic weight of
hydrogen is 1 and the atomic weight of oxygen is 16.

Solution
First we calculate the molecular weight of water.
H2O: molecular weight = (2  1) + 16 = 18

90
Pound moles of water  5
18
In order to calculate the gram moles of water, we have to convert the weight
of water in the drum to grams.

454 grams
90 lbs   40860 grams of water
1 lb

40860
gram moles of water   2270
18

In order to calculate the kilogram moles of water in the drum, we have to

convert grams of water into kilograms of water.

1 kilo gram
2270 grams   2.27
1000 grams

(we are using two significant figures)

Example
If we have 2 lb moles of sulfuric acid (H2 SO4), how many kilograms of sulfuric
acid do we have? Atomic weights:
H = 1, S = 32, O = 16

Solution
First, we calculate the molecular weight of sulfuric acid:
H2SO4: molecular weight = (2  1) + (32) + (4  16)
molecular weight = 98.
We know that:

lbs H 2 SO 4
lb mole H 2 SO 4 
molecular weight
or

lbs H 2 SO 4  (lb mole H 2 SO 4 )  (molecular weight)

lbs H 2 SO 4  2  98  196

Now, we have to convert pounds of sulfuric acid into kilograms of sulfuric

acid. We know that there are 2.2 lbs in one kilogram. Therefore:

196
kilo grams of suluric acid   89
2.2
Balanced Chemical Equations, Weight, and Mole Relations
A chemical equation must be balanced before any weight or mole calculations can
be performed on the reactants or products. In order to balance a chemical
equation, one must ensure that the number of atoms of different substances
comprising ALL molecules of reactants is equal to the number of atoms of
substances comprising molecules of the products. For example, consider the
reaction between ethane and oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water.

C2 H6 + O2  CO2 + H2 O

The above chemical equation represents the reaction between ethane and oxygen;
however, it is not a balanced chemical equation. In order to balance the above
equation, note that we have 2 atoms of carbon present in the reactant molecule
C2H6; therefore we need 2 molecules of CO2 to make the number of carbon atoms
in the reactant and product molecules equal. In the same manner, since we have 6
atoms of hydrogen in the reactant molecules, we must have three molecules of
water to make the number of hydrogen atoms equal. Since we have 7 atoms of
oxygen in the product molecules, we need 7/2 O2 or 3.5 O2 in the reactant
molecules. The balanced equation is:

7
C2 H6 + O2  2 CO2 + 3 H2 O
2

Once a chemical equation is balanced, we can carry out either weight or mole
calculations for different reactant and product molecules. The numbers in front of
each reactant and product molecule are called stoichiometric coefficients.

The above balanced equation can be interpreted in a number of ways:

1. One molecule of ethane reacts with 7/2 molecules of oxygen to form 2
molecules of CO2 and 3 molecules of water.
One gram mole of ethane reacts with 7/2 gram moles of oxygen to form 2 gram
moles of carbon dioxide and 3 gram moles of water.
 2. 30 grams of ethane (M.W. = 30) reacts with 3.5  32 grams of oxygen
(M.W. = 32) to form 2  44 grams of carbon dioxide (M.W. = 44) and 3 
18 grams of water (M.W. = 18).
It is important to note that in a balanced chemical equation, the number of moles of
reactants and products are not necessarily equal. In other words MOLES ARE
NOT NECESSARILY CONSERVED in a chemical reaction. For example, in the
reaction between ethane and oxygen (above chemical equation), the total number
of moles of reactants equals 4.5 while the total number of moles of products equals
5. Obviously 4.5  5.
It is equally important to note that in a balanced chemical equation, THE MASS
OF REACTANTS AND PRODUCTS MUST BE EQUAL. In the above reaction,
the mass of reactants is 30 grams of ethane plus 3.5  32 grams of oxygen (total =
142 grams of reactant), forming 88 grams of CO2 and 54 grams of water (total =
142 grams of product). Therefore, we can make the following statement that is
essential in solving problems dealing with any chemical reaction:
IN ANY CHEMICAL REACTION, MOLES ARE NOT NECESSARILY
CONSERVED, HOWEVER, MASS IS ALWAYS CONSERVED.

CO2
Valence and Chemical Bonding
The electrons in the outer orbit of an atom are called the valence electrons, which
are responsible for chemical reactions. Chemical reactions occur either as a result
of complete transfer of one or more valence electrons from one atom to another or
as a result of sharing valence electrons among different atoms.

 Ionic bonds
When one or more valence electrons are transferred from one atom to another,
the atom that has lost the electrons becomes positively charged (positive ion)
and the atom that has gained the electrons becomes negatively charged
(negative ion). A strong electrical force will be developed between the positive
and negative ions which form a new compound. This electrical force is known
as the ionic bond. Since the number of electrons lost by one atom exactly
equals the number of electrons gained by the other atom, the compound, as a
whole, is electrically neutral.
For example, sodium and chlorine can react to form sodium chloride (table
salt), by transfer of one electron from the valence orbit of sodium to the valence
orbit of chlorine and forming an ionic bond between the sodium and chlorine
ions as shown in Figure 2. Although in a molecule of sodium chloride the
sodium ion is positively charged and the chlorine ion is negatively charged,
sodium chloride as a compound is electrically neutral because the number of
electrons lost by the sodium atom equals the number of electrons gained by the
chlorine atom.

Ionic Bond

valance valance
shell shell

chlorine ion sodium ion

Figure 2. Ionic bond.

 Covalent bonds
Some chemical reactions take place when atoms “share” their valance electrons
to complete the electron requirement in the valance shell of each atom. This
type of bonding among different atoms is known as “covalent bonds.” Covalent
bonds among atoms are much weaker than the ionic bonds. An example of
formation of covalent bonds is the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen to
form water. Oxygen has 6 electrons in its valence shell that requires 8 electrons
and hydrogen has 1 electron in its valence shell which requires 2 electrons.
Therefore, two atoms of hydrogen can share their one electron with the oxygen
atom to complete the number of electrons in all atoms involved as shown in
Figure 3.

 

 
H O H
 

 

Figure 3. Formation of a molecule of water by covalent bonds.

 Atomic absorption
Atomic absorption is an analytical technique which takes advantage of the
characteristic absorption by metals of certain wavelength of light.

 Electronegativity
Electronegativity is a property associated with certain atoms which causes
unequal sharing of electrons during bonding. This results in shared electrons
spending more time with one atom and less time with the other. Large
differences in electronegativity result in complete transfer of electrons from one
atom to another and formation of an ionic bond.
 Heat of reaction
There is a certain amount of energy associated with each chemical bond. In a
chemical reaction, the sum of the energy of the chemical bonds in the products
is usually different from the bond energies in the reactants. Depending on the
magnitude of the bond energies involved, a chemical reaction can produce or
consume energy. This energy is called the heat of reaction. Chemical reactions
that consume energy are called endothermic, and chemical reactions that
produce energy are called, exothermic.

 Isomers
Substances that have the same numbers of atoms of each element per molecule
but differ in spatial arrangement of the atoms are known as isomers of each
other.

 Crystals
A crystalline substance is an ORDERED array of its component atoms, ions, or
molecules.
 Oxidation-reduction reactions
Oxidation refers to the loss of electron(s) by an atom involved in a chemical
reaction. Reduction is the gain of electron(s) by an atom involved in a chemical
reaction. Oxidation is always accompanied by reduction. These reactions are
more commonly known as Redox reactions.

Fe  Fe+2 + 2 electrons (oxidation)

Cl2 + 2 electrons  2 Cl- (reduction)

O2
 Terminology and Calculations Related to “Solutions”
 Solute
Dissolved substance.

 Solvent
The substance in which the solute is dissolved.

 Concentration
The concentration of solutions can be expressed either in physical or chemical
units.
Physical units of concentration
The concentration of a solution in physical units can be expressed in the
following ways:
 By weight of solute per unit volume of solution. For example, 10
grams of NaCl (table salt) per liter of solution.
 By weight percentage. For example, 10% NaCl solution contains 10
grams of NaCl per 100 grams of solution.
 By the weight of solute per weight of solvent. For example, 10 grams
of sugar in 100 grams of water.
1. Some of the more common chemical units of concentration
 Molarity is the number of gram moles of the solute contained in one liter
of solution.
 Mole fraction is the number of moles of solute divided by the sum of
number of moles of solutes and solvents.

Example
1000 liters of brine solution contains 292.5 pounds of salt (NaCl). What is the
molarity of the solution. Atomic weights Na=23, Cl = 35.5

Solution
We have to find the number of gram moles of NaCl in one liter of the
solution.
 molecular weight (NaCl)  23  35.5  58.5
292.5
pound moles (NaCl)  5
58.5
454 gram moles
gram moles (NaCl)  5pound moles   2270
1 pound mole
2270
gram moles in one liter of solution  molarity   2.27
1000

Example
A brine solution has been prepared by adding 234 grams of NaCl to 1800 grams
of water (H2O). What is the mole fraction of NaCl in the solution?
 Solution
First, we have to calculate the number of gram moles of both water and salt
(NaCl).

molecular weight of water  18

molecular weight of NaCl  58.5 (see above example)

1800
gm moles of water   100
18
234
gm moles of NaCl  4
58.5
mole fraction of NaCl 
number of moles of NaCl

number of moles of NaCl  Number of moles of water

4 4
  3.84  10  2
100  4 104

 Dissolved solute
Amount of dissolved solute = volume  concentration in
volume percent/100

Amount of dissolved solute = weight  concentration in

weight percent/100

Example
How many pounds of sulfuric acid exists in 100 ft3 of a 10 percent by volume
sulfuric acid solution? The density of sulfuric acid is 70 lbs/ft3.
Solution
First we calculate the volume of sulfuric acid. Volume of sulfuric acid = 100
 0.1 = 10 ft3.
Next, since we know that each cubic foot of sulfuric acid weighs 70 lbs
(density = 70 lbs/ft3), we can calculate the weight of sulfuric acid:

3 lbs
weight of sulfuric acid  10 ft  70 3  700 lbs
ft

Example
How many pound moles of salt exist in 2000 lbs of a 10 percent by weight brine
solution. The molecular weight of salt is 58.5.

Solution
First we calculate the weight of salt:
2000  01
.  200 lbs
We know that pound moles are the weight-expressed in lbs divided by the
molecular weight.

200
lb moles of salt   3.42
58.5
Avogadro’s Number
Avogadro’s number is the number of atoms of an element in one gram mole of
that element. The value of Avogadro’s number is 6.024  1023 (this value will
be provided by the BCSP at the time of the examination and there is no need to
memorize this number). This means that if we count the number of atoms in
one gram mole of any element, the result is 6.024  1023 (indeed a very large
number). For example, the atomic weight of oxygen is 16, and based on our
definition of gram mole, one gram mole of oxygen weights 16 grams.
Avogadro’s number, therefore, indicates that if we count the number of atoms
of oxygen in 16 grams of oxygen, (one gram mole), the result is 6.024  1023
atoms of oxygen.

Example
The atomic weight of sulfur is 32. Calculate the number of atoms of sulfur
contained in 64 kilogram of sulfur.

Solution
Based on Avogadro’s number, we know the number of atoms of sulfur in
one gram mole of sulfur (6.024  1023). In order to solve this problem, we
have to calculate how many gram moles of sulfur are contained in 64
kilogram of sulfur.

weight in grams
gram mole 
atomic or molecular weight
1000 grams
64 kilo gram   64,000 grams
1 kilo gram
64,000 grams
gram moles of sulfur   2,000
32
 Now, each gram mole of sulfur contains 6.024  1023 atoms of sulfur.

number of atoms of sulfur  2000  6.024  10 23  12.048  10 26 atoms

Example
The atomic weight of sodium is 23. Calculate the weight in grams of one atom
of sodium.

Solution
Based on Avogadro’s number, we know that one gram mole of sodium
which is equivalent to 23 grams of sodium contains 6.024  1023 atoms. In
other words, we know that 6.024  1023 atoms of sodium has a weight equal
to 23 grams. Therefore:

23
the weight of one sodium atom  23
 3.82  10 23 grams
6.024  10
(indeed a very very small number)

Example
One drop of seawater contains 300 billion atoms of sodium (atomic weight 23)
in the form of salt. How many drops of seawater do we need to have 23
kilogram of sodium contained in salt?

Solution
First we have to calculate the number of atoms of sodium in 23 kilogram of
sodium.

23 kilo gram of sodium  23,000 grams of sodium 

23,000
 1000 gram moles of sodium.
23
We know that each gram mole of sodium contains 6.024  1023 atoms of
sodium. Therefore:

The number of atoms of sodium  1000  6.024  10 23  6.024  10 26

Now each drop of seawater contains 300 billions (300  109) atoms of
sodium in the form of salt. Therefore, the number of drops of seawater
needed is:

6.024  1026
11
 2.008  1015
3  10

2NO
 Vapor pressure
Vapor pressure of a liquid is defined as the pressure exerted by the vapor when
the liquid and vapor phases have reached equilibrium. Vapor pressure always
increases with an increase in temperature.
Heat
 Heat
Heat is energy in transfer.

 Specific heat
The amount of heat expressed in calories which is required to raise the
temperature of 1 gram of substance by one degree Celsius or the amount of heat
expressed in BTU (British Thermal Units) which is required to raise the
temperature of one pound of substance by one degree Fahrenheit.

Example
The specific heat of a substance is 2 Btu/lb. How much heat in Btu is needed to
raise the temperature of 5 lbs of this substance by 10 degrees Fahrenheit?

Solution
From the definition of specific heat (above) we can say the heat needed to
raise the temperature of 5 lbs by one degree is:

Btu
5 lbs  2  10 Btu
lb

amount of heat needed to raise the temperature by 10 degrees is:

10 Btu  10  100 Btu

 Heat of fusion
The amount of heat required to melt 1 unit mass of the solid at its melting point
without changing its temperature.

 Heat of vaporization
The amount of heat required to vaporize 1 unit mass of liquid at its boiling point
without changing its temperature.
 Heat of sublimation
The amount of heat required to convert 1 unit mass of a solid to vapor without
changing its temperature.
Heat of sublimation = heat of fusion + heat of vaporization
Gas Laws: Basic Definitions and Relationships
 Density
Density is mass per unit volume:

m
=
v

where:
is density
m is mass
v is volume

Example
A spherical tank is half-filled with a liquid that has a density of 70 lbs/ft3. If
the mass of liquid in the tank is 2100 lbs, calculate the volume of the tank.

Solution
mass
density 
volume
2100
70 
volume
2100
volume   30ft 3
70

However, the above value is only half of the total volume of the tank.
Total volume of tank = 30  2 = 60 ft3.
 Compressible fluid
The volume changes significantly with changes in pressure or temperature. For
example, by pressurizing a gas, we can reduce its volume substantially.
Therefore, gases are considered to be compressible.

 Incompressible fluid
The volume does not change significantly with changes in pressure or
temperature. For example, if we increase the pressure on a liquid, its volume
does not change substantially. Therefore, liquids are considered to be
incompressible.
 Mole
Mass divided by the molecular weight.

Example
What is the number of pound moles of octane (C8 H18) in 114,000 grams of
octane. The atomic weight of carbon is 12 and that of hydrogen is 1.

Solution
Step 1: Calculate the molecular weight of octane (8  12)  (18  1)  114

Step 2: Since we are interested in pound moles of octane, we have to

convent the weight of octane from grams to pounds.

1 lb
114,000 grams   251 lbs
454 grams

Step 3:

weight in lbs
pound moles 
molecular weight

251
lb moles   2.2
114
 Mixture density

1 x1 x2
= 
1 2

where:
1 is the density of component 1, 2 is density of component 2, etc.
x1 is the mass fraction of component 1, x2 is the mass fraction of component 2,
etc.
is the mixture density.

Example
A uniform solution of sulfuric acid and water contains 20 percent by weight
sulfuric acid. If the density of sulfuric acid is 70 lbs/ft3 , and the density of
water is 62 lbs/ft3; what is the volume in ft3 that 100 lbs of this mixture
occupies?
Solution
First we calculate the mixture density

1 x1 x2
 
1 2

1  70

2  62

x1  0.2

x 2  0.8

1 0.2 0.8
 
70 62

lbs
 63.45
ft 3

A mixture density of 63.45 lbs per cubic foot indicates 63.45 pounds of this
mixture occupies a volume equal to one cubic foot. Therefore, the volume
occupied by 100 pounds of this mixture is equal to:

100/ 63.45 = 1.58 cubic feet

 Ideal gas law

PV = nRT

where
p is the absolute pressure (gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure)
v is the volume occupied by the gas
n is number of moles of gas
R is the universal gas constant whose value depends on the units selected for P,
V, n, and T
T is the absolute temperature (degrees Fahrenheit plus 460 or degrees
centigrade plus 273).

 Absolute pressure and temperature scales

Absolute pressure = gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure
There are two absolute temperature scales used in solving gas law problems:
degrees Kelvin = oC + 273
degrees Rankine = oF + 460
 The gas constant
The value of the gas constant in ideal gas law depends on the units chosen for
pressure, temperature, number of moles, and volume. The following table lists
the values of gas constant that are more commonly used in solving gas law
problems.

PV
Value of Gas Constant, R 
nT

pressure  volume
R has units of
moles  temperature

Absolute Pressure
Volume Temp. moles Atm psia mm Hg in Hg ft H2O
g 0.00290 0.0426 2.20 0.0867 0.0982
K
lb 1.31 19.31 999 39.3 44.6
ft3
g 0.00161 0.02366 1.22 0.0482 0.0546
R
lb 0.730 10.73 555 21.8 24.8
g 0.08205 1.206 62.4 2.45 2.78
K
lb 37.2 547 28,300 1113 1262
liters
g 0.0456 0.670 34.6 1.36 1.55
R
lb 20.7 304 15,700 619 701
Source: BCSP Candidate Handbook

Example
What value of gas constant we should use if pressure is expressed in psia.,
volume in ft3, moles in gram moles, and temperature in degrees Rankine?
Solution
From the table above, we choose the column under ft3 for volume, next
column, we choose R for temperature, we choose in the third column from
the left g moles, then we move to the fifth column from the left for pressure
in psia and read the value of R.

psia  ft 3
R  0.02366
g moles   R

Example
What is the value of R if pressure is expressed in mm Hg (millimeter of
mercury), volume in liters, moles in lb moles, and temperature in degrees
Kelvin?

Solution
Using the same procedure as the above example

mm Hg  liters
R  28,300
lb moles  K

Example
Calculate the volume occupied at 25 C and 2 psig (pounds per square inch
gauge) by the gas evolved from 1 ft3 of solid carbon dioxide
lbs
(density  95 ) . The atomic weight of carbon is 12, and that of oxygen is
ft 3
16.
Solution
V ?
T  25 C
P  2 psig
lbs
 95
ft 3

Let’s write the ideal gas law:

PV  nRT

We have to calculate n (number of moles of carbon dioxide). Since we have

the volume and density of solid CO2 we can calculate its mass.

mass  density  volume

lbs
mass  95 3
 1ft 3  95 lbs
ft

In order to calculate the number of moles (n), we need to calculate the

molecular weight of CO2.
Molecular weight of CO2 = 12 + 2  16 = 44
Now we can calculate the number of moles of CO2.

mass of CO 2 in lbs
lb moles CO 2 
molecular weight
95
lb moles CO 2   2.16
44

Before using the gas law, we have to convert the pressure and temperature to
absolute scales.
 P  2 psig  14.7  16.7 psia

T  25 C  273  298  K

Now, we have to select a value for R (gas constant). Our selected value
must have the same units for pressure, temperature, volume, and moles.
Since our pressure is in psia, temperature is in degrees Kelvin, and moles are
in lb moles. From the table above we select the following value of R.

ft 3  psia
R  19.31
lb mole   K
PV  nRT
nRT
V
P
(2.16)  19.31  298
V
16.7
V  744ft 3

Since the selected value of R has volume in ft3, the volume calculated also
has units of ft3.

Example
A 100 ft3 container of hydrogen is under 1000 psig pressure at a temperature of
80 F. Calculate the mass of hydrogen in pounds. The atomic weight of
hydrogen is 1.

Solution
P  1000 psig  14.7  1014.7 psia
T  80  F  460  540  R

V  100ft 3
mass of hydrogen in lbs  ?

PV  nRT

In order to calculate the mass of hydrogen in pounds, we need to calculate

the number of pound moles of hydrogen and multiply that by the molecular
weight of hydrogen.

PV
n
RT

In order to solve for n, we must select a value of R which has psia for unit of
pressure, ft3 for volume, lb moles for number of moles, and degrees Rankine
for temperature. From the table for values of gas constant, we have:

psia  ft 3
R  10.73
lb moles  R

PV
n
RT
(1014.7)  (100)
n
10.73  540
n  17.51 lb moles
 Now, we know that molecular weight of hydrogen (H2) is 2. In order to
obtain pounds of hydrogen, we multiply the number of lb moles by the
molecular weight.

lbs of H 2  17.51  2  35.02

 Standard conditions
Reference temperatures of 0 °C and pressure of 1 Atm are commonly referred
to as standard temperature and pressure (STP).

Example
Calculate the volume in liters occupied by 1 gram mole of a gas under STP
condition.

Solution

P  1 atm
T  0 C  273  K

n  1 kg mole
V ?

PV  nRT

Since the problem asks for volume in liters, it is more convenient to use a value
atm  liters
of R that has units of . From the summary table for the
gm mole   K
values of gas constant, we have:
 atm  liters
R  0.08205
gm mole   K

nRT
V
P
1  0.08205  273
V  22.4 liters
1

Note 1: When a gas is under atmospheric pressure, the absolute pressure is

the atmospheric pressure. In other words, we do not add atmospheric pressure
to atmospheric pressure.

Note 2: In the above example, we did not specify the type of the gas. It could
be hydrogen, nitrogen, or for that matter, any other gas. Therefore, we can
make the following statement:
One gram mole of any ideal gas under standard temperature and pressure
(STP) conditions occupies a volume equal to 22.4 liters.

Example
Calculate the volume in ft3 occupied by 1 pound mole of a gas under STP
conditions.

Solution

P  1 atm

V ?

n  1 lb mole
T  0 C  32  F  492  R

We choose the following value of R (see summary table for R) which is

consistent with the units given for other parameters.
 atm  ft 3
R  0.730
lb mole   R

PV  nRT
nRT
V
P
1  0.730  492
V  359ft 3
1
Note: Once again, since we did not specify the type of gas in the above
example, we can make the following statement:
One pound mole of any ideal gas occupies a volume equal to 359 cubic feet
under STP conditions.

Using the procedure outlined above, we can prove that one kilogram mole of
any gas occupies a volume equal to 0.02415 cubic meters under STP
conditions. We can summarize the results in the following table:

The PVT values for standard conditions in different system of units are
tabulated below:

Standard conditions for gases

System Ts ps Vs ns
SI 273oK 1 atm 0.02415 m3 1 kg mole
CGS 273oK 1 atm 22.415 liters 1 gram mole
American 492oR 1 atm 359.05 ft3 1 lb-mole
Engineering
 Combined gas law
When the state of an ideal gas is changed from conditions 1 to 2, the
relationship between pressure, temperature, and volume is given by:

P1V1T2 = P2V2T1
or

PV
1 1 PV
 2 2
T1 T2

Where P1, V1, T1 are absolute pressure, volume, and absolute temperature under
conditions 1, and P2, V2, T2 are absolute pressure, volume and absolute
temperature under condition 2.

Example
An ideal gas is contained in a 100 ft3 expandable container which is under 50
psig pressure at a temperature of 70 F. If we double the volume of this
container and raise its temperature to 100 F, what is the value of new pressure?
Solution

V1  100ft 3

P1  50 psig or 50  14.7  64.7 psia

T1  70  F  460  530  R

V 2  200ft 3 (we doubled the initial volume )

P2  ?

T2  100  F  460  560  R

P1V1 P2V2

T1 T2

Substitute the known values:

64.7  100 P2  200


530 560
or

64.7  100  560  P2  200  530

64.7  100  560

P2 
200  530
P2  34.18 psia

Note 1: When we are dealing with changes in the state of an ideal gas, we
eliminate the gas constant (R) from the equation.
 Note 2: Remember that in solving any gas law problem, you must always use
the ABSOLUTE PRESSURE (gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure) and
the ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE (degrees Kelvin or Rankine).

 Isothermal changes in an ideal gas

When an ideal gas undergoes a change at constant temperature, T1 and T2 in our
combined gas law equation are equal

P1V1 P2V2

T1 T2

but, T1  T2 (constant temperature). Therefore:

P1V1 = P2V2

where:
P1 and V1 are pressure and volume under conditions 1
P2 and V2 are pressure and volume under conditions 2.

Example
A vessel at 70 F contains an ideal gas under 2000 psig. If we transfer this gas
to another vessel with a volume 4 times the original vessel. What is the value
of the new pressure of the gas? Assume isothermal conditions.
Solution

T1  T2  70 F (isothermal)
P1  2000 psig  14.7  2014.7 psia
P2  ?

V2  4V1 (volume of second vessel, V2 , is 4 times the volume

of original vessel, V1 )

1 1  PV
PV 2 2

P1 V2
 4
P2 V1
2014.7
4
P2

P2  503.67 psia
Isobaric changes in an ideal gas
When an ideal gas undergoes changes under constant pressure, the values of P1
and P2 in the combined gas law are equal

P1V1 P2V2

T1 T2

P1  P2 (isobaric)

V1 V2

T1 T2

or
V1T2 = V2T1

Example
The volume of a sample of gas is 10 liters at 300 C. What is its volume at 150
C? Assume isobaric conditions.
Solution

V1  10 liters

T1  300 C  273  573  K

V2  ?

T2  150 C  273  423  K

P1  P2 (const ant pressure)

V1T2  V 2T1

10  423  V2  573

V 2  7.38 liters
Isometric changes in an ideal gas
When an ideal gas undergoes changes under constant volume conditions, the
values of V1 and V2 are equal in the combined gas law.

P1V1 P2V2

T1 T2

or
P1 P2

T1 T2

or
P1T2  P2T1

Example
The gauge on a hydrogen cylinder reads 2000 psig at a temperature of
70 F. What is the pressure in the cylinder at 110 F? Assume isometric
conditions.
Solution

P1  2000 psig  14.7  2014.7 psia

T1  70  F  460  530  R

T2  110  F  460  570  R

P2  ?

P1T2  P2T1

2014.7  570  P2  530

P2  2166.7 psia

Note: In using combined gas law equation, we have to use absolute pressure
and temperature. It does not matter what absolute scales we choose as long as
we maintain consistency in the selected units. In order to demonstrate this
concept, let’s rework the above example using Kelvin temperature scale instead
of Rankine. We should still end up with the same result.
 P1  2014.7 psia

T1  70  F  21.1 C  294.1  K

T2  110  F  43.3 C  316.3  K

P2  ?

P1T2  P2T1

2014.7  316.3  P2  294.1

P2  2166.7

Which is the same result we obtained using Rankine temperature scale.

 Mole fraction
The number of moles of a component in a mixture divided by the total number
of moles

nA
yA =
nt
where:
yA is the mole fraction of component A in a mixture
nA is the number of moles of component A
nt is the total number of moles
 Example
10 grams of hydrogen is mixed with 420 grams of nitrogen. What is the mole
fraction of hydrogen in the gas mixture? The molecular weights of hydrogen
and nitrogen are 2 and 28 respectively.

Solution
First we have to calculate the number of moles of hydrogen and nitrogen in
the gas mixture.

10
gram moles of hydrogen  5
2
420
gram moles of nitrogen   15
28
total number of moles  5  15  20
5
mole fraction of hydrogen   0.25
20

Note: The sum of mole fractions of all components is a mixture must equal to 1.
To demonstrate this concept, let’s calculate the mole fraction of nitrogen in the
above example.

15
mole fraction of nitroen   0.75
20
mole fraction of hydrogen  mole fraction

of nitrogen  0.25  0.75  1.0

 Partial pressure
The pressure exerted by a component of a mixture ALONE at the same volume
and temperature as that of the mixture.
The partial pressure of a component in an ideal gas mixture is equal to its mole
fraction multiplied by the total pressure
 P A = yA P t

where
PA is partial pressure of component A in the gas mixture
yA is mole fraction of A in the mixture
Pt is total pressure

Example
10,000 lbs of a gas mixture of methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), and hydrogen
(H2) is under 2,000 psig pressure. The mixture contains 10 percent by weight
methane, 5 percent hydrogen, and the balance ethane. Calculate the partial
pressure of each component of this gas mixture. The atomic weight of Carbon
(C) is 12, and the atomic weight of hydrogen (H) is 1.
Solution
First we have to calculate, the weight of each component in the gas mixture:

weight of CH 4  10,000  0.1  1000 lbs

weight of H 2  10,000  0.05  500 lbs

weight of C 2 H 6  10,000  1000  500  8500 lbs

Next, we calculate the molecular weight of each component:

molecular weight of CH 4  12  (4  1)  16

molecular weight of H 2  2  1  2

molecular weight of C 2 H 6  (2  12)  (6  1)  30

We can now calculate the number of moles and the mole fraction of each
component of the mixture.

1000
moles of CH 4   62.50 lb moles
16
500
moles of H 2   250.00 lb moles
2
8500
moles of C 2 H 6   283.33 lb moles
30
total number of moles  595.83
62.50
moles fraction of CH 4   0.105
595.83
250
moles fraction of H 2   0.419
595.83
283.33
moles fraction of C 2 H 6   0.475
595.83

Notice that the sum of mole fractions is equal to 1.

partial pressure of CH 4  0.105  2000  210 psig

partial pressure of H 2  0.419  2000  838 psig

partial pressure of C 2 H 6  0.475  2000  950 psig
 Partial volume
The volume that would be occupied by a component of a mixture ALONE at
the pressure and temperature of the mixture.
The partial volume of a component of an ideal gas mixture equals its mole
fraction in the mixture multiplied by the total mixture volume:

V A = yA V t

where:
VA is the partial volume of component A
yA is mole fraction of component A in the mixture
Vt is the total mixture volume

Example
The mole fraction of oxygen in air is approximately 0.21. Assuming that air
contains only oxygen and nitrogen, calculate the partial volume of nitrogen in
1000 ft3 of air.

Solution
Since the sum of mole fraction of oxygen and nitrogen must equal to 1, we
can write:
mole fraction of nitrogen = 1.00  0.21 = 0.79
partial volume of nitrogen = 0.79  1000 = 790 ft3

Note 1: The sum of partial pressures of all components in a gas mixture must
equal the total mixture pressure.

Note 2: The sum of partial volumes of all components in a gas mixture must
equal the total volume of the mixture.
Linear Kinematics
 Linear kinematics
The analysis of linear motion without regard to its origin and effects is called
linear kinematics.

 Average speed
The average speed of an object is equal to the distance it covers in a certain
time period divided by that amount of time.

sfinal - sinitial
V =
t final - t initial
where:
V = average speed
s = distance
t = time

Example
A car travels a distance of 950 miles in 18 hours. What is the average speed of this
car?
 Solution

0 950 miles
18 hours
In this case:
s initial  0

s final  950 miles

t final  18 hours

t initial  0

950  0
V
18  0
miles
Average Speed  52.78
hr

 Constant acceleration
When acceleration is constant the equations relating distance and speed to time
take the following forms:

2
V 2  V0  2as

V  V0  at

1
s  V0t  at 2
2
Where:
V = speed
Vo = initial speed
t = time
a = acceleration
s = distance

Example
An object has an initial speed of 5 ft/sec and an acceleration of 2 ft/sec2. How
far does this object travel after 10 seconds?

Solution
Step 1: In solving problems that require use of equations, it is best to write
down all of our known and unknown values. This would greatly help in
determining which equation we have to use to solve the problem. In this
case:

V0  5 ft / sec

a  2 ft / sec 2
t  10 sec
s?

Step 2: We compare our known and unknown values to the terms in the
above equations. In this case, we notice that in the equation:

at 2
s  V0t 
2
All terms are known except s (distance). Therefore, we have one equation
with one unknown that we can easily solve.
Step 3: Substitute for known values and calculate the unknown value.
 at 2
s  V0t 
2
2  100
s  5  10 
2
s  50  100

s  150 ft

Note 1: Once we have an equation with a number of terms, the question is

that how many different types of problems can be based on that equation? In
order to solve one equation, we can only have one unknown. Therefore,
generally speaking, the number of problems, which can be based on a given
equation, is equal to the number of terms in the equation. For example in the
equation:

at 2
s  V0t 
2

we have 4 terms (s, V0, t, a). Therefore, we can design four different
problems based on the above equations.
Problem Number 1:
s (distance), V0 (initial speed), t (time) are known, calculate the acceleration.

Problem Number 2:
s, V0, a are given, calculate the time.

Problem Number 3:
V0, t, a are given, calculate the distance.

Problem Number 4:
s, t, a are given, calculate initial speed V0.

Note 2: In solving any equation, care must be exercised to maintain

consistency in units. For example, in the equation:

at 2
s  V0t 
2

the unit for distance appears in three different terms. These terms are s (which
has units of distance, ft., meters, miles, etc.), V0 which has units of distance
divided by time, ft/sec, miles/hr, etc.), and acceleration (which has units of
distance divided by time squared, ft/sec2, miles/hr2, etc).

ONCE WE HAVE SELECTED A UNIT FOR DISTANCE (for example feet),

WE HAVE TO USE THAT UNIT IN ANY TERM IN THE EQUATION
WHERE DISTANCE APPEARS. This means that in the equation:

at 2
s  V0t 
2

We can not use feet for distance (s), meters per second for initial speed V0, or
centimeters per second squared for acceleration. Once we have selected a unit
for a given dimension (such as distance), we have to convert all other terms
where that dimension appears to our selected unit.
Example
An object starting from rest with an acceleration of 7200 ft/min2 after 10
seconds has a speed equal to:

a) 36 ft/sec
b) 72,000 ft/sec
c) 72 ft/sec
d) 20 ft/sec

Solution
Select (d).

Step1: Let’s write our known and unknown values.

V0  0

a  7200 ft / min 2

t  10 seconds

V ?

Step 2: Compare the terms with the terms in equations for constant
acceleration. We notice that if we use the equation:

V  V0  at

All terms are known except the final speed (V). Therefore we have one
equation with one unknown which we can easily solve.

Step 3: We notice that the unit of time t is given in seconds (t = 10

seconds), while the unit of time in acceleration is expressed in minutes.
Since the answer to the problem uses seconds as unit of time, we have to
convert the unit of time in acceleration from minutes to seconds:

ft (1 min) 2 ft
a  7200   2
min 2 (60 sec) 2 sec 2

Step 4: Substitute the known values in the equation and calculate the
unknown value:

V  V0  at

V  0  2  10
ft
V  20
sec
Example
The final speed of an object starting from rest with an acceleration of 2 ft/sec2
after 100 ft is:

a) 200 ft/sec
b) 50 ft/sec
c) 20 ft/sec
d) 400 ft/sec

Solution
Select (c).

Step 1:

V ?

a  2 ft / sec 2

s  100 ft
V0  0

Step 2: In the equation:

V 2  V02  2as

All terms are known except V (final speed).

Step 3: Substitute for known values and calculate the unknown value (V).
 V 2  (0) 2  2  2  100

V 2  400

V  20 ft / sec

 Motion due to constant gravitational acceleration

The equations for speed, time, and distance covered for falling objects due to
constant acceleration of gravity are:

V  V0  gt

1
s  V0t  gt 2
2
2
V 2  V0  2 gs

Where:
g = acceleration of gravity 32.2 ft/sec2
V0 = initial speed
V = instantaneous speed
s = distance
t = time

Example
An object is dropped from the top of a tower. It takes 2 seconds for this object
to reach the ground. What is the speed of this object just as it reaches the
ground? What is the height of the tower? Neglect air resistance.
Solution
First we have to recognize that since the object is dropped, it is moving
under acceleration of gravity. Therefore, we need to focus on the equations
for constant acceleration of gravity.

Step 1: Write all known and unknown values.

V0  0 (object dropped from rest)

V ?
t  2 seconds
s?

Step 2: Find an equation, which has the speed as the only unknown value.
We notice that in the equation:
V  V0  gt
all terms are known except V (final speed). Therefore, we can solve this
equation for V.
ft
V  0  32.2  2  64.4
sec
Step 3: Now we have to calculate the height of the tower, which is the
distance traveled by this object. Again we have to find an equation that the
only unknown term in it is the distance (s). We notice that in the equation:
1
s  V0 t  gt 2
2
all terms are known except distance (s). We also notice that in the equation:
2
V 2  V0  2 gs

all terms are known except for distance (s). Therefore, we can use either of
the above equations to calculate the distance traveled by the object (height of
the tower). Let’s use both of the above equations and see if we obtain the
same results.

Step 4:
1
s  V0 t  gt 2
2
1
s  0  2  (32.2)  4
2
s  64.4 ft (height of the tower)
Step 5: Let’s use the equation:

2
V 2  V0  2 gs

to calculate s.
(64.2) 2  (0) 2  2  32.2  s

(64.4) 2
s
2  32.2
s  64.4 ft .

which is the same result obtained in step 4.

Note: The above example clearly shows that many times we have more than
one choice of equations to calculate a given unknown value.

Example
A worker drops a 3 pound wrench while working on a scaffold 50 feet above
the ground. How long does it take for the wrench to reach the ground? What is
the speed of this wrench just when it reaches the ground? Neglect air
resistance.

Solution
We notice that once the wrench is dropped, it is moving under the
acceleration of the force of gravity.
Step 1: Write all known and unknown values.
s  50 ft

t ?
V ?

V0  0 (Wrench dropped from rest, i.e. no initial volocity)

Step 2: In the equations for motion due to constant acceleration of gravity,

we have to find an equation which has all terms known except the unknown
term of our interest (in this case t or V). We notice that in the equation:
2
V 2  V0  2 gs
all terms are known except V.

Step 3: Substitute the known values in the above equation and calculate
the value of final speed (V).
V 2  (0) 2  2  32.2  50

V 2  3220
ft
V  56.7
sec
Step 4: In order to calculate the time, we can use the equation:

V  V0  gt
or
1
s  V0 t  gt 2
2

In both of the above equations, the only unknown term is time t. Let’s use both
of the above equations to calculate t; we should end up with the same result.

Step 5: Substitute for known values in the equation.

V  V0  gt

56.7  0  32.2  t
56.7
t  1.76 seconds
32.2
 Step 6: Substitute for known values in the equation:
1 2
s  V0 t  gt
2
1
50  (0)  t   32.2 t 2
2
1
50   32.2 t 2
2
50  2
t2 
32.2
100
t2 
32.2
t  1.76 seconds

which is the same result obtained in Step 5.

Note: Sometimes a problem gives information that is not necessary to solve

the problem. In this case, the mass of the wrench (3 pounds) had no role in
solving this problem.
Dynamics of Particles
 First law of motion
In the absence of any force, an object at rest will remain at rest and an object in
motion will continue in motion in a straight line at constant speed.

 Second law of motion

When a non-zero force is acting on an object, the object will accelerate in the
direction of the force with acceleration directly proportional to the magnitude of
the force and inversely proportional to its mass.

ma
F
gc

Where:
F = force
m = mass
a = acceleration
gc = constant of proportionality

It is important to remember that the value of gc depends on the system of units

selected. In the metric system (CGS and MKS), the units of force and mass are
defined in such a way to make the value of gc equal to 1. In the American
Engineering System and British Engineering, however, the value of constant gc
must be calculated in such a way that the numerical values of one pound force (lbf)
and one pound mass (lbm) are equal on the surface of the earth, where acceleration
of gravity is 32.2 ft/sec2. As a result, the value of gc in the metric system is equal to
1. In the American Engineering System and British Engineering, however, the
value of gc = 32.2.

Important Note: When using the second law of motion in the American
Engineering System or British Engineering,

THE VALUE OF gc IS EQUAL TO 32.2

In SI and Metric Absolute system of units:

THE VALUE OF gc IS EQUAL TO 1.

Note: In the British Engineering system of units, the unit of mass is called
“slug” which is mass expressed in pounds divided by 32.2

The following table summarizes different systems of units.

Force Mass Length Time

British Engineering Pound Slug Foot Second
(32.2 lb) (ft) (sec)
American Pound Pound Mass Foot Second
Engineering Force (lbf) (lbm) (ft) (sec)
Metric Absolute Dyne Gram Centimeter Second
(CGS) (gm) (cm) (sec)
SI Units Newton Kilogram Meter Second
(kg) (m) (sec)
Let’s work out a couple of example problems to demonstrate the above concept.

Example
An object with a mass of 2 grams accelerates at the rate of 1 cm/sec2. Calculate
the amount of force exerted on this object.

Solution
Step 1: Write all known and unknown values.

F ?
m  2 grams

a  1 cm / sec 2

Step 2: Substitute in the second law equation.

ma
F
gc
2 1
F  2 dyne
1

Note 1: Since we are in Metric Absolute System (see above table), the unit of
force is expressed in dynes.

Note 2: Since we are NOT working in the American Engineering or British

Engineering Systems, the value of gc = 1.

Example
Calculate the amount of force (in lbf) exerted on an object having a mass of 4
lbm and accelerating at the rate of 64.4 ft./sec2.
Solution
F ?
m  4 lbm

a  64.4 ft / sec 2

Clearly, we are working in the American Engineering System of Units (see

above table). Therefore, the value of gc is equal to 32.2

ma
F
gc
4  64.4
F
32.2
F  8 lbf

Note 1: The BCSP will provide the formulae, constants, tables, and
conversions at the time of the examination. However, the second law of motion
in the BCSP handout is expressed as

F  ma
You have to remember one of two things:
a) When working in the American Engineering or British Engineering
System of units, divide mass by 32.2, or
b) Write the above formula as

ma
F
gc

and realize that the value of gc is 32.2 when working in the American
Engineering or British Engineering System of units, and is equal to 1 in
SI or Metric Absolute system of units.

Note 2: Let’s see what answer we obtain for the above example if we don’t
realize that we are working in the American Engineering System of units and
that the unit of mass is (lbm / 32.2) or the value of gc = 32.2.

F  ma
F  4  64.4
F  257.6 lbf

Which is clearly the WRONG ANSWER.

 Friction
The frictional force exerted by one surface on another surface depends on the
normal force pressing the two surfaces together, and the nature of the surfaces:

F= N
Where:
F = frictional force
= coefficient of friction
N = normal force

Example
A rectangular box with a weight of 100 lbs. is on the floor in a warehouse.
Assuming that the coefficient of friction between the box and the floor is 0.3,
what is the value of minimum horizontal force that can put this box in motion?

Solution
F ?
 0.3

N  100 lbs

F N
F  0.3  100
F  30 lbs
Example
An object is resting on a floor with the coefficient of friction equal to 0.4. If the
value of the minimum horizontal force required to put this object in motion is
50 lbs, what is the weight of this object?

Solution
F  50 lbs
 0.4

N ?

F N
50  0.4 N
50
N
0.4
N  125 lbs
 Example
The frictional force for an object sitting on a horizontal surface is 50 lbs. If the
weight of the object is 100 lbs, what is the coefficient of friction?

Solution

F  50 lbs
N  100 lbs
?

F N
50   100
 0.5

 Work
When a force F acts upon a body through a distance S, the following formula
for calculation of work is used:

W = FS

Where W is the amount of work done on the body.

Work has units of force times distance, for example ft.  lbf, newton.  meter
(joule).
Example
If we exert a constant force of 10 newtons to move an object for 1000 meters,
what is the amount of work that we have performed on this object?

Solution
W  FS
W  10  1000

W  10,000 joules
Example
A worker lifts an object, which has a mass of 20 lbm to an elevation of 30 ft.
above the ground. Calculate the amount of work performed by the worker.

Solution
m  20 lbm
h  30 ft
W ?

W  mgh

Important note: Remember that since we are working in the American

Engineering system of units, lbm must be divided by 32.2.

20
W (32.2) 30
32.2
W  600 ft  lbf
Example
What is the amount of work performed on an object with a mass of 10 kilogram
raised to an elevation of 20 meters above the grounds?
 Solution
m  10 kg
h  20 meters

g  9.8 meters / sec 2

W  mgh
W  (10)  (9.8)  (20)
W  1960 joules

Note: Since we are not working in the American Engineering or British

Engineering system of units, we did not divide mass by 32.2.

 Energy
The kinetic energy of an object moving with a velocity V and having a mass m
is:

mV 2
K.E. 
2

The potential energy of an object of mass m located at a height h above the

surface of the earth is:
P.E. = mgh

Example
A car with a mass of 4000 kilograms is traveling with a constant speed of 60
miles per hour. Calculate the kinetic energy of this car in units of joule.
Solution
m  4,000 kg
V  60 miles / hr
K.E.  ?

Since joule is the unit of energy in the SI System of units, we have to

convert the speed of the car from miles per hour to meters per second.

miles 5230 ft 30.48 1m 1 hr

60    
hr 1 mile 1 ft 100 cm 3600 sec
60  5280  30.48 (we have rounded off to two
  26.82 m / sec significant figures)
100  3600
mV 2
K.E. 
2
4000  26.82
2

K.E. 
2
K.E.  1438624.8 joules
Example
An object with a mass of 10,000 lbm is traveling with a speed of 20 ft/sec.
What is the kinetic energy of this object in ft. lbf?

Solution

m  10,000 lbm
V  20 ft / sec
K.E.  ?

mV 2
K.E. 
2
K.E.  62111.8 ft  lbf

Note: Since we are working in the American Engineering System of units, we

had to divide lbm by 32.2 to come up with the correct answer.
Example
What is the potential energy of an object with a mass of 20 kilogram at a point
500 meters above the ground level?

Solution
m  20 kg
h  500 meters
P.E.  ?

P.E.  mgh
P.E.  20  9.8  500
P.E.  98,000 joules

Note: The value of acceleration of gravity in the SI System is 9.8 meters per
second squared (m/sec2).
 Example
What is the potential energy of an object 100 feet above ground level? The
mass of the object is 500 lbm.

Solution
m  500 lbm
h  100 ft
P .E.  ?

P.E.  mgh
500  32.2  100
P .E. 
32.2
P.E.  50,000 ft  lbf

Note: Once again, since we are working in the American Engineering

System, we had to divide pound mass (lbm) by 32.2. Also note that the value of
acceleration of gravity in this system of units is 32.2 ft/sec2.

 Moment
Moment is defined as force times distance. When the amount of force or
distance changes, the following relationship applies:
F2 F1

F1  d 1 = F 2  d 2 (Assuming that
moment generated by
d2 F1 and F2 are equal)
d1
Where F is force and d is distance.

Example
A 20 ft. long beam is fixed at one end inside a wall. A force of 100 lbs is
applied to the beam at a location 3 ft. away from the wall. What force should
be applied to the end of the beam to generate the same moment as the 100 lbs
force?

Solution
F1  100 lbs
d1  3 ft
F2  ?
d 2  20 ft

F1d1  F2 d 2
100  3  F1  20
300
F2 
20
F2  15 lbs
 Rotational motion
The linear velocity of an object in rotational motion can be calculated from:

V = C  RPM

Where
V is linear velocity
C is the circumference of the rotating object’s path
RPM is revolutions per minute.

Example
A grinding wheel with a diameter of 2 ft. has a rotational velocity of 500 rpm.
What is the tangential velocity at any point on the circumference of the wheel in
feet per second?

Solution
d (diameter )  2 ft
RPM  500
V ?

V  C  RPM
C  3.14 d
C  3.14  2  6.28 ft
V  6.28  500
V  3140 ft / min

Note: Since we have used “minutes” for the unit of time in the above equation
(RPM; revolutions per minute), when we calculate velocity (V), it has units of
feet per minute. Since the problem asks for V in feet per second, we divide our
answer by 60 (60 seconds in one minute).
3140
V  52.3 ft / sec
60
Pressure
Pressure is the ratio of force to the area on which the force acts. Pressure has units
of force per area such as newton/m2 (pascal) or lbf/in2 (psi).

 Hydrostatic pressure
Consider a column of fluid as shown in Figure 4. It can be shown that the
hydrostatic pressure at the base of the column is:

P = Po + gh

where
P = pressure at the base of column
Po = pressure on the upper surface of the column
= fluid density
g = acceleration of gravity
h = the height of the fluid column, and

P0

Figure 4. Pressure at the

base of a fluid column.
Example
A tank 20 feet in diameter and 50 feet high contains water that has a density of
62.4 lbm/ft3. Assuming that the tank is open to the atmosphere and that the
barometric pressure is 14.7 psi, calculate the total pressure at the bottom of the
tank in pounds per square foot.

Solution
h  50 ft

 62.4 lbm / ft3

P0  14.7 lbs / in2

P?
P  P0  gh
In order to maintain consistency of units, we have to convert 14.7 pounds
per square inch to pounds per square foot.
lbs 144 in2
P0  14.7 2 
in 1 ft 2

P0  2116.8 lbs / ft 2

Important Note: Since density has units of ”mass” per “volume”, and
because we are working in the American Engineering System, we have to
divide its value by 32.2.
 62.4
P  2116.8   32.2  50
32.2
P  5236.8 pounds per ft 2 ( psf )
or convert ing back to psi

lbs 1 ft 2
P  5236.8 2 
1 ft 144 in 2

P  36.36 lbs / in 2 ( psi)

 Fluid pressure measurement

Bourdon gauge: a hollow tube closed at one end and bent into a C
configuration. The open end is exposed to the fluid whose pressure is to be
measured.
Manometer: a U-shaped tube partially filled with a liquid of known density.
When the ends of tube are exposed to different pressures, the fluid level drops
in the high-pressure arm and rises in the low pressure arm. The difference
between the pressures can be calculated from the measured difference between
the liquid levels in each arm.
Archimedes’ Principle

When an object is submerged in a fluid (liquid or gas), the buoyant force on

the submerged object is equal to the weight of fluid displaced by the object.

Example
A cylindrical object having a diameter of 1 foot and a length of 2 feet is
completely submerged in water, which has a density of 62.4 lbm/ft3. What is
the buoyant force exerted on this object?

1 ft.

2 ft.

Water
Solution
According to the Archimedes’ Principle, the buoyant force is equal to the
weight of the water that is displaced by the cylinder. The amount of water
displaced, however, is equal to the volume of cylinder. Therefore, we need
to calculate the weight of water that has a volume equal to the volume of the
cylinder.
Step 1: Calculate the volume of the cylinder.

D2
V H
4

Where V is the volume, D is the diameter, and H is the height of the cylinder.

(3.14)  (1) 2
V 2
4
V  1.57 ft 3

Step 2: Calculate the weight of the water that has a volume equal to 1.57 ft3.
We know that weight (force) is equal to mass multiplied by the acceleration of
gravity.

W  mg

where W is the weight of an object, m is its mass, and g is the acceleration of

gravity.
We also know that mass is equal to density multiplied by volume.

m V

where m is the mass, is the density, and V is the volume.

Therefore, we can write:

W  Vg
In this case:
  62.4 lbm / ft3

V  1.57 ft3

g  32.2 ft / sec2

Before we use the above equations, we have to remember that since we are
working in the American Engineering System, mass ( V) must be divided by
32.2.

62.4  1.57  32.2

W
32.2
W  97.97 lbs or approximately 100 lbs

 Apparent Weight
The apparent weight of an object, which is submerged in a fluid, is equal to its
real weight minus the buoyant force exerted on the object by the displaced
fluid.

Example
In the above example if the real weight of the object is 250 lbs, what is its
apparent weight when completely submerged in water?

Solution
apparent w eight  real weig ht  weight of displaced fluid
apparent w eight  250  100  150
This means that the cylinder, which has a weight of 250 lbs, weighs only
150 lbs when completely submerged in water.

Example
An object that weighs 400 lbs is completely submerged in a liquid. The
apparent weight of the object is 300 lbs. What is the specific gravity of the
object?
Solution
Specific gravity of an object is defined as the weight of a given volume of
the object divided by the weight of the SAME volume of water.
In this case, we know that the object weighs 400 lbs. Therefore, the question
is what is the weight of water with the same volume as the object?
Using Archimedes’ Principle, we know that the weight of water displaced is
the difference between the real weight of the object and its apparent weight.
In other words:

weight of water  400  300  100 lbs

400
specific gravity  4
100
Inferential Statistics

The Normal Probability Distribution

A large number of random variables observed in everyday life and nature form
a frequency distribution which is approximated by a bell-shape curve called the
normal probability distribution.

  

The equation representing a normal probability distribution is:

( x  ) 2
1 2 2
f ( x)  e
2

Where x is the value of a random variable in a population.

For example if the height of people in a given city is normally distributed,

then x in the above equation represents a given height and f(x) represents the
proportion of people with that height. Let’s assume that the height of people
in a small city of 10,000 people is normally distributed, and let’s further
assume that 500 people are 6 feet tall. This means that for a value of x equal
to 6, f(x) is equal to 500/10,000.
 In the equation representing the normal distribution,  is the population
mean and  is the population standard deviation.

Although in solving the CSP examination problems dealing with normal

distribution we do not use the above equation directly (as will be discussed
later), we do need to understand how to calculate the mean () and the
standard deviation () for a given population. These can be calculated from
the following relationships:

n
 xi
i 1

n

where n is the sample size and xi represents the values of the random variable.

n
2
 (x i  )
i 1

n1

 is called the standard deviation and 2 is called the variance of the sample
distribution.

Example 1
Calculate the mean and the standard deviation for the following sample of
x’s:

xi xi (xi )2
 3 1.33 1.77
5 0.67 0.45
2 -2.33 5.43
7 2.67 7.13
6 1.67 2.79
3 -1.33 1.77

= 4.33 sum=19.34

our sample size is 6, we can write:

19.34
standard deviation   
61

or

 = 1.966.

Characteristics of the Normal Probability Distribution

1. The area under the normal probability distribution curve between two values x1
and x2 represents the probability that a randomly selected value would fall
between x1 and x2. For example, the shaded area under the curve in the
 following diagram is the probability that a randomly selected variable would
fall between x1 and x2.

x1 x2

2. The area under the normal probability curve represents probability. The
maximum value that a probability function can assume is 1 (which means the
event will certainly happen). Therefore, the total area under the normal
probability distribution curve is equal to 1.

Area=1
3. The normal probability distribution curve is symmetrical around its mean. This
indicates that half of the total area under the curve (0.5) is to the right of the
mean and the other half is to the left of the mean.

0.5 0.5


(mean)

4. The shape of the normal distribution is determined by the value of its standard
deviation. Large values of standard deviation reduce the height of the curve
and increase its spread while small values of standard deviation increase the
height of the curve and decrease its spread.

Small value of Standard Deviation

Large value of Standard Deviation

5. Approximately 68% of the area under the normal distribution curve lies within
 one standard deviation of the mean. About 95% of the area under the curve
falls within  two standard deviations of the mean and almost all within  three
standard deviations of the mean.

68% of total area

  

95% of total area

  
 >99% of total area

  

Types of Problems Dealing With the Normal Probability

Distribution
 One type of problem dealing with normal probability distribution is to find
the probability that a randomly selected variable from the population (with
known values of mean and standard deviation) assumes a value between x1
and x2.

In order to solve this type of problem we proceed as follows:

Step 1:
Calculate the value of Z1 from

x1  
Z1 


Step 2:
Calculate the value of Z2 from

x2  
Z2 

Step 3:
Table 3 (below): which is the table of areas for the normal probability
distribution provides the areas (probabilities) under the curve between Z = 0
and a given value of Z1.
Important Note: The areas under the normal distribution curve listed in
Table 3 are the areas under the curve between Z = 0 and a given value of Z1.

Z=0 Z1

Obtain the area between Z = 0, Z1 and Z2 from Table 3. This table will be
provided by the BCSP at the time of the examination.

Step 4:
Since for the problem at hand we are interested in the area under the curve
between Z1 and Z2, subtract the area obtained for Z1 from that obtained for
Z2 if both Z1 and Z2 are positive or they are both negative. This value
represents the area under the curve between Z1 and Z2 or the probability that
a randomly selected variable would assume a value between x1 and x 2
(remember Z1 and Z2 were calculated form x 1 and x 2). If Z1 and Z2 have
opposite signs (i.e.: one is positive and the other is negative) add the areas
obtained for Z1 and Z2. Due to symmetry, the area for a negative value of Z1
is the same as the positive value of Z1 except that a negative Z1 has its area
to the left of Z = 0.
Example 2
A population is normally distributed with a mean of 50 and a standard
deviation of 10. What is the probability that a randomly selected variable
from this population falls between 35 and 40?

Step 1:

35  50
Z1 =  15
.
10

Step 2:

40  50
Z2 =  10
.
10

Step 3:
From Table 3, the area between Z = 0 and Z1 = 1.5 is 0.4332 and the area
between Z = 0 and Z2 = 1.0 is 0.3413. Therefore the area under the curve
between above values of Z1 and Z2 is:

0.4332  0.3413 = 0.0919

or the probability that a randomly selected variable from this population falls
between 35 and 40 is 0.0919 or 9.19 per cent. This problem can be
demonstrated graphically as follows.
 35 40 =50

 Another type of problem dealing with normal probability distribution is to

find the probability that a randomly selected variable would assume a value
larger or smaller than a given value x1. In order to solve this type of
problem, we proceed as follows:

Step 1:
Calculate the value of Z1 from

x1  
Z1 = .


Step 2:
If Z1 has a positive value two situations may arise:
1. The problem asks for probability of a randomly selected variable being
greater than Z1. In this case subtract the area obtained from 0.5
2. Probability of a randomly selected variable being smaller than Z1. Add
0.5 to the area obtained from the table.

If Z1 has a negative value:

1. For probability of the random variable being greater than Z1, add 0.5 to
the area obtained from the table.
2. For probability of random variable being smaller than Z1, subtract the
area obtained form 0.5.
Example 3
For a population with a mean of 200 and a standard deviation of 30, what is
the probability that a randomly selected variable assumes a value less than
250?

Solution

250  200
Z1 =  166
.
30

From the table of normal distribution (Table 3) the area between Z0 and Z1 =
1.66 is 0.4515. Therefore, the probability that a randomly selected variable
from this population assumes a value less than250 is 0.5 plus 0.4515 or
95.15 per cent.
Example 4
A population has a mean of 500 and a standard deviation of 50. What is the
probability that a randomly selected variable from this population has a
value larger than 600?
Solution

600  500
Z1 =  2.0
50

From the table of normal distribution the area between Z0 and Z1 = 2.0 is
0.4772. However, for this problem we need the area to the right of Z1 which
is:

0.5 – 0.4772 = 0.0228

which means that the probability that a randomly selected variable has a
value larger than 600 is 0.0228 or 2.28 percent.
 How to use Table 3:

The left column lists values of Z with one decimal point. The second
decimal for Z is selected from the top row. For example, the area between Z
= 0 and Z1 =1.23 is equal to 0.3907.

z 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

0.0 .0000 .0040 .0080 .0120 .0160 .0199 .0239 .0279 .0319 .0359
0.1 .0398 .0438 .0478 .0517 .0557 .0596 .0636 .0675 .0714 .0754
0.2 .0793 .0832 .0871 .0910 .0948 .0987 .1026 .1064 .1103 .1141
0.3 .1179 .1217 .1255 .1293 .1331 .1368 .1406 .1443 .1480 .1517

0.4 .1554 .1591 .1628 .1664 .1700 .1736 .1772 .1808 .1844 .1879
0.5 .1915 .1950 .1985 .2019 .2054 .2088 .2123 .2157 .2190 .2224
0.6 .2258 .2291 .2324 .2357 .2389 .2422 .2454 .2486 .2518 .2549
0.7 .2580 .2612 .2652 .2673 .2704 .2734 .2764 .2794 .2823 .2852

0.8 .2881 .2910 .2939 .2967 .2996 .3023 .3051 .3078 .3106 .3133
0.9 .3159 .3186 .3212 .3238 .3264 .3289 .3315 .3340 .3365 .3389
1.0 .3413 .3438 .3461 .3485 .3508 .3531 .3554 .3577 .3599 .3621
1.1 .3643 .3665 .3686 .3708 .3729 .3749 .3770 .3790 .3810 .3830
1.2 .3849 .3869 .3888 .3907 .3925 .3944 .3962 .3980 .3997 .4015

1.3 .4032 .4049 .4066 .4082 .4099 .4115 .4131 .4147 .4162 .4177
1.4 .4192 .4207 .4222 .4236 .4251 .4265 .4279 .4292 .4306 .4319
1.5 .4332 .4345 .4357 .4370 .4382 .4394 .4406 .4418 .4429 .4441
1.6 .4452 .4463 .4474 .4484 .4495 .4505 .4515 .4525 .4535 .4545
1.7 .4554 .4564 .4573 .4582 .4591 .4599 .4608 .4616 .4625 .4633

1.8 .4641 .4649 .4656 .4664 .4671 .4678 .4686 .4693 .4699 .4706
1.9 .4713 .4719 .4726 .4732 .4738 .4744 .4750 .4756 .4761 .4767
2.0 .4772 .4778 .4783 .4788 .4793 .4798 .4803 .4808 .4812 .4817
2.1 .4821 .4826 .4830 .4834 .4838 .4842 .4846 .4850 .4854 .4857
2.2 .4861 .4864 .4868 .4871 .4875 .4878 .4881 .4884 .4887 .4890
2.3 .4893 .4896 .4898 .4901 .4904 .4906 .4909 .4911 .4913 .4916
2.4 .4918 .4920 .4922 .4925 .4927 .4929 .4931 .4932 .4934 .4936

2.5 .4938 .4940 .4941 .4943 .4945 .4946 .4948 .4949 .4951 .4952
2.6 .4953 .4955 .4956 .4957 .4959 .4960 .4961 .4962 .4963 .4964
2.7 .4965 .4966 .4967 .4968 .4969 .4970 .4971 .4972 .4973 .4974
2.8 .4974 .4975 .4976 .4977 .4977 .4978 .4979 .4979 .4980 .4981
2.9 .4981 .4982 .4982 .4983 .4984 .4984 .4985 .4985 .4986 .4986

3.0 .4987 .4987 .4987 .4988 .4988 .4989 .4989 .4989 .4990 .4990

Table 3. Table of The Normal Distribution; source: BCSP Candidate Handbook

Set Theory, Probability and Statistics
Definitions and Concepts

 Sample space
A set of ALL possible outcomes of an experiment. For example the sample
space for the experiment tossing a coin is the set of all possible outcomes
shown as {head, tail}. This sample space has 2 elements. By the same token,
the sample space for the experiment rolling a die is the set of all possible
outcomes of the experiment, which is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. This sample space has 6
elements.

Example
What is the sample space for the experiment drawing a card from a deck of 52
cards?

Solution
Once again a sample space is the set of all possible outcomes of the
experiment. In this case, there are 52 possibilities, and therefore, the sample
space has 52 elements.

Example
Suppose a government agency must decide where to locate three new nuclear
research laboratories, and that (for a certain purpose) it is of interest only how
many of these facilities will be located in Colorado.

Solution
The set of all possible outcomes is {0, 1, 2, 3} which means that none, one,
two or three of the research facilities may be located in Colorado. This
sample space has four elements and can be shown graphically as follows:

0 1 2 3

Sample Space
 Selecting elements
If sets M1, M2,..., Mk contain, respectively N1, N2,...,Nk elements, there are N1 
N2... Nk ways of selecting first an element from M1, then an element from
M2,..., and finally an element from Mk. In other words, the sample space for
 selecting first an element from M1, then an element form M2,…, and finally an
element from Mk has N1  N2  …  Nk elements.

Example
In an oil company the list of candidates for the President and Vice President has
been narrowed down to 15. In how many different ways a President and a Vice
President can be elected from the set of these 15 candidates?

Solution
The set for electing a president has 15 elements. However, once a President
has been elected, there are only 14 candidates remaining for Vice President.
Therefore, the set for the Vice President has 14 elements. Therefore, the
number of different ways this election can be carried out is:
15  14  210
In other words, the sample space for this election has 210 possible outcomes.

 Events
Probabilities are always associated with occurrence or nonoccurrence of events;
such as getting one head in four flips of a coin. Events can be considered as a
subset of a sample space. For example, if we are interested in the event of
getting a 6 in rolling one die, our sample space has 6 elements {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6},
and the event of interest (getting a 6) is a subset of this sample space with one
element {6}.
 Example
If we are interested in the event drawing an ace of hearts from a deck of 52
cards, how many elements our event set has? How about our sample space?

Solution
Our sample space has 52 elements (the set of all possible outcomes), and our
event set has only one element {ace of hearts}.

 Mutually exclusive events

When there are no common elements among events (see Figure 2).

sample space

Figure 2. Sample space and mutually exclusive

events.

In the above figure, there are no common elements between events A and B,
and therefore, they are mutually exclusive events.
In other words two events are considered to be mutually exclusive if WHEN
ONE EVENT OCCURS, THE OTHER CAN NOT OCCUR, AND VICE
VERSA. Two mutually exclusive events can not occur simultaneously.

Example
Let A and B represent two events in rolling a die
A: {to get an odd number} i.e. {1, 3, 5}
B: {to get an even number} i.e. {2, 4, 6}
 The two events A and B described above are said to be mutually exclusive
because in one roll of a die we can only get either an even or an odd number but
not both. If event A happens, B cannot happen and vice versa

Simple Events
An event that can not be decomposed is called a simple event.

Example
In order to more clearly understand the above definition, let’s go back to our
experiment of rolling a die. Let’s further consider the following events:
A1: {getting an odd number}, i.e., {1, 3, 5}
A2: {getting an even number}, i.e., {2, 4, 6}
A3: observing a 1, i.e., {1}
A4: {2}
A5: {3}
A6: {4}
A7: {5}
A8: {6}
In this example we notice that there is a difference between events A1, A2 and
events A3 through A8. Event A1 (getting an odd number) occurs if any of the
events A3 (getting a 1), A5 (getting a 3), or A7 (getting a 5) occur. Therefore, we
can decompose event A1 into simple events A3, A5, and A7. Similarly, event A2
(getting an even number) can be decomposed into simple events A4, A6, and A8.

 Independent Events
Two or more events are said to be independent of each other if the occurrence
(or non-occurrence) of one has no effect on the occurrence or non-occurrence of
the others.

Example
Consider tossing a coin and rolling a die. The events getting a head on the coin
and number 3 on the die are independent of each other because the occurrence
(or non-occurrence) of one event has no effect on the occurrence (or non-
occurrence) of the other event.
 Probability
Now that we are familiar with fundamentals of set theory, and have defined
events and various types of events in a given sample space, we can talk about
the probability of one or more events.
The probability associated with an event is a measure of belief that the event
will occur on the next repetition of the experiment. For example when we say
that the probability of getting head in one toss of a coin is ½ (0.5 or 50 percent),
what we are really saying is that there is a 50 percent chance that the next toss
of a coin will be a head.

Given a finite sample space S and an event A in that sample space we can say:
1. The probability of event A is a number between zero and 1. Zero means that
event A can not happen and a probability of 1 means that event A will
certainly happen.
2. The probability of sample space (set of ALL possible outcomes of an
experiment) is 1.
If we show probability of event A with P(A), and probability of the sample
space with P(S), we can write:

0  P A  1
PS   1
 Calculation of Probabilities of Events in a Sample Space
The probability of an event A in a finite sample space is equal to the number of
simple events in A (see definition of simple events discussed earlier) divided by
the total number of simple events in the sample space. Note that we are making
the assumption that all simple events in the sample space have the same
probability of occurrence.

Example
What is the probability of getting a head in one flip of a coin?

Solution
First we have to find out how many simple events our sample space has.
Remember that sample space, by definition, is the set of all possible
outcomes of an experiment. In this case, our sample space S has only 2
elements:
S: {head, tail}
Next we have to find out how many simple events there are in our event of
interest. In this case our event of interest (head) has only one element:
A: {head}

Probability Number of simple events in event A

=
of event A Number of simple events in sample space

In this case
Probability of
getting a head
=  = 0.5 or 50 percent
Example
What is the probability of drawing a 4 out of a 52 card deck?

Solution
Once again we have to find out how many simple events our sample space
and the event of our interest have. Our sample space, in this case, is
comprised of 52 simple events, and our event of interest is comprised of 4
simple events (there are four 4’s in a deck of cards). Therefore, we can say:
Probability of 4
  0.077 or 7.7 percent
drawing a 4 52

Example
What is the probability of getting an even number in one roll of a die?

Solution
Our sample space S is comprised of 6 simple events (because there are only
6 numbers on a die). The event of getting an even number is comprised of 3
simple events (2, 4, 6). Therefore, we can say:

Probability of 3 1
getting an    0.5 or 50 percent
even number 6 2

Example
What is the probability of drawing a king OR an ace from a deck of cards?
 Solution
There are 4 kings and 4 aces in a deck of cards. Therefore, the event of
interest to us (drawing an ace or a king) is made of 8 simple events. Our
sample space, on the other had, is made of 52 simple events. The probability
in this case is:

8
 0 .154 or 15 .4 percent
52

 Calculation of Probabilities of Mutually Exclusive Events

Once again, remember that two events are said to be mutually exclusive if,
when one event occurs, the other can not, and vice versa. For example the
events getting an even number and the event getting an odd number in one roll
of a die are mutually exclusive.

Axiom
If A and B are two mutually exclusive events, the probability of either A or
B occurring is the SUM of the probabilities of A and B.

Example
If the proportion of voters favoring legislation is 0.38, and the proportion of
voters who are undecided is 0.22, what is the proportion of voters who are
either in favor of the legislation or undecided?

Solution
In this case, the two events are mutually exclusive. Because a voter can not
be in favor of the legislation and, at the same time, be undecided. The
probabilities are additive.
0.38 + 0.22 = 0.60
 Example
What is the probability of getting 1 or 6 in one roll of a die?

Solution
These two events are mutually exclusive because if we get 1 we can not get
6 and vice versa. The probabilities, in this case, are additive. The probability
of getting 1 is  (sample space has 6 elements, and the event has only one
element). Similarly, the probability of getting 6 is . Therefore, the
probability of getting 1 or 6 is:
1 1 2 1
    0.33 or 33 percent
6 6 6 3

Example
What is the probability of drawing an ace of hearts or a king of spades or a 4 of
diamonds from a 52 deck of cards?

Solution
These events are obviously mutually exclusive because if one event occurs,
the other events can not occur. The probabilities are, therefore, additive. In
this case the probability is:

1 1 1 3
    0.05 or 5 percent
52 52 52 52

 Calculation of Probabilities of Independent Events

Definition
Two events are said to be independent if the occurrence or non-occurrence of
one event has no effect on the outcome of the other event.

Example
If we roll a pair of dice and the events of our interest are getting 1 on one die
and 6 on the other die, we have two independent events; because getting (or not
getting) 1 on the first die has no effect on getting (or not getting) 6 on the
second die.
Example
If we draw two cards from two separate decks of cards and our event of interest
is getting two aces, we have two independent events; because getting an ace
from the first deck of cards has no effect on getting an ace from the second deck
of cards.

Axiom
If A and B are two independent events, the probability of both events
occurring is the product of probabilities of events A and B. if we show
probability of A with P(A) and probability of B with P(B), the probability
of A and B occurring is:
P(A) P(B)
Example
What is the probability that two cards drawn from two separate decks of cards
are both aces?

Solution
The events getting an ace from the first deck and an ace from the second
deck are independent. Let’s focus on the first deck of cards. Our sample
space has 52 elements and our event has 4 elements (there are 4 aces in a
deck of cards). The probability of drawing an ace from the first deck is:
4
52
 Similarly, the probability of drawing an ace from the second deck is:
4
52
Since these two events are independent, the probability that both cards are
aces is:
4 4
  0.0059 or 0.6 percent
52 52
A probability of 0.5 percent means that we should expect the event to occur
0.5 times in 100 tries or 1 time in 200 tries. In other words, the result
obtained above means that if we draw 200 times from two separate decks of
cards, we could EXPECT that one of these draws would be two aces.

Example
What is the probability of tossing a coin 4 times and getting 4 tails in a row?

Solution
Getting a head or tail on each toss of a coin comprise independent events.
For each toss of a coin our sample space has 2 elements and our event
(getting a tail) has only one element. Therefore, the provability of getting a
tail 4 times in a row is:
1 1 1 1 1
     0.06 or 6 percent
2 2 2 2 16
Example
An oil company has four plants in geographically different locations. Each
facility has a chlorine tank. The probabilities of release of chlorine into the
atmosphere at each facility in a given year are as follows:
6
Facility 1: 1  10 (or 1 chance in a million)
Facility 2: 1  107
Facility 3: 1  108
Facility 4: 1  105
What is the probability that all four facilities would have a release of chlorine in
a given year?

Solution
Here we are dealing with 4 independent events. The probability is:

1  10   1  10   1  10   1  10   1  10
6 7 8 5 26

(indeed a very very small number)

 Mean, median, range, and standard deviations
 Mean The arithmetic mean is the sum of all individual values in a sample
divided by the number of values

 Yi
i 1
Y 
n

Example
What is the mean of the following set of data?
Yi : 3,4,2,6,1,2
Solution
n=6

3  4  2  6  1 2
Y 
6
Y 3

 Median The median is the middle point, where half of the values fall above
and half of the values fall below that point.

Example
What is the median of the following set of data?

Yi : 5,4,6,7,9

Solution
Half of the values (5 and 4) fall below and half of the values (7 and 9) fall
above number 6. The median is 6.
 Range The range is the difference between the high and low values of a data
set.

Example
What is the range of the following data set?
Yi : 2,17,19,25,18
Solution
Range = 25  2 = 23.

 Standard Deviation The standard deviation is a measure of data dispersion.

Larger values of standard deviation indicate more dispersion of sample data
around the mean.

 Y Y 
2
i
i 1
S
n 1

Where:
S = standard deviation
Yi = individual values
_
Y = arithmetic mean
n = sample size
 Variance The square of the standard deviation is called the variance.

n 2

2
 Y
i 1
i
Y 
S 
n 1

Example
Calculate the standard deviation of the following set of data:

Yi : 5,6,9,3,5,2
Solution
Calculate and fill the table below:

Yi Yi - Y (Yi - Y )2
5 0 0
6 1 1
9 4 16
3 -2 4
5 0 0
2 -3 9
2
Y5  Y  Y
i  30

30
S or S  2.45
6 1
Pearson Coefficient of Correlation (r)
The Pearson Coefficient of Correlation is the most common measure of correlation
between two variables. It has a value between –1.0 and + 1.0. A value of r close
to –1.0 indicates a strong negative relationship between the two variables. The
negative relation ship means that the two variables are inversely proportional to
each other. In other words, a value of r close to –1.0 indicates that as the value of
one variable increases, the value of the other variable decreases. A value of r close
to +1.0 indicates a strong positive correlation between the two variables. This
means that the value of dependent variable increases with an increase in the value
of the independent variable. A value of r close to 0.0 indicates that there is no
correlation between the two variables.
Structural Hazards
In many safety engineering problems, it becomes necessary to calculate the
stress in cables or wires that are supporting a load. In solving these types of
problems, we use the basic principle that since the system is stationary (not
moving):

The algebraic sum of all forces in the horizontal direction as well as the
sum forces in the vertical direction must be equal to zero.

Example
A two-leg support is supporting a weight of 5000 lbs. The angle of the load
with each leg of support is 30 degrees. What is the stress in each leg of
support?

Solution

Let’s show the stress in each leg of support with T.

The vertical component of the stress in each leg of support is

T cos 30

Since the support has two legs, the total vertical component of stress is

2 T cos 30
 Since the support is stationary (not moving) the algebraic sum of all forces in
the vertical direction must be zero.

W  2 T cos 30  0
5000  2  0.866 T
5000
T
2  0.866
T  2887 lbs
Note: We used a negative value for the vertical component of stresses
because these forces are in the opposite direction as compared to the load.

Example
A cable is supporting a load of 10,000 lbs at its midpoint as shown in Figure 2.
Assuming that each side of the cable makes an angle of 15 degrees with the
horizontal, calculate the stress in lines AC and BC.

Figure 2 Stress in cables.

Solution
Due to symmetry, the stresses in lines AC and BC are equal. Let’s denote
the stress in each line by T.
Since the sum of all three angles of any triangle must equal 180 degrees, the
value of angle C in the above diagram is 150 degrees.
Let’s construct the following diagram by drawing a perpendicular line from
point C to line AB. Note that this perpendicular line divides angle C into
two equal angles due to symmetry (75 degrees each).
Now line CD represents our 10,000 lbs vertical load, lines BC and AC
represent the stresses on each side of the cable.
Since the structure is stationary, the sum of all forces in the vertical direction
must equal zero. The vertical component of the stress in line BC is:

T cos 75

Similarly, the vertical component of the stress in line AC is:

T cos 75

Therefore, the vertical component of the stress from both lines is:

2T cos 75

Our load is 10,000 (in the vertical direction) and is in opposite direction to
the stresses. Therefore, we can write:

10,000  2 T cos 75  0
or
10,000
T
2 cos 75
T  19318 lbs
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