Electrical Assignment- 6

Name – Anuj Shankar Rai

Batch- A14
Roll number- 2K19/A14/51
Subject teacher- Mr. N.K.Jain
Wattmeter:
The wattmeter is an instrument for measuring the electric
power (or the supply rate of electrical energy) in watts of any
given circuit. Electromagnetic wattmeters are used for
measurement of utility frequency and audio frequency power;
other types are required for radio frequency measurements.
Wattmeter is an electric instrument which is used to measure
the electric power of various electric circuits. It consists of
a current coil and a voltage coil. These instruments are
widely used in transmission and distribution of electric
power and these are also used for protection purposes.

Wattmeter Symbol

Wattmeter Formula

Wattmeters measures power of various electric circuits.It works

on power formula
P = IV CosΘ
The exact wattmeter reading formulas are given below:
Wattmeter Reading in Single Phase = Power in load (VIcosφ )
+ power in current coil (I2r)
Wattmeter Reading in Single Phase = VIcosφ + I2r
Three Phase Wattmeter Reading = √3 (VIcosφ + I2r)

Types of Wattmeter

Wattmeters are of two types given below:

Dynamometer Type Wattmeter
Induction type Wattmeter

Electro-dynamometer /Dynamometer Type Wattmeter

Working Principle

Dynamometer Type Wattmeters are moving coil

instruments and their operating field is produced in by
another fixed coil. These instruments consist of a fixed coil
having two equal sections which are parallel to each other.
These two fixed coils are air-cored to avoid from hysteresis
losses. When alternating current passes through the fixed
coil, it produces magnetic effect and moving coil starts
moving and a pointer is attached to the moving coil with
a spring and it starts moving when moving coil moves.

Advantages of Dynamometer Type Wattmeter

These instruments are made to give very high accuracy and

these are used as a standard for calibration purposes.
These instruments provide full accuracy on direct
current (DC).

Disadvantages of Dynamometer Type Wattmeter

These instruments cannot provide full accuracy on alternating

Current (AC).
These instruments cause errors at low power factor.
Working Principle Induction  Type Wattmeter 

These instruments are used on both AC and DC supplies.

These wattmeters provide accurate readings only when
frequency and supply voltages are constant. These wattmeters
consists of two laminated electro magnets and one of them is
excited by the current with exciting winding. This winding is
connected in series of the circuit. The other magnet is excited
by the current which is proportional to the current. Its exciting
coil is connected in parallel with the circuit. The winding of first
magnet carries line current and the other coil carries voltage
and is highly inductive. This coil is connected to the supply and
the flux lags 900 behind the voltage. The torque is produced
and is proportional to the power in the load circuit. The torque
acts on the disc and force is produced in the disc. The disc
starts moving and the pointer is attached on it with
a spring and it shows reading on its scale.

Uses of wattmeters

These wattmeters are used in various laboratories, industries

for specific purposes. These wattmeters plays an important role
in measurement of power in distribution and transmission of
power.
Precision and accuracy
There are limitations to measuring power with inexpensive
wattmeters, or indeed with any meters not designed for low-
power measurements. This particularly affects low power (e.g.
under 10 watts), as used in standby; readings may be so
inaccurate as to be useless (although they do confirm that
standby power is low, rather than high).[3] The difficulty is
largely due to difficulty in accurate measurement of the
alternating current, rather than voltage, and the relatively little
need for low-power measurements. The specification for the
meter should specify the reading error for different situations.
For a typical plug-in meter the error in wattage is stated as ±5%
of measured value ±10 W (e.g., a measured value of 100W
may be wrong by 5% of 100 W plus 10 W, i.e., ±15 W, or 85–
115 W); and the error in kW·h is stated as ±5% of measured
value ±0.1 kW·h.[4] If a laptop computer in sleep mode
consumes 5 W, the meter may read anything from 0 to
15.25 W, without taking into account errors due to non-
sinusoidal waveform. In practice accuracy can be improved by
connecting a fixed load such as an incandescent light bulb,
adding the device in standby, and using the difference in power
consumption.[3] This moves the measurement out of the
problematic low-power zone.
Radio frequency
Instruments with moving coils can be calibrated for direct
current or power frequency currents up to a few hundred hertz.
At radio frequencies a common method is a rectifier circuit
arranged to respond to current in a transmission line; the
system is calibrated for the known circuit impedance. Diode
detectors are either directly connected to the source, or used
with a sampling system that diverts only a portion of the RF
power through the detector. Thermistors and thermocouples
are used to measure heat produced by RF power and can be
calibrated either directly or by comparison with a known
reference source of power.[5] A bolometer power sensor
converts incident radio frequency power to heat. The sensor
element is maintained at a constant temperature by a small
direct current. The reduction in current required to maintain
temperature is related to the incident RF power. Instruments of
this type are used throughout the RF spectrum and can even
measure visible light power. For high-power measurements, a
calorimeter directly measures heat produced by RF power.[
Energy meter:
Energy meters are the integrated instruments which
measures a quantity of electric energy supplying to the electric
circuit in a specific time. These energy meters displays the
quantity of electrical energy consumed by the user in
Kilowatts/hour (KWH). Energy meters have its different names
according to its function and working principle. These meters
are called as electricity meters, electric meters, electrical
meters, etc. 

Energy Meter Symbol

Energy meter symbol is shown below:

Types of Energy Meters

Energy meters consist of various types which are given below:

 ● Electric Motor Energy Meters
● Electrolytic Energy Meters

Electric Motor Energy Meters

Electric Motor Energy Meters are known by its name that

these energy meters consist of a small electric motor in it.
Different kinds of electric motors are used in these energy
meters. Some energy meter uses mercury
motor, commutator motor, induction motor in it. The
mercury motor energy meters are only used on D.C
Circuits whereas the induction motor energy meters are
used only on A.C Circuits and the commutator motor energy
meters are used on both A.C Circuits and D.C Circuits.
The energy meters used for D.C circuits provides readings in
the form of amp-hours or in watt hours. In this mechanism of
readings, moving system revolve continuously. The speed of
rotation is directly proportional to the current. The rotating
system is controlled by the permanent magnet which is placed
nearly to the moving system and produce eddy currents in
some parts of rotating system.   

Ampere-hour Mercury Motor Energy Meter

It consists of a copper disc mounted on a spindle. The disc

revolves between a pair of permanent magnets and the free
space is filled with mercury. One of the magnets is used for
braking for the rotation of disc.

Working Principle of Ampere-hour Mercury Motor Energy

Meter
The working principle of ampere hour mercury motor
energy meter is that the measuring current is led into the disc
through the mercury and flows radially to the center of the disc
where it passes out to the external circuit through the spindle
and its bearings. The current flows only on right hand side of
the disc. The magnetic field of the permanent magnet M2 will
exert a force on the right-hand side of the disc which carries
current. The direction of the force can be found by
the Fleming’s Left-hand rule (F= Bil Newton).The driving
torque Td is produced by the force. It cuts the field of left hand-
side magnet M1 and eddy current is produced in it.

Watt-hour Mercury Motor Energy Meter

If the permanent magnet M2 of the ampere hour meter is

replaced by a wound electromagnet and connect to the supply
this results a watt hour energy meter. The exciting current of
this electromagnet is proportional to the voltage. The disc has
radial slot cuts in it.
Commutator Motor Energy Meters

These energy meters are known as watt hour meters/watt hour

energy meters. These meters are also known as Elihu
Thomson meters according to its working principle. These
meters consist of ironless motors consists of a wound winding
armature and a commutator.

Working Principle of Commutator Motor Energy Meters

The working principle of motor type energy meter is that

there are two fixed coils (C1 and C2) placed on left- and right-
hand side of the armature. Each coil consists of a few turns of
thick copper wire connected in series with the supply. These
two coils are connected to the main supply in the circuit. The
electromagnetic field is produced in these two coils.
This electromagnetic field is proportional to the current to be
measured. The armature rotates with the help of this
electromagnetic field. The armature coils produce current in it
and provides this current on its commutator. This current is
proportional to the supply voltage. The operating torque is
produced due to the reaction of electromagnetic field and the
armature coils. Braking torque is produced due to the eddy
currents produced in a disc which is fixed on a spindle of the
same armature between the two brake magnets (permanent
magnets). When the speed of the disc reached on its steady
position then the braking torque and operating torque becomes
equal to each other and the revolution of the disc is proportional
to  = to the total energy in the circuit.

Induction Type Single Phase Watt-hour Energy

Meters/Single-Phase Energy Meters

Induction type energy meters, Single phase energy

meters are most commonly used as A.C meters in domestic
and industrial installations. These energy meters measures
electric power in kilo-watthours. These induction motor energy
meters are designed for single phase electric circuits. In these
energy meters, brake magnets make eddy currents in the disc
which revolves continuously through a fraction of changings.

Construction

The construction of energy meter is that it consists of two

electromagnets M1 and M2, one magnet M1 is excited by line
current and is known as series magnet. This electromagnet
produces alternating flux φ1. This flux is proportional to the
phase with line current whereas the second magnet M2 is
known as shunt magnet. This electromagnet is connected to
the supply line and its current is proportional to the supply
voltage and produces a lagging flux φ2.Major portion of this flux
is useless and a few amount of this flux is useful and it passes
through the disc D.
Working Principle of Single-Phase Energy Meters

The working principle of the induction type single phase

energy meter is that the two fluxes φ1 and φ2 of the
electromagnets M1 and M2 induce emf’s in the disc which
produces eddy currents in the disc. These two fluxes and
the eddy current reacts each other and produces driving torque
on the disc. The braking torque is produced by the
electromagnets M1 and M2.The disc achieves a steady speed
when the driving torque and braking torque becomes equal to
each other then,
The total number of uprisings in a given period  is proportional
to  (the electric energy consumed).

Electrolytic Energy Meter

Electrolytic Energy meter is an ampere-hour energy meter

and is used in only D.C circuits. Their readings are incorrect
when these meters are used on other voltage readings. These
energy meters are not able to use on A.C circuits. These
instruments can be used on AC circuits by using a
small rectifier unit in it. These energy meters works according
to the Faraday law of electrolysis. These energy meters are
simple, cheap, accurate in small loads. These energy meters
are not effected by stray magnetic fields and from friction
errors.

Applications of Energy Meters

Energy meters are widely used in domestic areas for the

measurement of electric power consumed by the customers
and these energy meters are commonly used in industrial
sector for controlling the electric power of various machinery
according to its reading and for measurement of electric power.
Use of energy meter:

Electric meter (Electromagnetic type & digital ) is used to record

consumption for electrical energy. Electric meters are Single
phase (for domestic &commercial ) and 3 phase for industrial
purpose.
Electrical energy is measured in KWH ( kilo watt hour ) 1 KWH
is is commonly known as 1 unit. This is the Board of Trade
unit.For concept of unit, if a 100 watt bulb burns for 10 hr , the
Meter records 1 unit. A heater rated 1000 watt if used for 1 hr ,
the meter records 1 unit.
Technically the Single phase Domestic meter measures two
main parameters, one is voltage and another is corrent.( A.C
power is a product of Voltage × Current × Power Factor ).The
meter also takes care of power factor of the load.There are
various meters such as Domestic meters, Industrial meter 3
phase; CT( Current transformer ) meter, Trivector meter etc for
recording consumption of industries of different power demands

Voltmeter:
AC Voltmeter

Definition: AC voltmeters are designed in a manner so that

they can measure the AC voltage under measurement. The
main difference between AC voltmeter circuit and DC voltmeter
circuit is the usage of a rectifier. The rectifier is used in order
to transform the AC voltage into DC voltage.

Block Diagram of AC Voltmeter

To develop a basic understanding of AC voltmeter, it is crucial
to have a brief idea of the block diagram of AC voltmeter circuit.
The block diagram of AC voltmeter resembles the block
diagram of DC voltmeter except the fact that rectifier is used in
case of AC voltmeter.

The input to be measured is given to the attenuator

circuit which performs the operation of selection of a particular
range of voltage. The output of attenuator is given to rectifier
which converts the AC voltage into pulsating DC voltage. Then
the final output of DC amplifier is given to the PMMC meter.
The rectifier can be used before the multistage amplifier or
after the amplifier. This depends on the type of amplifier used in
AC voltmeter. If we are using multistage AC amplifier, then the
rectifier circuit will be used after the amplifier. On the contrary, if
the multistage amplifier used is DC, then the rectifier should be
used before it.

The amplifier is a vital component because it amplifies the

signal which got attenuated during the measurement
procedure. The usage of the amplifier increases the cost of the
circuit. If the designing needs to be economical, then we should
use multistage DC amplifier.

Dc voltmeter
DC voltmeter is a measuring instrument, which is used to
measure the DC voltage across any two points of electric
circuit. If we place a resistor in series with the Permanent
Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) galvanometer, then the entire
combination together acts as DC voltmeter.
The series resistance, which is used in DC voltmeter is also
called series multiplier resistance or simply, multiplier. It
basically limits the amount of current that flows through
galvanometer in order to prevent the meter current from
exceeding the full scale deflection value. The circuit
diagram of DC voltmeter is shown in below figure.

This is Digital voltmeter

This is Analog voltmeter
Working Principle of Voltmeter
The main principle of voltmeter is that it must be connected in
parallel in which we want to measure the voltage. Parallel
connection is used because a voltmeter is constructed in such
a way that it has a very high value of resistance. So if that high
resistance is connected in series than the current flow will be
almost zero which means the circuit has become open.
If it is connected in parallel, than the load impedance comes
parallel with the high resistance of the voltmeter and hence the
combination will give almost the same the impedance that the
load had. Also in parallel circuit we know that the voltage is
same so the voltage between the voltmeter and the load is
almost same and hence voltmeter measures the voltage.
For an ideal voltmeter, we have the resistance is to be infinity
and hence the current drawn to be zero so there will be no
 power loss in the instrument. But this is not achievable
practically as we cannot have a material which has infinite
resistance.

Classification or Types of Voltmeter

According to the construction principle, we have different types
of voltmeters, they are mainly –
1. Parmanent Magnet Moving coil (PMMC) Voltmeter.
2. Moving Iron (MI) Voltmeter.
3. Electro Dynamometer Type Voltmeter.
4. Rectifier Type Voltmeter
5. Induction Type Voltmeter.
6. Electrostatic Type Voltmeter.
7. Digital Voltmeter (DVM).

Applications of Digital Voltmeter

● Digital Voltmeter is used to know the actual voltage of different
components.
● DVM is widely used to check if there is power in the circuit,
such as mains outlet.
● Knowing the voltage across a circuit, current can be calculated.
Advantages of Digital Voltmeter
● Digital display of the output eliminates human reading errors.
● Readings are accurate and fast compared to analog meters.
● Digital Voltmeter is more stable and reliable.
● Smaller in size and cost-effective.
● DVM can measure both AC and DC voltages.
● Latest DVM are built with micro controllers which stores the
readings for further processing.
● DVM is void of Parallax errors.
● DVMs have automatic range selection.
● DVMs have high input impedance.
 Disadvantages of Digital Voltmeter
● Digital Voltmeters are prone to damage if the voltage is
increased beyond the limit.
● The display depends on the external power source or battery.
● While measuring the voltage, there are chances of the digital
voltmeter getting heated up.This might output wrong readings.
● When a fluctuation occurs in a circuit, the digital voltmeter
cannot read and displays an error.
● Speed of operation is limited due to the digitizing circuit in
digital voltmeters.
● It is very hard to spot the transient voltage spikes.
● The A/D converter has a limitation on word length which causes
quantization noise giving rise to errors in measured values.
 

Ammeter:
As we know a word “meter” is associated with the
measurement system. Meter is an instrument which can
measure a particular quantity. As we know, the unit of current is
Ampere. Ammeter means Ampere-meter which measures
ampere value. Ampere is the unit of current so an ammeter is a
meter or an instrument which measures current.
Working Principle of Ammeter
The main principle of ammeter is that it must have a very low
resistance and also inductive reactance. Now, why do we need
this? Can’t we connect an ammeter in parallel? The answer to
this question is that it has very low impedance because it must
have very low amount of voltage drop across it and must be
connected in series connection because current is same in the
series circuit.
Also due to very low impedance the power loss will be low and
if it is connected in parallel it becomes almost a short circuited
path and all the current will flow through ammeter as a result of
high current the instrument may burn. So due to this reason it
must be connected in series. For an ideal ammeter, it must
have zero impedance so that it has zero voltage drop across it
so the power loss in the instrument is zero. But the ideal is not
achievable practically.

Classification or Types of Ammeter

Depending on the constructing principle, there are many types
of ammeter we get, they are mainly –

1. Permanent Magnet Moving Coil(PMMC) ammeter.

2. Moving Iron (MI) Ammeter.
3. Electrodynamometer type Ammeter.
4. Rectifier type Ammeter.
Depending on this types of measurement we do, we have-

1. DC Ammeter.
2. AC Ammeter.
DC Ammeter are mainly PMMC instruments, MI can measure
both AC and DC currents, also Electrodynamometer type
thermal instrument can measure DC and AC, induction meters
are not generally used for ammeter construction due to their
higher cost, inaccuracy in measurement.
Description of Different Types of Ammeters
PMMC Ammeter
Principle PMMC Ammeter:
When current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field, a
mechanical force acts on the conductor, if it is attached to a
moving system, with the coil movement, the pointer moves over
the scale.
Explanation: As the name suggests it has permanent magnets
which are employed in this kind of measuring instruments. It is
particularly suited for DC measurement because here
deflection is proportional to the current and hence if current
direction is reversed, deflection of the pointer will also be
reversed so it is used only for DC measurement. This type of
instrument is called D Arnsonval type instrument. It has major
advantage of having linear scale, low power consumption, high
accuracy. Major disadvantage of being measured only DC
quantity, higher cost etc.
Deflecting torque,
Where,
B = Flux density in Wb/m².
i = Current flowing through the coil in Amp.
l = Length of the coil in m.
b = Breadth of the coil in m.
N = No of turns in the coil.
Extension of Range in a PMMC Ammeter:
Now it looks quite extraordinary that we can extend the range
of measurement in this type of instrument. Many of us will think
that we must buy a new ammeter to measure higher amount of
current and also many of us may think we have to change the
constructional feature so that we can measure higher currents,
but there is nothing like that, we just have to connect a shunt
resistance in parallel and the range of that instrument can be
extended, this is a simple solution provided by the instrument.
In the figure I = total current flowing in the circuit in Amp.
Ish is the current through the shunt resistor in Amp.
Rm is the ammeter resistance in Ohm.

MI Ammeter
It is a moving iron instrument, used for both AC and DC, It can
be used for both because the deflection θ proportional square
of the current so whatever is the direction of current, it shows
directional deflection, further they are classified in two more
ways-
1. Attraction type.
2. Repulsion type.
Its torque equation is:
Where,
I is the total current flowing in the circuit in Amp.
L is the self inductance of the coil in Henry.
θ is the deflection in Radian.
1. Attraction Type MI Instrument Principle:
When an unmagnetised soft iron is placed in the magnetic
field, it is attracted towards the coil, if a moving system
attached and current is passed through a coil, it creates a
magnetic field which attracts iron piece and creates
deflecting torque as a result of which pointer moves over
the scale.
 2. Repulsion Type MI Instrument Principle:
When two iron pieces are magnetized with same polarity
by passing a current than repulsion between them occurs
and that repulsion produces a deflecting torque due to
which the pointer moves.
The advantages of MI instruments are they can measure
both AC and DC, cheap, low friction errors, robustness
etc. It is mainly used in AC measurement because in DC
measurement error will be more due to
hysteresis.

ammeter
Applications
The applications of ammeter include the following.

● The applications of this device will range from the schools to

industries.
● These are used to measure the current flow in the buildings
to ensure that the flow is not too low or too high.
● It is used in manufacturing and instrumentation companies to
check the functionality of the devices
● It is used with a thermocouple to check the temperature.
● Electricians frequently use these devices to check the faults
of the circuits in the building.

Multimeter:
A multimeter is the most commonly used instrument by
technicians and engineers in the laboratory, as well as other
repair works. As it is clear from the name of this instrument, it
can make many (multi) measurements with reasonable
accuracies such as AC and DC voltages, currents, and
resistances. In this article, I am discussing the multimeter
working principle.
Since it is a milliammeter, voltmeter and ohmmeter combined,
so it is also called AVO meter. It has various ranges of voltage,
resistance, and current.

 Multimeter Working Principle and Construction

A multimeter is a permanent magnet moving coil galvanometer.

There is an iron cored coil pivoted on two jeweled bearings.
The coil is wound on an aluminum former or bobbin. And this
coil is free to rotate in the field of a permanent magnet. An
aluminum pointer is attached to the coil and bobbin assembly
and moves on a graduated scale.
There are two spiral springs attached to the coil assembly at
the top and bottom, which provide a path for the flow of current
and controlling torque.
A multimeter can measure voltage, current, and resistance for
which its galvanometer is converted to a voltmeter, ammeter,
and ohmmeter with the help of suitable circuits incorporated in
it. The galvanometer used in a multimeter has always its
pointer resting at zero position on the extreme left end various
measurements are made on a multimeter as explained below:

Voltage Measurement by Multimeter

Generally, a galvanometer has a current sensitivity of the order
of 0.1 mA and a small internal resistance of about 500 ohms.
As such, it cannot measure high voltages. To measure high
voltages, its range is extended by connecting a high resistance
in series with the galvanometer as shown in the figure.

If the galvanometer resistance is denoted by G and Ig is the full-

scale deflection current and the voltage to be measured
is V volts, then the value of series resistance RS is determined
as under,
V = IgRs + IgG
or  Rs = (V – IgG)/Ig
This series resistance is also called the multiplier. The voltage
range can be increased by increasing the number or value of
multipliers. Either a selector switch is provided to select
different ranges or some sockets indicating the voltage range
are provided in a multimeter.
While making, measurement one lead is inserted in the
common socket and the other lead in the required voltage
range socket.

The multimeter can also measure AC. For this purpose, a full-
wave rectifier is incorporated in the multimeter. The rectifier
converts AC into DC for application to the galvanometer.
The desired AC voltage range is selected by the selector switch
or sockets. When AC voltage is to be measured, the switch
should be thrown to AC or test lead should be inserted in the
AC socket. The range of multimeter should also be suitably
selected.

Current Measurement by Multimeter

The same galvanometer can be used for measuring current

when it is converted into an ammeter by connecting a small
resistance Rsh in parallel with the meter, as shown in the figure.
If G is the internal resistance of meter, Ig its full-scale deflection
current and I is the total current to be measured, then the value
of shunt resistance Rsh required can be found as under:
(I – Ig)Rsh = IgG
or Rsh = IgG/(I – Ig)
The range of ammeter can be extended to any value within
limits by reducing the value of shunt resistance. Some low
resistances are connected in parallel with the meter through a
selector switch, as shown in the figure. The desired range can
be selected by moving the selector switch to a particular
position.

If the total current to be measured, I is very high, the value of

shunt resistance required Rsh becomes very low, which is
sometimes practically not possible. In this case, connections
are so arranged that as we move from low range to higher
range, the meter resistance is also increased with the decrease
in the value of shunt resistance.
Resistance Measurement by a Multimeter

The same basic instrument can be used as an ohmmeter to

measure resistances. In this circuit, an internal battery is
connected in series with the meter through an adjustable
resistance r and the fixed resistances.
The fixed resistances limit the current within the desired range,
and the variable resistance r is used for zero adjustments.

The resistance to be measured (test resistance) is connected

between test leads. The current flowing through the circuit
depends upon the resistance of the test piece. The deflection of
the needle indicates current, but the scale is calibrated in ohms
to give the value of resistance directly. The ohmmeter is
generally made multi-range instrument by using different values
of fixed resistances.

To measure resistance by the multimeter, a suitable range is

selected. Then the meter leads are shorted, and variable
resistance r is adjusted to give full-scale deflection.
Under this condition, the resistance between test leads is zero;
therefore, the scale of ohmmeter Indicates zero on the extreme
right end. Then the resistance under measurement is
connected between terminals test leads.

Sensitivity of Multimeter
The sensitivity of a multimeter may be defined as the
resistance offered to per volt of full-scale deflection by it. It
is an essential characteristic of a multimeter. If the sensitivity of
a multimeter is high, it means it has high internal resistance.
When such a meter is connected in the circuit to measure
voltage, it will draw negligible current, thus will measure
the correct voltage. The sensitivity of a multimeter varies from
8k ohm per volt to 20k ohm per volt.

Digital Multimeters

A digital multimeter is a device which provides combined

functionality of ammeter, voltmeter and ohmmeter. It is
commonly known as DMM. It is most widely used due to its
small size, price and ease in operation. A digital multimeter has
an analog/digital converter that provides a digital readout. This
increases the precision in reading the values.
Advantages of Digital Multimeters

First, we will discuss the pros or advantages of digital

multimeters.

1. They are more accurate than analog multimeters.

2. They reduce reading and interpolation errors.
3. The ‘auto-polarity’ function can prevent problems from
connecting the meter to a test circuit with the wrong
polarity.
4. Parallax errors are eliminated. If the pointer of an analog
multimeter is viewed from a different angle, you will see a
 different value. This is parallax error. A digital multimeter’s
numerical display solves this problem
5. Digital multimeter displays have no moving parts. This
makes them free from wear and shock failures.
6. The reading speed is increased as it is easier to read.
7. Unlike analog multimeters, zero adjustment is not required.
8. Digital output is suitable for further processing or recording
and can be useful in a rapidly increasing range of computer
controlled applications.
9. With the advent of Integrated circuits, the size, cost and
power requirements of digital multimeters has been
drastically reduced.
10. Accuracy is increased due to digital readout. You can
make mistake in reading the scale in analog multimeter, but
digital multimeters have a LCD display to show accurate
reading.
11. DMMs can be used in testing continuity, capacitors,
diodes and transistors. More advanced digital multimeters
can also measure frequency.
12. The ‘auto-ranging’ feature of a digital multimeter helps in
selecting different measurement ranges, which can prevent
damage to the meter if the wrong range is selected.
13. Portable size makes it easy to carry anywhere.
14. They cause less meter loading effects on the circuits
being tested.
15. Some advanced digital multimeters have microprocessors
and can store the readings for further processing.
16. They have very high input impedance.

Disadvantages of Digital Multimeters

1. The LCD display depends on a battery or external power

source. When the battery is low, the display will be dim,
making it difficult to read.
2. In case of fluctuations or transients, it can record an error.
 3. Warming of the meter during its use can change its
properties leading to errors in measured value.
4. The A/D converter has a limitation on word length which
can cause quantization noise giving rise to error in
measured value.
5. There is a voltage limitation. If it is increased beyond the
limit, the meter will be damaged.
6. The digital nature makes it unsuitable for adjusting tuning
circuits or peaking tunable responses.
7. They are expensive due to high manufacturing cost.

In spite of above mentioned disadvantages, the digital

multimeters are gaining popularity and are most widely used.

Applications:
The applications of ammeter mainly involve in various electrical
and electronic projects for components testing and also used in
different measurement applications in the multimeter.
1. Temperature and Environmental Applications
● Low-cost weather station
● DMM internal temperature
2. Voltage Measurements
● High and low-value DC measurement
● Peak to Peak and DC average measurement
3. Current Measurements
● DC measurement
● True RMS AC
4. Resistance Measurement
● Micro ohmmeter
● Measuring resistance with constant voltage
● Measuring resistance with constant current
5. Time and Frequency measurement
● Fast frequency
● Time measurement
Digital Storage
Oscillioscope(DSO):
Definition: The digital storage oscilloscope is defined as the
oscilloscope which stores and analysis the signal digitally,
i.e. in the form of 1 or 0 preferably storing them as analogue
signals. The digital oscilloscope takes an input signal, store
them and then display it on the screen. The digital oscilloscope
has advanced features of storage, triggering and measurement.
Also, it displays the signal visually as well as numerically.

Working Principle of Digital Storage Oscilloscope

The digital oscilloscope digitises and stores the input signal.
This can be done by the use of CRT (Cathode ray tube)
and digital memory. The block diagram of the basic digital
oscilloscope is shown in the figure below. The digitisation can
be done by taking the sample input signals at periodic
waveforms.
 The maximum frequency of the signal which is measured by
the digital oscilloscope depends on the two factors. Theses
factors are the

1. Sampling rate
2. Nature of converter.

Sampling Rate – For safe analysis of input signal the sampling

theory is used. The sampling theory states that the sampling
rate of the signal must be twice as fast as the highest frequency
of the input signal. The sampling rate means analogue to digital
converter has a high fast conversion rate.

Converter – The converter uses the expensive flash whose

resolution decreases with the increases of a sampling rate.
Because of the sampling rate, the bandwidth and resolution of
the oscilloscope are limited.

The need of the analogue to digital signal converters can also

be overcome by using the shift register. The input signal is
sampled and stored in the shift register. From the shift register,
the signal is slowly read out and stored in the digital form. This
method reduces the cost of the converter and operates up to
100 megasample per second.
The only disadvantage of the digital oscilloscope is that it does
not accept the data during digitisation, so it had a blind spot at
that time.

Waveform Reconstruction
For visualising the final wave, the oscilloscopes use the
technique of inter-polarization. The inter-polarization is the
process of creating the new data points with the help of known
variable data points. Linear interpolation and sinusoidal
interpolation are the two processes of connecting the points
together.

In interpolation, the lines are used for connecting the dot

together. Linear interpolation is also used for creating the
pulsed or square waveform. For sine waveform, the sinusoidal
interpolation is utilised in the oscilloscope.

There are some important application of digital storage

oscilloscope (DSO) are given below,
o The DSO is used to give the visual representation for a
target of radar such as aeroplane, ship etc.
o The DSO can be used to check the faulty components in
various circuits.
o It can be used in medical field.
o The DSO can be used to measure ac as well as dc voltages
and current.
o It can be used to analyze TV waveforms.
o The digital storage oscilloscope (DSO) is used to observe
the radiation pattern generated by the
transmitting antenna oscilloscope.
o The DSO used to save signals, so that it can be compared
to or processed.
o The DSO can be used to measure the
inductance, capacitor.
o It can be used to measure frequency, time period, time
interval between signals etc.
o It can be used to observe the V-I characteristics of
diodes, transistors.