Stylistics

Types of sentences:
Major sentences:
1. Simple sentences: I looked for Mary and Samantha at the bus station. The team won the game at the
tournament. The music is too loud for my ears.
2. Compound sentences: I think I will buy the red car, or I will lease the blue one. I'm afraid those days are
gone and they'll never come again.
3. Complex sentences: While he waited at the train station, Joe realized that the train was late. He wasn't
allowed to go to the party until he did his chores.
4. Mixed sentences: We wanted to leave in the morning, but Mark convinced us to leave in the evening if we
can get everyone ready.

Minor sentences:
1. A subordinate SP(CS) structure: Drink water. Because it’s good for you.
2. An element of a clause (S, P, C, A, Voc.):
P working, C sorry, A some time
3. A combination of elements of a clause other than those in major sentences
SC everything all right, you ready
PC didn’t get that
PA working now, am not listening now/at the moment
AA in the morning in front of my building
4. Non-finite constructions:
to see a manager, reading books, published in 1975, etc.

1. The language of conversation

Main features of this variety are: informality, spontaneity, casualness, conciseness, etc. It is
unpremeditated stretch of speech usually in the form of a dialogue.

Stylistic analysis
I Inter-sentence relationships
A lot of broken utterances.
At the beginning of a conversation sentences tend to be shorter, and longer toward its end.
A sequence of short utterances within one long sentence.

II Sentence typology and structure

Short simple sentences are frequent in this variety. If they are made complex, it is usually with additional
adverbials. Minor sentences are also very dominant as response utterances.
Interrogative sentences are frequent.
Different grammatical modes of reference are discussed here: reported speech, passive, conditional sentences,
etc.

III Clause typology and structure

Vocatives are quite common, especially in initial position. It is important to note the order of the clause
elements, if inversion is present.
Describe the adverbials, their form (prepositional phrases, adverbial phrases, subordinate clauses, etc.) and
position.

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IV Group typology and structure
Noun and verb phrases are simple. NPs are usually realized by 1st and 2nd person pronouns.
VPs usually consist of one lexical verb or eventually one auxiliary verb and a lexical verb. A whole range of
tenses is possible. Contracted forms are the main feature of this variety.

V Word typology and structure

Words are simple in structure, lexemes are neutral. Special terms and formal phraseology are generally avoided
here. Frequent filler words/phrases: I see, I mean, right, like, well, yes, okay, um, er, ah…
Lexical hyperbole: scared to death. Some euphemisms, phrasal verbs, puns, collocations, conversion.
Analysis of the structure of words, if there are compounds or if the newly-formed words are created with
prefixes or suffixes.

2. The language of newspaper reporting

Graphetic/graphological level
Variation at this level is of great importance in defining the distinctiveness of this kind of English; between the
beginning and the end of an article, we can find different sizes and shapes of letters, the most noticeable device
being the graphetic highlighting of the headline.
The function of headline is complex: headlines have to contain a clear, succinct and if possible intriguing
message to interest the potential reader, who is usually a person whose eye moves swiftly down a page and
stops when something catches their attention; and the main means of producing ‘eye-catching’ effects is by
making use of the whole range of graphetic contrasts.
Here we have to note the size of letters and explain it.
Paragraphing is one of the distinctive features of this variety. The way in which the narrative as a whole is split
into smaller units. The use of subheadings in the centre of the column of print is the main distinctive feature
shared by all newspaper reports of any length.
Some examples use the initial capital letter in the first paragraph. This letter is usually twice the size of the
other capitals. This is a sort of a bridge between the headline and the story.
Commas are absent from many positions where they would normally be expected. The reason is probably
avoiding disrupting the tempo of reading.
Frequent use of inverted commas used for direct/indirect quotation or to spotlight terms for particular attention.
The use of dashes is characteristic of this type of writing. It is sometimes used to link expansions of thoughts
with the main part of the sentence. This use of dash is particularly common in writing which tries to give a
general impression of informality to a piece of written utterance.

Grammatical level
I Inter-sentence relationships
Here we analyze the number and length of paragraphs. Also, the ways in which sentences link up with each
other within and between paragraphs. The first important type of sentence-linkage is to begin a sentence with a
conjunction, which then acts as a ‘bridge’ between the sentence following and the one preceding; other types
of linkage are: the definite article, the demonstratives and personal pronouns, lexical repetition and certain
kinds of adverbials. This is the normal use of these structural features as a means of backward-reference to
something which has just been mentioned.
Listing is also used.

II Sentence typology and structure

Sentences are largely statements. Occasionally there will be a question, and this must be the question which
doesn’t expect an answer, or a question which the writer himself answers.
Sometimes there is also an imperative, almost always with a complement of some kind.
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There are minor sentences functioning as exclamations, headlines or subheadings. There is a restricted range of
sentence-types which may occur as headlines, which amongst other things are idiosyncratic to this kind of
English.
A parenthetic phrase is frequently used. It can be a clause or a phrase. It tends to be fairly short and simple, in
view of the danger of losing the train of thought begun in the superordinate structure.

III Clause typology and structure

Regular word order. Subject can be in a distinctive position after verbs, such as declare, explain. Adverbials are
extremely common, but their position is interesting. Adverbials tend to come towards the end of a clause,
either after the verb or at the very end. The stylistic point to be made is that when an adverbial whose normal
position is post-verbal is brought forward from this position, anywhere near the beginning of a clause, then it
fulfills a strongly emphatic function.

IV Group typology and structure

There are distinctive characteristics in noun and verb phrases. Noun phrases: the presence of much more
complex pre- and post-modification. There is a strong tendency to use adjectives wherever it is possible, to add
detail and colour to a story. Genitive can be also found as a common pre-modifier.
Verb phrases: the Simple past tense is the dominant form. Modal verbs are frequently used. The tendency in
the popular press is to use the active voice rather than the passive. Contracted forms also occur.

V Word typology and structure

The most distinctive feature is word-formation, where there is greater inventiveness in compounding. Phrases
tend to be used as words.
The creation of new adjectival formations: hoped-for, computer-made, weather-conscious. Many of these
adjective+noun phrases function almost as compound nouns. This contributes towards the descriptive precision
of the article.
The vocabulary is deliberately emphatic. There is a certain amount of informality. Idioms, word play,
colloquialisms are quite frequent.

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3. The language of legal documents
Graphetic/Graphological level
Blocks of print are arranged so as to reveal the sections into which the content is organized.
This variety uses special characters, indentation, spacing.
Words and phrases with which all the sections begin are in capital letters.
Initial capitalization is used to dignify certain lexical items, such as various persons referred to in the text, parts
of the document itself, certain institutions, legal bodies, etc.
Punctuation is usually restricted to final periods/full stops and colons.

Grammatical level
I Inter-sentence relationships
Legal sentences are usually self-contained units which convey all the sense that has to be conveyed and don’t
need to be linked closely to what follows or precedes. The only form of linking is the repetition of lexical items
of which there is a great deal of examples. This is to be expected in this variety as it is concerned with
exactness of reference.
Its distinctiveness can be seen in the fact that it lacks pronoun reference.

II Sentence typology and structure

Legal English contains only complete major sentences. If there are any minor sentences, they are usually in the
function of paragraph introduction or title, or contract subheadings, etc.
Most sentences are statements, no interrogatives and commands occur occasionally.
Sentences are usually of the structure: ‘If X, then Z shall be Y.’ or ‘If X, then Z shall do Y.’ There are many
variations, but in nearly all of them the ‘If X’ component is essential; every action or requirement, from legal
point of view, is hedged around with and even depends upon, a set of conditions which must be satisfied before
anything at all can happen.
Legal sentences are almost always complex (conditional sentences).
It is perhaps the adverbials which contribute most to the distinctive quality of the sentences.

III Clause typology and structure

Sentences are long and complex.
Subject and complements are rarely realized by pronouns.
All clauses are likely to contain adverbials, so the most notable feature could be the frequency of adverbials,
and also the variety of positions that they adopt.
We take full advantage of this adverbial mobility, but always as a means of clarifying meaning and avoiding
ambiguity. The result is that adverbials are put in positions which seem unusual. The adverbial elements are
very often coordinated.

IV Group typology and structure

Legal English is highly nominal, and the long complicated nominals that result are noticeable by contrast with
the verb phrases, which are relatively few and restricted. There is a very marked preference for
postmodification, usually by non-finite clauses.
Another source of distinctiveness is the insertion of postmodifying elements at precisely those points in a
phrase at which they will most clearly give the required sense. They need to achieve the precision and unusual
sequences are as a result common; e.g. the payment to the owner of the total amount…
Premodification is restrained, although the determiner position is always filled (again due to the need to be
specific). Zero determination seems to be restricted to fixed phrases/collocations.
Another distinctive feature is the use of ‘such’ as a determiner, without an indefinite article.

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Adjectives such as: happy, splendid, etc. are rare and the intensifying adverbs (very, rather) are completely
absent.
Many nouns are abstract.
The verb phrases are notable for the high proportion of non-finites and for the number of finites that are of the
type: ‘modal+be+past participle’. ‘Shall’ is often used to express what is to be obligatory consequence of a
legal decision.

V Word typology and structure

Verbs seem to be selected from one of lexical sets which are very difficult to define: deem, accept, require,
agree, issue, state, specify, constitute, perform, exercise, etc.
The range of vocabulary is extremely wide since almost anything may become the subject of legislation.
Archaisms: witnesseth, aforesaid, hereinbefores.
There is a frequency and variety of these words which consist of an adverbial word or place to which a
preposition-like word has been suffixed: hereto, hereon, hereunder, herein, thereof, whereof.
Highly formal words: duly, deemed, expiration, terminated.
Collocations (formal): term of years, upon the death of…
The most characteristic collocations are those in which synonyms, or near-synonyms are coordinated: made
and signed, terms and conditions, able and willing, etc.
These pairs were used at a time when there were in the language both native English and borrowed French
terms for the same referent. In this situation there was often a certain amount of doubt as to whether such
‘synonyms’ meant exactly the same thing, and there developed a tendency to write in each alternative. The
result was the large number of couplings of the ‘breaking and entering’ type in which an English word is
complemented by its French equivalent.
A lot of legal terminology is borrowed from French: proposal, effect, society, assurance, insured, schedule,
duly, signed, policy, subject, rules, forms, terms, conditions, date, contract, entrance, accepted.
Borrowings from Latin: basis, table, declaration, registered, stated, part.
However, there are a lot of French and Latin legal terms which are used in their original forms.
French: estoppels, fee simple, laches, quash.
Latin: alias, amicus curiae, res judicata.
There are a lot of technical legal terms: tort, appeal, bail, liable, defendant, landlord, plaintiff.

4. The language of advertising

Language can make or break an advertisement. If the name of the product is not clearly stated, there is a real
risk that we will fail to recall it when the time comes to make our choice in the marketplace. In the press, it is
likely to be in the main text of the advertisement, in the bottom-line summary, and in the product illustration.
Advertising employs a vast range of devices and locations to get its message across: billboards, book jackets,
bags, fliers, cups, shirts, signs, vehicle sides, etc. Advertising slogans are an important part of any advertising
campaign. The slogan is a short phrase used by the company in its advertisements to reinforce the identity of
the brand. It has to command attention, be memorable and brief. The purpose of these catchy phrases is to draw
the attention of a potential customer and help to distinguish a product or service from the majority of others in
the market. Slogans are the most effective means of drawing the attention of general public or consumer base
to one or more aspects of a product while all the visual or audio materials, such as jingles, pictures, video, only
help to further consolidate the slogans in the minds of customers.
In a print ad, a slogan usually appears just beneath or beside the brand name or logo. A slogan sums up
what one stands for, one’s specialty, the benefit, and one’s marketing position, and one’s commitment. A
slogan can prove to be more powerful than a logo. Slogans have two basic purposes: to provide continuity to a

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series of ads in a campaign and to reduce an advertising message strategy to a brief, repeatable and memorable
positioning.

- Graphetic / Graphological level –

Consistent use of initial capitalization, pictures, colour to achieve an emphatic effect. The ad slogan is
just like a headline which uses initial capitalization to attract more attention or to stress every word it says to
impress the reader. Sometimes, full capitalization is used. The reason for this is that the slogan needs to
emphasize every letter it uses or to make the ad slogan look trim and tidy.

- Phonetic / Phonological level –

Rhyme is one of the best techniques for bringing in the brand name and making the slogan rhyme with
it. An ad slogan is better if it reflects the brand’s personality. By this kind of rhyming, the brand name is
highlighted. It can differentiate a slogan from others by the brand name and the special rhyming which is the
identity of the slogan. Rhythm is the movement or sense of movement communicated by the arrangement of
stressed and unstressed syllables and by the duration of the syllables. Rhythm is usually perceived on a
subconscious level and makes the slogan a memorable, repeatable sentence. Rhyme also allows better
memorization of the slogan.
Alliteration can help slogans achieve the strong beating rhythm needed to make it a repeatable
sentence. It is a figure of speech in which consonants, especially at the beginning of words, or stressed
syllables are repeated. Alliteration which is similarity in sound often plays against dissimilarity in meaning and
makes the listener more aware of the contrast.
Assonance or vocalic rhyme, consists of the repetition of similar vowel sounds, usually close together,
to achieve a particular effect of euphony. It is not so obvious or easy to identify.
Onomatopoeia is based on the formation and use of words to imitate sounds. It is a figure of speech in
which the sound reflects the sense. It makes the idea more expressive, interesting and it has an effect on the
readers’ senses.

- Grammatical level –
I Inter-sentence relationships
Repetition is most frequently used. It is an essential unifying element. It may consist of sounds,
syllables, words, phrases. This device called anaphora is used to appeal to the emotions of the audience in
order to persuade, inspire, motivate.
In case each sentence/clause ends with the same word, this type of repetition is called epiphora.

II Sentence typology and structure

Minor sentences are frequently used, as well as short, simple sentences.
The slogan must be short and simple, it can’t afford to be complicated and clumsy. These sentences are easy to
remember so they serve the purpose of the slogan to be memorable and recited.
Everyday sentences tend to be overly used in life, but it can be very forceful when used in an ad slogan.
Anyone can remember them.
In ad headlines, questions are often used to attract attention by mentioning the matter that concerns the
customers most. They help to arouse the curiosity of the customers and entice them to read on to find the
solution to the problem. Many slogans begin as successful headlines.
Imperative sentences are used to make the customers to act, buy and consume. In an ad, the slogan is the last
few words said so they are not allowed to go to waste.

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III Clause typology and structure
Adverbials ‘every’ and ‘always’ are frequent. These words are often used in ads to indicate the
universal application of the product or to include as many potential customers as possible or to achieve the
emphasis of the product’s utility or the company’s unswerving commitment.

IV Group typology and structure

Phrases are frequently used. Slogans are a kind of special writing form, which can almost do without
subjects. Phrases may be better than if not as good as sentences. All kinds of phrases can be used. They are so
concise that nothing else can be added or subtracted.
Noun phrases – Frequent use of the first and second person pronouns (you, we, us). The use of the second
person ‘you’ tends to shorten the distance between the product or the producer and consumers, as if the product
or the ad is speaking to you face to face, making sincere promises, honest recommendations. The use of the
first person ‘we’ and ‘us’ is the most direct way to tell the receiver what the sponsor of an ad slogan stands for.
It’s a little bit like a self-introduction to the potential customers to let them know you, believe you.
Verb phrases – Almost all the ad slogans use Simple present tense to satisfy the customer’s desire to know the
present state of the product he/she wants to buy. But there is also the implication of universality and
timelessness.

V Word typology and structure

Negatives are rarely used, because the purpose of all ad slogans is to strengthen the positive side. But
when they do occur they are usually placed in emphatic positions to highlight the special positive side.
Coined (derived) words are often used. They are both new and memorable, smart words which have a special
meaning in the specified context. They can raise the interests of the public, making them ponder upon the
meaning and marvel at the smart idea of the creators of ads.
This variety tends to use words which are vivid (new, bright), concrete (soft, washable), positive (safe, extra),
and unreserved (best, perfect).
The creative use of idioms and proverbs are familiar to most potential customers in a society and have no
difficulty to be popularized. Their creative use can give them new meaning while making them memorable.
Simile is a figure of speech in which one thing is likened to another, in such a way as to clarify and
enhance an image. It is an explicit comparison recognizable by the use of words ‘like’ or ‘as’. Simile usually
helps to promote some positive characteristics of the advertised product or service and/or highlight and
strengthen emotional representation of its features.
Metonymy is a figure of speech in which the name of an attribute or a thing is substituted for the thing
itself.
Metaphor contributes to the aesthetics of the message and emphasizes the main idea, describing one
object in terms of another, usually by means of implicit comparison. When using a metaphor, two seemingly
unrelated things are compared by stating that one is the same as the other. This helps to see the similarities or
connections which would remain unrevealed if not by the metaphor.
Pun – many slogans are based on pun that involves a play on words. Advertisements can often use
personifications when inanimate objects are endowed with human qualities to make it more dramatic,
interesting, more attractive, as we can better relate to these objects.
Symbol is an object, which represents something else.
Paradox is based on an apparently self-contradicting (even absurd) statement which is found to contain
a truth reconciling the conflicting opposites.
Comparison is a literary / rhetorical device in which a writer compares or contrasts two people, places,
things, ideas. In advertising, the second element of comparison is hardly ever stated; it is left to the audience to
decide, thus comparison is unqualified. This device is also used to increase the chance of catching the attention
and interest of the audience. The writers of ads have to abide by the code of commercial practice and stick to
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the rules of advertising. They shouldn’t advertise their product at the expense of others. So they resort to
unqualified comparison to avoid defaming other products. They can’t say: ‘Brand X is better than brand Y.’
Otherwise, unpleasant lawsuits will inevitably occur.
Parallelism consists of phrases, sentences of similar construction and meaning placed side by side,
balancing each other. It creates a balanced flow of ideas and can be employed as a tool for persuasion because
it uses repetition.
Hyperbole is a figure of speech which contains an exaggeration for emphasis. It points out the best
features of the advertised objects.

- The Semantic level –

Semantic ambiguity is needed to avoid any possible legal liability.
A really good pun can work miracles. Some puns may lack the brand identity as almost any competing brand
could use their lines. Although they are good, they have no specific identity of their own.
Slogans should be memorable, brief, repeatable, interesting, fun. They should attract attention, emphasize the
product’s use and appeal to the potential customers in various ways.

5. The language of written instructions

There are certain central criteria governing the formulation of any set of instructions, such as the
paramount need to organize the information into a series of clearly defined stages, to avoid ambiguity. The two
most important qualities of a successful set of instructions are: being persuasive and ensuring that your
instructions are usable. An effective set of instructions needs to be tailored to its specific and intended
audience.

- The graphetic / graphological level –

Analysis at this level is concerned with the layout of the text and its semantic implications. The title of
the text is presented in boldface in order to draw the reader’s attention to the sequences of activities designed to
produce the same result any time the instructions are properly followed. There is plenty of white space around
headings.
Throughout the text, boldface, italics, and roman numerals are used to aid the reader in finding their
place easily and helps with overall visual appearance.
To allow easy readability and add to aesthetic quality, the instructions are arranged into paragraphs.
The page is simple, but with a defined hierarchy so as to facilitate scanability.
Listing is used. Numbering is quite frequent. There is spacing between the lines/steps. The reader is
always expected to follow the numbering of paragraphs to arrive at the expected result.
Graphics is added: charts, diagrams, drawings, figures, graphs, maps, photographs, tables, illustrations.
Illustrations are simple, but instructions which are well illustrated and accompany the written instruction are
usually highly successful. It adds an extra level of understanding and allows the reader to skim if problems
occur.
Pictures are sometimes combined with words to enhance the reader’s comprehension of the
instructions. Pictures add an additional dimension that will allow readers to visualize the end result/product.
When used, graphics should be adapted. To be powerful and understandable, the text and graphics for each
step should clearly correlate to that step of the instructions.
Highlighting is used for key words (safety information and warnings).

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- The grammatical level –
I Inter-sentence relationships
Lexical repetition is used to connect the sentences. Definite article, demonstrative pronouns, adverbials
are regularly used. Tense concord is present.

II Sentence typology and structure

Sentences are short and understandable, because the reader will actually be performing the task as
he/she reads along with the instructions.
Imperative, command and direct address are frequently used. Imperative sentences mainly use ‘you’ as
a subject, because the readers are addressed directly.
Another type of imperative used is the one with negation. In this type, the user is warned or cautioned
against performing an action. These actions may have negative effect if carried out.
In some circumstances, passive sentences are used to help establish detachment and impersonality. The
agent is always detached, because the required emphasis is not on him but on action and the result. The passive
voice is associated with the rhetorical function of describing procedures.
If conditional clause are used so as to lay down instructions to offer the user, first, the situation or
circumstance that warrants starting an action. The writer assumes the user will only act based on the
circumstance in the initial clause.
Non-finite sentences are used. To-infinitive clauses are placed in initial position as they represent the
assumed action to be carried out by the target reader, while the main action follows: ‘To stop auto
programming, press the menu button.’

III Clause typology and structure

Subjects are often left out. The object and complements are mostly realized by complex nominal
phrases, while subject is simple in structure. This is because the actions described in the imperative verbs are
always applied on an object.
Adverbials such as: first, next are used in initial positions. There are more complex adverbials as well:
prepositional phrases.

IV Group typology and structure

All types of phrases are present.
Verb phrases: action verbs are used. Passive voice is dominant. Contractions are absent.
Noun phrases: articles are often used. Step-by-step instructions typically use the second person point of
view (you, your, yours).
Complex noun phrases are frequent and they are often the result of premodification. The noun phrases
found in instruction manuals consist mostly of two or more premodifiers. The premodifiers function as
attributes of the noun head, thus defining it clearly.

V Word typology and structure

Most of these texts have technical terms or jargons associated with particular instrument and the
functions of the various parts, that they are subject-specific.
However, it is important to use common terminology whenever it is possible, and if you must use
unfamiliar words, be sure to be descriptive and explain thoroughly. The words are mostly compounded.
Abbreviations and acronyms are often used as shorthand so that the reader can easily understand. There
are other phrases used as jargon: system, memory, play, regulator; these are everyday words but have
specialized functions as applied in the instruction text. Adjectives and adverbs are used for precision.

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6. The language of science
Within the general province of scientific language, we have numerous uses which can be explained in
terms of modality: the language used in reporting an experiment, in discussing a problem, in giving
instructions as to how an experiment should be performed, in stating laws, or in defining concepts.
It is generally agreed that the main problem for the scientist, as far as his use of language is concerned
is to define his subject matter precisely and to establish a clear and logical progression of ideas.

- Graphetic / graphological level –

Initial capitalization of all the lexical words in the title.
Paragraphing is used, as paragraphs provide visual help and aid clarity, each paragraph focuses on one
main idea.
Illustrations: tables (e.g. a table of contents). Charts and diagrams are used to illustrate a concept/idea.
When the author refers to the data in charts, diagrams, etc. it leads to greater objectivity.

- Grammatical level –
I Inter-sentence relationships
We analyze the structure of a scientific text. Articles and essays need to be a seamless whole: paragraph
flowing into paragraph, ideas presented smoothly and in logical order.
Lexical repetition is used to aid clarity.
The important feature are discourse markers, and connectives (however). There are examples of
anaphora, such as definite article, personal and demonstrative pronouns.

II Sentence typology and structure

Sentences are usually statements, which consist of many clauses.
‘Interrogative gambit’, which is a typical device used in scientific journals to popularize facts and
findings. The use of question in the organization of discourse enables the writer to catch the readers’ quick
response. They are also used to arouse readers’ interest. The rest of the article is basically a series of suggested
answers to this question which represents the author’s standpoint.
Passive voice is one of the most distinctive features of the language of science. It is used to signify
impersonality. Authors use the passive in order to remain objective and impersonal because the important idea
is not who did something but what was done.
Conditionals are quite frequent.

III Clause typology and structure

Regular word order is used.
There are a lot of adjectival/adverbial modifiers: careful(ly), clockwise, final(ly), periodic(ally).

IV Group typology and structure

Noun phrases are predominant and more complex than verb phrases. Noun phrases are long, containing
strings of

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