Introduction

Vocabulary is an important component in language teaching/ learning and also in

learning a second language (L2). Schmitt (2010:65) explains that students of L2
proved the significance of vocabulary, because they always seem with dictionaries not
grammar books in the classrooms. According to Nation (2001:90) "the relationship
between vocabulary knowledge and language use as complementary: knowledge of
vocabulary enables language use and, conversely, language use leads to increase in
vocabulary knowledge. Lewis (1997:62) states that the main difference between
students' level in languages learning (e.g. intermediate, advanced,…etc.) based on
how vocabulary that students have not how grammatical ruled they master. Biemiller
(2003:29) says that students'' knowledge of vocabulary may help them to success, but
surely the lack of this component can lead them to fail. Moreover, instructors of
teaching and learning language agree that the ability of students' understanding to a
text based on how vocabulary has in their knowledge to elicit the meaning of the text
Baker etal; 1988). They (ibid.) explain that simply, the process of comprehending a
text depends on understanding its vocabulary. They also support that by giving the
following example: Olives grow in Mediterranean climate. The students will not focus
on understanding the grammatical structures of this sentence, but their focus will be
centered on comprehending the meaning of olives, Mediterranean and climate. This
paper has shown that vocabulary is essential in teaching/learning any language. The
students initially rely heavily on building their vocabulary knowledge and the lack of
this knowledge is the main obstacle that requires much work to overcome.

Literature Review

There is always a critical concept of vocabulary knowledge for students of L2,

because students can create a successful communication with a limit of vocabulary
This review surveys research on second language vocabulary teaching
and learning since 1999. It first considers the distinction between
incidental and intentional vocabulary learning. Although learners
certainly acquire word knowledge incidentally while engaged in various
language learning activities, more direct and systematic study of
vocabulary is also required. There is a discussion of how word frequency
counts and information on word meaning from computer corpora can
inform the selection of words to be studied, with a particular focus on
spoken vocabulary. This leads to a consideration of learner dictionaries
and some research evidence on how effectively students can use them
to understand the meanings of words. Then classroom research on
teaching vocabulary is discussed. Another significant topic is the design
of computer-based language learning programs to enhance
opportunities for learners to expand their vocabulary knowledge. Finally,
a summary of recent work on vocabulary testing is presented.

Words Spoken and Written

The complex relationship between spoken word and written word was
recognized and commented on in the first century CE Mediterranean
world. Quintilian observed that writing, reading, and speaking “are so
intimately and inseparably connected that if one of them be neglected,
we shall waste the labour which we have devoted to the others”
(Institutio oratoria X. 1.2, from Butler 1980). Theon similarly encouraged
the young rhetor both to listen to written words read well and develop
skill at crafting spoken words through the practice of writing words
(Progymnasmata, in Kennedy 2003:5-6). These comments, of course, are
addressed to orators, members of the social and literary elite, whose
goal is to attain eloquence in speaking. Nonetheless, they suggest that
when we encounter a written text, such as the Second Testament, it is
important to consider how these written words stand in relation to
spoken words, and what this relationship may tell us about how both
written and spoken words are perceived, encountered, and employed.

Illustrations of the close relationship between written and spoken words

are found within the Second Testament itself. Written texts “speak”:
“Now we know that whatever the law says [λέγω]...itspeaks [λαλέω] so
that every mouth might be silenced” (Rom 3:19).1 Reading is not a silent
activity, but a re-oralization of written words: “Philip, running up [to the
chariot] heard him reading . . .” (Acts 8:30; see also Rev 1:3). Spoken
word is employed to corroborate written word: “Therefore we have sent
Judas and Silas who themselves by word of mouth will announce the
same things [written in this letter]” (Acts 8:17). In these examples, the
boundary between written and spoken words is porous. The written
word is perceived as having voice, a voice that is vocalized in the act of
reading. Yet it is a voice that is dependent on living voices in order to
assume agency, which is demonstrated by the third example.2 This
suggests that written word is perceived as being, more or less, an
extension of spoken word. Additional examples of this complex
relationship between written and spoken word are found in Luke-Acts:
for example, writing on a tablet (πινακίδιον) is substituted for the voice
(Luke 1:63) while letters are written in the absence of physical presence
(ἐπιστέλλω; ἐπιστολή [Acts 15:20, 30; 21:25; 23:25, 33]).

A significant collection of papers edited by Wesche and Paribakht (1999)

gives a good overview of the research findings and issues, including a

representative

set of research reports on incidental learning of words in a second

language from

both written and spoken input. More recent studies involving reading
tasks include
those by Swanborn and de Glopper (2002), who showed that incidental
learning of

words was influenced by the readers’ purpose and level of reading

ability, and by

Pulido (2003), who also found a significant effect for reader ability, as
well as for

topic familiarity and passive sight vocabulary. In the case of spoken

input, Vidal

(2003) showed that university students in Spain retained knowledge of a

small but

significant number of words one month after listening to videotaped

lectures in

English. The words more likely to be retained included technical terms

that were

central to comprehending the lecture topic and words that were

explicitly elaborated

by the lecturer by means of naming, definition, or description.

486020605Vocabulary development is a critical aspect of teaching,

especially in classes or schools with high populations of English Learners.
Differentiating between the types of vocabulary can help teachers
decide how much effort to put into teaching particular vocabulary
words, as well as which strategies will be most effective when teaching
the words. In today’s post, we will discuss the three types of vocabulary
identified by DataWORKS, briefly discuss different methods for
introducing the types of vocabulary to students, and compare them to
.the classifications made by the Common Core State Standards
 DataWORKS’ Types of Vocabulary

Academic Vocabulary

Academic Vocabulary can be defined as words that are not tied to any
particular course or content area. These are words that students may be
exposed to during any subject or class, whether it is math or social
science. Typically, these are words that regularly appear in academic
texts and tests, but DataWORKS has found that they are not often
explicitly taught. Academic Vocabulary words often show up as the skill
words in Learning Objectives, but can occur at any point during a lesson
as well. Because of this, it is most effective to teach Academic
.Vocabulary words as they arise, within the context of a lesson

Examples

consist, constitute, distribute, establish, indicate, occur, significant,

recognize, respond

Content Vocabulary
 Contrasted with Academic Vocabulary, Content Vocabulary includes
words that are specific to a given domain or subject area, rarely being
found outside of their particular content area. Often, these words can be
found directly in the content standards and are present as the concept
words (typically nouns) in a Learning Objective. Content Vocabulary
words are addressed extensively in the Concept Development of a
lesson, through the use of clear definitions, examples, and Checking For
Understanding questions, as these words and terms are frequently the
.foundation of a lesson

Examples

affixes, dialogue, exponents, circumference, cellular respiration,

photosynthesis, legislature

Support Vocabulary

The third, and final, type of vocabulary (as identified by DataWORKS) is

Support Vocabulary. Support Vocabulary consists of any remaining
words that ELs (and all other students) need to know in order to
understand a particular sentence or phrase used in a lesson. Support
Vocabulary words are unrelated to grade-level concepts and skills and
can typically be found in reading passages or text. These words are often
not critical for the success of the lesson, so little time needs to be spent
 on teaching Support Vocabulary beyond ensuring that the students
.understand any meaning in the context of the lesson

Examples

starboard, attic, marbled, invested, stocks, calorimeter, galleon, hostler

Common Core Types of Vocabulary

Similarly, the Common Core State Standards classify vocabulary into

.three categories: Tier One, Tier Two, and Tier Three words

Tier One

Tier One words consist of everyday speech, which CCSS notes will not
present a challenge to native English speakers, though attention to Tier
One words may be necessary for English Learners. Regardless of the
student population, Tier One words are not meant to be the focus of
.instruction, as they are often acquired though regular speech

Tier Two
Academic vocabulary

Tier Two words are referred to in the standards as “general academic

words.” Tier Two words closely parallel the DataWORKS category of
Academic Vocabulary. Because of their importance in comprehending
complex texts and wide applicability to all content areas, CCSS notes that
teProductive and receptive knowledge

The first major change distinction that must be made when evaluating
word knowledge is whether the knowledge is productive (also called
achieve) or receptive (also called receive); even within those opposing
categories, there is often no clear distinction. Words that are generally
understood when heard or read or seen constitute a person's receptive
vocabulary. These words may range from well-known to barely known
(see degree of knowledge below). A person's receptive vocabulary is
usually the larger of the two. For example, although a young child may
not yet be able to speak, write, or sign, he or she may be able to follow
simple commands and appear to understand a good portion of the
language to which they are exposed. In this case, the child's receptive
vocabulary is likely tens, if not hundreds of words, but his or her active
vocabulary is zero. When that child learns to speak or sign, however, the
child's active vocabulary begins to increase. It is also possible for the
productive vocabulary to be larger than the receptive vocabulary, for
example in a second-language learner who has learned words through
study rather than exposure, and can produce them, but has difficulty
.recognizing them in conversation

Productive vocabulary, therefore, generally refers to words that can be

produced within an appropriate context and match the intended
meaning of the speaker or signer. As with receptive vocabulary,
however, there are many degrees at which a particular word may be
considered part of an active vocabulary. Knowing how to pronounce,
sign, or write a word does not necessarily mean that the word that has
been used correctly or accurately reflects the intended message; but it
.does reflect a minimal amount of productive knowledge
 Productive and receptive knowledge

The first major change distinction that must be made when evaluating
word knowledge is whether the knowledge is productive (also called
achieve) or receptive (also called receive); even within those opposing
categories, there is often no clear distinction. Words that are generally
understood when heard or read or seen constitute a person's receptive
vocabulary. These words may range from well-known to barely known
(see degree of knowledge below). A person's receptive vocabulary is
usually the larger of the two. For example, although a young child may
not yet be able to speak, write, or sign, he or she may be able to follow
simple commands and appear to understand a good portion of the
language to which they are exposed. In this case, the child's receptive
vocabulary is likely tens, if not hundreds of words, but his or her active
vocabulary is zero. When that child learns to speak or sign, however, the
child's active vocabulary begins to increase. It is also possible for the
productive vocabulary to be larger than the receptive vocabulary, for
example in a second-language learner who has learned words through
study rather than exposure, and can produce them, but has difficulty
.recognizing them in conversation

Productive vocabulary, therefore, generally refers to words that can be

produced within an appropriate context and match the intended
meaning of the speaker or signer. As with receptive vocabulary,
however, there are many degrees at which a particular word may be
considered part of an active vocabulary. Knowing how to pronounce,
sign, or write a word does not necessarily mean that the word that has
been used correctly or accurately reflects the intended message; but it
.does reflect a minimal amount of productive knowledge

aching Tier Two words is critical throughout all grades and subjects.