The Treasure of Gold and Silver Artifacts From The Royal Tombs of Sipan - Peru PDF

Materials Characterization 45 (2000) 391 ± 420
The treasure of gold and silver artifacts from the Royal

Tombs of SipaÂn, Peru Ð a study on the Moche
metalworking techniques
G. HoÈrz*, M. Kallfass
Max-Planck-Institut fuÈr Metallforschung, Seestrasse 92, Stuttgart D-70174, Germany
Received 3 May 2000; accepted 20 August 2000
Abstract
In 1987 ± 1990, a spectacular treasure of gold and silver ornamental and ceremonial artifacts was recovered
scientifically from the unlooted Royal Tombs of SipaÂn, Peru (dated to approximately AD 50 ± 300). These objects
give evidence of the outstanding craftsmanship of the Moche metalsmiths and reflect the various elaborate
metalworking techniques available at that time. The present paper summarizes the results of a study on an array of
artifacts stemming mainly from the tomb of the ``Lord of SipaÂn.'' Most of the objects were found to be made of
thin sheet metal (1 ± < 0.1 mm thick), which was further worked by cutting, embossing, punching, and chasing.
Three-dimensional structures were created from pieces of the sheet metal by mechanical or metallurgical joining
(soldering or welding). The Moche metalsmiths were masters in making objects that looked like pure gold or
silver. In the case of copper objects, the surfaces were often found to be gilded electrochemically by the deposition
of very thin gold films. In the case of objects made of alloys of copper with gold and some silver (tumbaga) or of
copper with silver, the surface gilding or silvering was achieved by the depletion of copper, mostly by selectively
oxidizing the surface copper and etching away the copper oxides that are formed. D 2001 Elsevier Science Inc. All
rights reserved.
Keywords: Archaectechnology; Pre-Columbian metallurgy; Ancient Peruvian metallurgy; Moche metallurgy; Royal tombs of
SipaÂn, Peru; Sheet technique
1. Introduction 700), SicaÂn (AD 700 ± 1375), and ChimuÂ (AD 900 ±
1440) followed in sequence before the Inca Empire
Long before the Inca Empire was established, arose at about 1440. It ended only a hundred years
remarkable cultures and advanced civilizations rose, later with the arrival of the Spaniards at 1533. It
flourished, and fell in the Central Andean region, should be emphasized that the Inca Empire drew
roughly corresponding to today's Peru. On the north extensively on the achievements of the preceding
coast of Peru, after the period of ChavõÂn influence Andean cultures. In particular, the Inca could profit
(1000 ± 200 BC), the cultures of the Moche (AD 0 ± by the techniques based on the age-old Central
Andean metalworking tradition. After the conquest
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +49-7022-35103; fax: of the ChimuÂ realm, the Inca adopted the artistic
+49-711-2095-215. and technical skill of the ChimuÂ metalsmiths by
E-mail address: kallfass@hrem.mpi-stuttgart.mpg.de bringing them to their capital, Cuzco. A series of
(M. Kallfass). comprehensive well-written treatises has been pub-
1044-5803/00/$ ± see front matter D 2001 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.
PII: S 1 0 4 4 - 5 8 0 3 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 0 9 3 - 0
392 G. HoÈrz, M. Kallfass / Materials Characterization 45 (2000) 391±420
lished on the various aspects of the pre-Columbian Additional food was supplied by fishing along the
cultures [1 ± 12]. coast and the rivers and, to a lesser extent, by
One of the most remarkable civilizations, pre- hunting. The meat of domesticated animals supple-
ceding the Inca Empire in ancient Peru, was that of mented the Moche diet [14 ± 17].
the Moche (for general reading, see Refs. [2,4,6 ± The Moche society apparently was highly strati-
8,11,13 ± 17]). The Moche culture evolved in the fied and strictly organized with a high degree of
oasis river valleys on the arid north coast of Peru specialization of labor. It was ruled by an elite of
(Fig. 1). This was around AD 50 when the Roman mighty priests, warriors, and statutory authorities.
Empire was approaching full expanse. Several hun- Many workers were devoted to the construction and
dred years later, the cultural influence of the Moche maintenance of irrigational canal systems, roads,
extended along the coastal plane some 600 km from pyramids, palaces, and temples. The most spectacular
north to south between the valleys of the Piura and best-known structures were the Pyramids of the
River and the Huarmey River. Due to the geo- Sun and of the Moon. As signs of the religious and
graphic and climatic conditions, the east-to-west political might of Moche rulers, these pyramids were
expansion was, on average, only 80 km. The sub- built in the ceremonial center of the Moche in the
sistence of the Moche was based primarily on Moche River Valley near today's town Trujillo (Fig.
agriculture in the river valleys. The establishing of 1). The Pyramid of the Sun (Huaca del Sol) once
a complex widespread network of irrigation canals contained more than 140 million mold-made and air-
allowed the cultivation of a large variety of crops. dried adobe bricks and was about 60 m high. At the
Fig. 1. Map of the northern coast and highlands of today's Peru showing river valleys, archaeological sites, and present towns.
G. HoÈrz, M. Kallfass / Materials Characterization 45 (2000) 391±420 393
time, it was the largest structure built in South working of gold in ancient Peru, however, may be
America [15 ± 17]. traced back one millenium more to the south-central
The crafts of pottery, metalworking, and weaving highlands of Peru. At the Waywaca site, near the
were highly developed in the Moche society. The modern town of Andahuaylas, numerous tiny bits of
Moche potters were masters in producing bottles with hammered thin gold foil have been found by Gross-
stirrup spouts and jars in clay as three-dimensional man [20] in the burial of a young man and in an
sculptures. Moreover, the Moche craftsmen produced adjacent refuse deposit. In addition, a metalworkers'
clay jars and bottles in the form of heads that tool kit consisting of an anvil and three small ham-
exhibited individual facial features (portrait vessels). mers made of stone was detected near this site. This
In particular, the Moche potters were skilled at was the earliest documented evidence of metalwork-
decorating ceramic vessels with low-relief designs. ing in the Central Andes, dated to about 1500 BC.
They developed a technique of painting complex Another two remarkable groups of real goldwork
scenes on ceramic vessels that might be compared were discovered at the north coast of Peru near
to the method employed by the Greek vase painters of Chongoyape, in the Lambayeque Valley (Fig. 1), as
ancient Athens. Such painted clay vessels counted to described by Lothrop [21]. The artifacts, mostly
the very best art that remained from past Indian ornamental objects, were crafted from hammered
cultures. The presentations offered by the Moche sheet gold. They were of ChavõÂn style and were
pottery, both painted and modeled, feature such dated to the middle of the first millennium BC.
objects as men, women, animals, plants, anthro- Lothrop [22] depicts a third group of objects, con-
morphic demons, and deities engaged in a broad sidered to be in the ChavõÂn style. These artifacts were
spectrum of activities including hunting, fishing, made from sheets of hammered gold alloys that
combat, punishment, sexual acts, and elaborate cere- contained silver and some copper. Inspecting the
monies. Much of the pottery art seems to give insight artifacts in these three groups of gold work, it is
into the daily life of the Moche as well as religious concluded that by the end of the ChavõÂn influence,
ceremonies, thus apparently offering us a vivid record precious metal objects were manufactured by apply-
of some aspects of the Moche culture and society. ing the sheet metal technique and the methods of
However, it is astonishing that many everyday activ- joining pieces of preshaped metal sheet by soldering
ities, such as farming, cooking, and pottery making, and welding. Besides native gold and native gold ±
are never shown. According to the extensive studies silver alloys (with some copper), probably gold and
of Donnan and his scholars on the basis of a photo- silver were already intentionally alloyed at that time.
graphic archive of Moche art containing more than ChavõÂn-style artifacts, as described by Lothrop
125,000 photographs [16], scenes are often not what [21,22], may be considered the earliest works of art
they seem to be but are religious rituals or acts rich in in gold from the Americas [23,24], marking the
symbolism. On the other hand, the recent finds visible beginning of the Central Andean tradition in
stemming from the Royal Tombs of SipaÂn and from metalworking. Strikingly, the basic features of this
the tomb of a priestess at San JoseÂ de Moro in the tradition determined the manufacture of objects in the
lower Jequetepeque Valley [73] give solid evidence Andean area throughout a period of about two
that the so-called Sacrifice Ceremony often depicted millennia. This period involved the cultures of Cha-
in Moche art had actually taken place and the most võÂn, Moche, SicaÂn, and ChimuÂ. In Columbia, it
important participants had really lived [4,10,11,14 ± should be noted, the conceptually different tradition
19,73]. of metalworking by lost-wax casting evolved at the
The early introduction of molds and stamps made end of the first millennium BC [23].
the production of ceramics more efficient and allowed Within the Central Andean metalworking tradi-
the manufacture of many duplicates of individual tion, the Moche metalsmiths were the most sophisti-
pieces. As a consequence, elaborate ceramics became cated artisans. Continuing the tradition of the ChavõÂn
available for a wide range of Moche people and were smiths, they developed alloys of copper with silver or
no longer effective for demonstrating political power, with gold and some silver (tumbaga). They used these
wealth, and social status. In contrast, metal objects alloys in a wide range of compositions to produce
made of ``gold'' and ``silver'' were high-status items hammered sheet metal to serve as raw material for the
and were reserved for the elite [15,16]. manufacture of objects. Especially, they used the
Moche metalworking was based primarily upon property of these alloys to develop silver- or gold-
objects made of hammered sheet metal. The shaping looking surfaces by depleting the surface of copper.
of metals and alloys by hammering and subsequent Moreover, they invented the ingenious technique of
embossing rather than by casting follows a tradition electrochemical deposition of thin silver or gold films
that began at the north coast of Peru several centuries onto a copper surface. The techniques developed and
earlier during the period of ChavõÂn influence. The practiced by the Moche smiths were widely adopted
by the SicaÂn and the ChimuÂ metalworkers. However, sealed with adobe bricks. The body of the deceased
the virtuosity of the Moche smiths and the quality of Lord laid in an elaborate coffin of wooden planks held
their products were unequaled by any of the succeed- together by copper straps and containing rich metallic
ing cultures, including that of the Inca (AD 1440 ± ornaments, golden jewelry, and emblems of his worth
1533) [29]. Information on metalworking in ancient and power, which probably signified his triple role as
Peru, in particular at the time of the Moche, can be a ruler, a high priest, and a warlord. Of particular
found in Refs. [5,9,11,13,15,16,24 ± 34,71,72]. interest is the discovery that three young women and
The outstanding craftsmanship of the Moche has two men, who apparently were members of the ``royal
been impressively demonstrated by the vast treasure court'' of the ruler, were buried in the same chamber
of spectacular ``gold'' and ``silver'' ornamental and [35 ± 37,39 ± 44].
ceremonial artifacts found recently in the Royal The two other excavated Royal Tombs of SipaÂn are
Tombs of SipaÂn. These unlooted tombs were discov- designated as the tomb of the ``Priest'' (La Tumba del
ered in the ruins of an adobe pyramid, the Huaca Sacredote), which is contemporary with the tomb of
Rajada, near the small village of SipaÂn in the central the ``Lord of SipaÂn,'' and the tomb of the ``Old Lord
part of the Lambayeque River Valley (339 km from of SipaÂn'' (La Tumba del Viejo SenÄor), which dates to
Chiclayo) at the north coast of Peru (Fig. 1) [35 ± 44]. the earliest construction phase of the adobe pyramid
The tombs were excavated during 1987 ± 1990 under Huaca Rajada (AD 50). These tombs also contained a
the scientific direction of Walter Alva, director of the large number of valuable ``gold'' and ``silver'' orna-
BruÈning Museum (Museo ArqueoloÂgico Bruning) in mental and ceremonial objects. However, they were
Lambayeque. Prior to the discovery of the Royal not as richly and splendidly endowed as the Lord's
Tombs of SipaÂn, most of the precious metal artifacts [40,42 ± 44]. Thus, the tomb of the ``Lord of SipaÂn''
attributed to the Moche culture came from grave can be considered to be one of the richest and most
looting that was widespread. These objects were important unlooted burial sites of the pre-Inca period
presented as individual works of art in many museums ever found and archaeologically excavated in the New
and private collections and, thus, were without any World [35 ± 40]. In addition to about 200 ceramic
reliable geographical and cultural context. vessels and a series of utilitarian copper objects, many
The first royal tomb discovered was that of a 35- valuable metallic burial gifts were recovered, the
year-old Moche ruler and warrior priest; it is referred greater part being ``gold'' and ``silver'' ornamental
to as the tomb of the ``Lord of SipaÂn'' (Tumba del and ceremonial artifacts (e.g., banners; headdresses;
SenÄor de SipaÂn). The grave has been dated to about eye, nose, and chin ornaments; earspools; necklaces;
AD 300. The large burial chamber, extending over an ceremonial knives; backflaps; and bells). Only those
area of 3.25 2.40 m2 and having a height of almost 1 items that were made of copper ± gold ( ± silver) alloys
m, was originally covered with a log ceiling and was and contained a high level of gold in the near-surface
Table 1
Investigated objects from the tomb of the ``Lord of SipaÂn'': materials and techniques of manufacture
Materials Objects Techniques
}
Cu Coffin straps
Spacer bars Working
Handle of a fan
Head of a spear Casting
Cu ± As Rattle pellet Casting and working

Cu (Au) Banner with ornamental Working and electrochemical
platelets gilding
Cu ± Ag ``Silver'' ingot Casting
}
Human-head beads Working, embossing,
Spacer tubings depletion silvering,
Peanut beads and metallurgical joining
Ceremonial knife Casting and working
}
Cu ± Au ± Ag ``Gold'' ingot Casting
headdress Working,
Chin ornament embossing,
Ornamental disc depletion gilding,
Ornamental beads and sweat welding
layer retained their luster during the nearly 1700-year- The investigated objects were made of copper, of
long burial in the adobe pyramid. Other items with copper with small amounts of arsenic, and of copper
high copper content, especially those made of cop- alloyed with silver or with gold and silver. Those
per ± silver alloys and gilded copper, were covered materials containing considerable amounts of copper
with green-colored crusts containing copper corrosion were at least partially corroded and, thus, were fre-
products, or had corroded through and disintegrated quently brittle. Moreover, the samples were valuable,
into fragments. unique, and irreplaceable. Therefore, particularly strin-
The artifacts found in the tomb of the ``Lord of gent requirements had to be met on their investigation.
SipaÂn'' are of outstanding value for several reasons. Nevertheless, in general, standard methods of sample
They date from approximately AD 300; at that time, preparation (mounting, grinding, and polishing) and
the Moche culture flourished at the north coast of etching could be applied [45 ± 47]. Modifications of the
today's Peru and the metallurgical and metalworking methods, however, were necessary in the case of
techniques were highly developed. Because the samples exhibiting a composite deformed structure
objects recovered were attributed to a Moche ruler containing various metallic phases and corrosion pro-
and warrior priest, they were undoubtedly high-status ducts. Some optimized procedures used in etching the
items and, therefore, reflective of the most skillful and samples have been described in a previous work [45].
sophisticated manufacturing methods of the period. The microstructural examination of the materials
Additionally, the objects were found as an ensemble was carried out on samples in the polished or etched
in context to not only each other but the buried ruler. condition, initially with the light microscope under
Thus, the copper, silver, and gold objects offered a bright field illumination or with polarized light, and
unique opportunity to study the state of the art of the subsequently mostly at higher magnification with the
elaborate metalworking techniques at the time of the scanning electron microscope. Using appropriate
Moche. Realization of this project was made possible methods of etching the residual metallic core of the
by the support of the RoÈmisch-Germanisches Zen- samples [45,47], it was possible to obtain information
tralmuseum (RGZ), Mainz, that was entrusted with about the metallurgical and metalworking prehistory
the conservation, restoration, and reconstruction of a of the materials, e.g., regarding cast conditions,
large part of the finds [37,45,59]. For our extensive segregation, deformation, and annealing treatments.
investigations, RGZ supplied the Max-Planck-Institut To reveal the species of corrosion of copper-con-
fuÈ r Metallforschung, Stuttgart, with samples of taining artifacts, observation of the microstructure with
objects stemming preferentially from the tomb of polarized light proved helpful because several of the
the ``Lord of SipaÂn.'' In the present paper, results on corrosion products of copper appear in characteristic
parts of this study are reported and discussed follow- colors. Examples are brownish-red cuprite (Cu2O) and
ing the classification of objects according to Table 1. green malachite (CuCO3Cu(OH)2). It should, how-
ever, be considered that a greenish color can be also an
indication of other copper corrosion products contain-
2. Experimental methods ing chlorine or sulfur (atacamite and paratacamite,
CuCl23Cu(OH)2 or brochantite, CuSO43Cu(OH)2).
The samples used in this study comprised of To differentiate between the green-colored species,
remains or fragments of disintegrated objects, small phase analyses using X-ray diffraction by the Guinier
pieces of material that broke off items during restora- method using CuKa1 radiation [48,49] and electron
tion, and tiny quantities of material that could be beam microanalysis [50,51] must be carried out. How-
removed from hidden areas of selected artifacts. The ever, X-ray diffraction cannot differentiate between
samples were defined by their origin, i.e., they could atacamite and paratacamite, which are polymorphous
be attributed to the specific object and often to the modifications of the basic copper chloride
part or area of the object. In the case of precious (CuCl23Cu(OH)2). When copper-containing artifacts
artifacts, due to the condition of preserving them, the are buried in soil over long archaeological periods of
free choice of sampling from points of interest was time, the basic copper chloride appears often to be in
restricted. Therefore, the reliability of the results the paratacamite form [45]. Therefore, and for simpli-
obtained from the examination of small isolated areas city, in the following text, only the paratacamite
was improved and supported by many other observa- modification together with the possibly present mala-
tions referring to the whole object. Besides the chite will be referred to. The most important corrosion
appearance of the artifacts in the state after excava- products of copper, together with details of their
tion and the observations and experiences of the chemical composition, copper content, lattice struc-
restorers during reconstruction and restoration, the ture, and color, are summarized in Refs. [45,52].
close visual examination of the finds and samples by In determining the integral chemical composition
the authors of the present work should be mentioned. of the samples, analyses were made wherever possi-
ble of both the remaining metallic regions and the ceremonial artifacts exhibiting, after their restoration,
corroded areas of the samples. Semiquantitative com- a gold or silver appearance. Most of the items were
position data were obtained from X-ray fluorescence found to be made of hammered thin sheet metal of
analysis (XRFA), while more sensitive quantitative uniform thickness between about 1 and < 0.1 mm,
analyses were made by optical emission spectrometry while only few objects were manufactured by casting.
with inductively coupled, high-frequency plasma (ICP- Many objects were crafted in parts by embossing and
OES) using a polychromator and argon plasma [53,54]. then joined together along their edges to create three-
Local element concentrations of small areas of the dimensional structures. Examples of both mechanical
sample surface were measured by electron beam joining (crimping, stapling, and tab-and-slot techni-
microanalysis. In this technique, the intensities of que) and metallurgical joining (soldering and weld-
characteristic X-rays excited by the electron beam ing) were detected and studied.
are measured and analyzed either according to their The greater part of the investigated objects was
respective energies (energy-dispersive spectrometry, made of alloys (Table 1) exhibiting various combina-
EDS) or wavelengths (wavelength-dispersive spectro- tions and concentrations of copper, gold, and silver
metry, WDS) [50,51]. At optimum resolution, the (Table 2). The bulk compositions of some ``gold''
information obtained by WDS is characteristic of a artifacts are marked in the ternary gold ± silver ± cop-
sample volume with a surface of 1 ± 2 mm in diameter per phase diagram [61] in Fig. 2 by the points 2 ± 7.
and a depth of 1 ± 2 mm. It is, thus, possible to analyze Of special interest was the finding of three ingots
the distribution of elements in the sample surface or looking like gold and one ingot that was originally
across a section point-by-point at a distance of 1 ± 2 covered with copper corrosion products and had, after
mm from one another. This type of WDS line scan cleaning (by treating the object with a reducing, low-
analysis was carried out on samples exhibiting seg- pressure hydrogen plasma [58]), a grey-silvery
regation or various alternately occurring phases. appearance. One of the ``gold'' ingots was found on
For the compositional analysis of the near-surface top of a decomposed headdress and another one was
regions of gilded or silvered artifacts, Auger electron found in the mouth of the diseased Lord. The third
spectroscopy (AES), in combination with argon ion ``gold'' ingot was lying on the Lord's right hand,
sputtering, was a suitable method [55,56]. By mea- whereas the ``silver'' ingot was lying on his left hand
suring the depth profiles of element distribution, [40]. This pairing of gold and silver (here linked with
information on changes in the element concentration pairing of right and left sides) obviously was a
to a depth of about 5 mm was obtained [57]. common practice in the Moche culture and presum-
ably had a symbolic meaning to the Moche [40,60].
Among the artifacts stemming from the royal tombs,
3. Fundamental results some more examples expressing the gold ± silver
duality were detected [40].
The objects of the tomb of the Lord of SipaÂn Compositional analyses data (Table 2) show that
studied in this work are, in particular, ornamental and the ``silver'' ingot contains only 28.8% Ag, while one
Table 2
Chemical composition of some objects from the tomb of the ``Lord of SipaÂn'' (concentrations are for the bulk material and are
given as weight percent)
Object Numbera Method Cu % Au % Ag %
``Silver'' ingot ICP-OESb 66.9 1.3 28.8
``Gold'' ingot 1 ICP-OESb 39.0 48.4 12.7
Ornamental disc 4 ICP-OESb 21.6 61.2 17.0
Ornamental bead 6 ICP-OESb 21.9 53.7 18.7
Ornamental bead 5 WDSc 23.5 58.6 17.9
Ornamental bead 7 WDSc 46.5 45.0 8.5
Chin ornament 2 WDSc 54.5 35.6 11.1
Headdress 3 WDSc + ICP-OESb 60 34 6
Human-head bead Structural analysisd 79 1 20
Peanut bead Structural analysisd 15 ± 85
Ceremonial knife Structural analysisd 50 ± 50
a
Numbers refer to the notation in the ternary Ag ± Au ± Cu diagram in Fig. 2.
b
ICP-OES analyses are based on sufficient quantities of material.
c
WDS analyses are restricted to small isolated material areas; data are of less reliability.
d
Estimated values on the basis of the structural distribution of Cu-rich and Ag-rich phases are less reliable.
Fig. 2. Phase diagram of the ternary gold ± silver ± copper

system showing the semicircular-shaped a1 + a2 eutectic
miscibility gap AK2B at 800°C and isotherms of the
miscibility gap at lower temperatures [61]. EK1 denotes
the monovariant eutectic curve describing the three-phase
equilibrium a1 + a2 + L formed below 800°C. K1 is the
eutectic melt that is in equilibrium with the critical solid
solution a. a, a1, a2, and L denote, respectively, solid
solutions and the melt. The points of composition 1 ± 7 refer
to the ``gold'' ingot and some ``gold'' artifacts.
of the ``gold'' ingots has a gold content of 48.4%.

These ingots have the shape of an inverse flat cone,
the height amounting to 16.5 or 11.5 mm, respec-
tively, and the diameter at the upper surface amount-
ing to about 47 mm for both items (Fig. 3). As
illustrated in Fig. 4, the silver ingot exhibits wrinkles
of solidification on the plain upper surface and some
cavities with small remains of charcoal and wood on
the bottom cone surface. The wood could be attrib- Fig. 4. Cleaned ``silver'' ingot. (a) View on the plain upper
surface showing wrinkles of solidification. (b) View on the
convex bottom cone surface revealing remains of charcoal
and wood.
uted to the tree species, Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC,

designated by the inhabitants in South America as
``Mesquite, Cuji'' (D. Grosser, Institut fuÈr Holz-
forschung, UniversitaÈt MuÈnchen, Germany, private
communication, 1998).
Metallographic examinations of bits of the above
described silver and gold ingots revealed typical
dendritic cast structures (Fig. 5). As predicted by
the constitution of the silver ± copper phase diagram
in Fig. 6 [63], the microstructure of the silver ingot
is heterogeneous, containing dark primary crystals
rich in copper (WDS analyses yield a solid solution
of 8% Ag in 92% Cu) that are embedded in an
Fig. 3. Side views (schematically): (top)``silver'' ingot and eutectic mixture of bright silver and dark lamellar
(bottom) ``gold'' ingot. copper crystals (Fig. 5a). The dendritic microstruc-
Fig. 5. Scanning electron micrographs of the cast structures of the ``silver'' and ``gold'' ingots shown in Figs. 3 and 4. (a) Two-
phase structure of the copper ± silver alloy with primary dendritic crystals rich in copper (dark) embedded in an Ag ± Cu eutectic
mixture. (b) Dendritic structure of the gold ± silver ± copper alloy showing solid solution segregation. Sample (a) polished,
viewed with backscattered electrons; sample (b) etched in saturated potassium dichromate solution + HCl (5:1).
ture of the gold ingot shows solid solution segrega- particles are present. Inspecting the concentration
tion (Fig. 5b). WDS analyses indicate that the data in Table 2, it is evident that the bulk chemical
compositions of the dark primary crystals (47.7% compositions of the gold and silver ingots are not
Au, 6.0% Ag, and 45.7% Cu) and the solidified representative for any of the materials used in the
bright residual melt (46.1% Au, 19.9% Ag, and manufacture of the investigated objects. For the gold
33.1% Cu) differ markedly in the copper and silver artifacts, this is illustrated in the ternary Au ± Ag ± Cu
concentrations, whereas the gold concentrations are phase diagram in Fig. 2 by the array of points of
only slightly different. These data can be understood composition for the gold ingot (point 1) and some
by consulting the constitution of the ternary gold ± objects (points 2 ± 7). The scatter of compositional
silver ± copper system [62,74]. From temperature vs. data reflects the skill of the Moche metalsmiths to
copper concentration sections showing the liquidus smelt and work alloys of copper with gold and silver
and solidus for several gold concentrations [62], it in a wide range of concentrations.
can be suggested that from a melt exhibiting the Moche metalsmiths used copper extensively, not
composition of the investigated gold ingot (48.4% only as a base metal in alloys with gold (tumbaga) or
Au, 12.7% Ag, and 39.0% Cu), primary crystals, with silver, but also for the manufacture of copper
which are richer in copper than the solidified resi- objects, such as tools, implements, and weapons [29].
dual melt, should be formed. Correspondingly, such utilitarian items were also
Noticeable is the observation that in the structures found in the tomb of the ``Lord of SipaÂn.'' The
of both ingots, many cavities and copper oxide functional copper objects investigated in this work
(Table 1) were made from rather pure copper, sug-
gesting that the material had been smelted from an
oxidic ore or from copper carbonate ore. Only one
Fig. 6. Phase diagram of the eutectic silver ± copper sys- Fig. 7. Cleaned coffin straps. With the permission of the
tem [63]. RGZ, Mainz.
item contained small amounts of arsenic. Since this direction of deformation. Many cuprite particles
object (copper rattle pellet) was manufactured before arranged parallel to the object's axis were detected
AD 300, it is less probable that the copper ± arsenic also in the metallic structures of the coffin straps and
alloy was smelted intentionally. According to Lecht- spacer bars showing that these items, too, were
mann [33] and Shimada and Merkel [71], the Moche fabricated from cast copper material by hammering.
metalsmiths seem to have experienced and used However, these metallic cores were completely
copper ± arsenic alloys probably only at late Moche recrystallized, as documented in Fig. 8d, for the
times. The large-scale production of these alloys sample of a coffin strap. This gives evidence of a
began much later, around AD 900, when the SicaÂn final annealing treatment of the coffin straps and
culture flourished on the north coast of Peru. spacer bars with the aim to make the materials
The dominating features in Moche metallurgy ductile. Correspondingly, low Vickers hardness num-
and metalworking technique were the fabrication bers were measured in the areas of the metallic
and use of high-quality thin sheet metal and, in remains of the examined coffin strap (66 HV 0.1 to
particular, the surface color of the objects. This is 82 HV 0.1) and spacer bar (95 HV 0.1). Much higher
impressively demonstrated by the treasure of artifacts was the hardness of the metallic handle of the fan
from the tomb of the ``Lord of SipaÂn,'' appearing (154 HV 0.1) that was, in the final state, deformed.
(after restoring) in gold and silver splendor. In the Considering the function of the described objects, it
present study, it could be confirmed that the Moche seems reasonable that the handle of the fan was left
artisans were masters in the gilding and silvering of in a final work-hardened state, whereas the coffin
objects. Examples for the application of two sophis- strap and spacer bar finally were soft-annealed to
ticated techniques [29,30] were detected: (i) the allow bending.
electrochemical gilding of copper objects (electro- Examples for objects fabricated from copper by
chemical replacement plating) and (ii) the gilding or casting were the head of a spear and a rattle pellet. The
silvering of objects made of copper ± gold ± silver investigated fragment of the spearhead, shown in Fig.
(tumbaga) or copper ± silver alloys, respectively, by 9, was roughly cleaned. It was 18 mm long, exhibiting
selective removal of copper from the near-surface a circular cross section with a diameter of 3.5 mm at
regions of the items (depletion gilding or silvering). the lower end and of only 1.4 mm at a distance of 1
It was found that in most cases, the development of a mm below the tip of the spear. The cross-sectional
gilded or silvered surface on the investigated artifacts view of the spear in Fig. 10a reveals an extended
was an inevitable consequence of the processing cavity in the center and some notches at the outer
technique including alternating hammering, anneal- surface of the spear, which can be interpreted as
ing, and pickling off the surface copper oxide formed casting flaws. As shown in Fig. 11a, the notches are
in their process. covered with a layer of blue ± green malachite/para-
tacamite, indicating that they were already present
when the spear had been ready-fabricated.
4. Working of copper The metallographic examination of cross and
longitudinal sections of the spear fragment combined
4.1. Functional objects with EDS analyses revealed that the item had exten-
sively transformed into corrosion products. Inspect-
Among the investigated copper objects of func- ing Fig. 11a, it can be concluded from the brown ±
tional nature (Table 1) are coffin straps (Fig. 7), red color that cuprite (Cu2O) is the dominating
which were used to lash together the wooden planks species in the bulk of the spear. The structure
of the Lord's coffin [40,45]; spacer bars, which were consists apparently of many fine grains. This is
used to stabilize a beaded pectoral and to keep confirmed by the scanning electron micrograph of
multiple strands of shell beads (made from spondylus a fracture surface at higher magnification in Fig. 10b.
mussel shells) parallel to one another [40,45]; and the In contrast, the tip of the spear shows large areas of
handle of a fan. In spite of partial heavy deteriora- compact blue ± green malachite/paratacamite and red
tion, comprising both surface layer and bulk corro- cuprite (Fig. 11b).
sion products of copper, the examined objects, in Copper pellets were found inside a series of
general, exhibited a residual metallic copper core. objects from the royal tomb, e.g., in the cones
This is illustrated in Fig. 8a and b for the handle of a attached at the lower edge of the banner shown in
fan and a coffin strap, respectively. The metallic core Fig. 14 (see Section 4.2), in human-head-shaped
of the handle of the fan was found to have the beads (Fig. 21), peanut beads (Fig. 25), single bells,
structure of a deformed material with numerous and bells as parts of backflaps (M. Fecht, RoÈmisch-
cuprite precipitates (Fig. 8c) that are aligned parallel Germanisches Zentralmuseum (RGZ), Mainz, Ger-
to the longitudinal axis of the handle indicating the many, private communication, 1998). They were
Fig. 8. Light micrographs of longitudinal sections of the handle of a fan and of a coffin strap, viewed in polarized light. (a,b)
Corrosion products encase the metallic core of the samples. (c) The copper core of the handle of the fan is heavily deformed,
exhibiting numerous aligned cuprite particles. (d) The copper core of the coffin strap shows a recrystallized structure with
annealing twins and many aligned cuprite particles. Samples (a) and (b) polished, sample (c) etched in 20% ferric chloride
solution, and sample (d) color etched in Klemm III reagent. (Magnification bars measure 200, 1000, 50 and 40 mm, respectively.)
intended to give the objects the function of rattles. with a crust of cuprite and malachite/paratacamite. It
The investigated pellet (diameter: 12 mm) stemming had been cast from a copper material containing, on
from an ornamental cone of the banner was covered an average, about 1.5% arsenic. The cross section
Fig. 11. Light micrographs of spear fragments, viewed in polarized light. (a) Detail of the cross section in Fig. 10a showing red
cuprite in the materials bulk and green malachite/paratacamite corrosion products covering the spear and the notch surfaces. (b)
Longitudinal section of the near-tip area of the spear exhibiting heavy corrosion (red: cuprite, blue ± green: malachite/
paratacamite). Samples (a) and (b) polished. (Magnification bars are 100 and 400 mm, respectively.)
Inside and along these defects, much brown ± red

cuprite had formed. Etching of the sample section
revealed the occurrence of a cored dendritic cast
structure with pronounced solution segregation in
the center of the pellet segment and with weak signs
of deformation and recrystallization (Fig. 12b). In the
near-surface area, a recrystallized structure with
extended parallel segregation bands could be made
visible by Klemm III color etching (Fig. 12c). In
WDS line scans, the segregation is reflected by
periodical changes in the arsenic content, the con-
centrations ranging between 0.2% and 1.8% (Fig.
13). These structural features give evidence that the
cast copper pellet was brought in its final shape by
working and was subsequently annealed.
It should be noted that among the investigated
objects excavated from the tomb of the Lord of SipaÂn,
the rattle pellet was the only one that was fabricated
from copper containing small amounts of arsenic. It
may be supposed that the arsenic had been added to
the copper accidentally and not intentionally. Follow-
ing the present knowledge [33], the Moche smiths
began to experience and use arsenical copper only in
the late Moche times.
Fig. 9. Cleaned head of a spear (length: 14 mm, diameter at

the lower end: 3.6 mm).
Fig. 10. Scanning electron micrographs of polished cross
sections at the lower end of the spear fragment showing (a)
through the pellet in Fig. 12a shows a large cavity in an extended cavity in the center and notches at the surface
the bulk that obviously is a casting flaw. This cavity of the spear and (b) the fine grain structure at the surface
is connected to the surface of the pellet by a fissure. of a fracture.
Fig. 12. Light micrographs of cross sections through a copper pellet, viewed in polarized light. (a) Metallic bulk containing a cavity
filled with red cuprite. (b) Cored dendritic cast structure in the center of the pellet segment exhibiting solid solution segregation of
arsenic in copper. (c) Recrystallized structure in a near-surface region showing zones of segregation worked out into bands. Sample
(a) polished; samples (b) and (c) color etched in Klemm III reagent. (Magnification bars are 1000, 100, and 200 mm, respectively.)
4.2. Banner with ornamental platelets reconstructing, is shown in Fig. 14. It is 54 cm broad
and 48.5 cm high; originally, it consisted of two or
A series of objects found in the tomb of the Lord of more layers of coarse cotton cloth on which a human
SipaÂn was identified to be manufactured of gilded male figure and many platelets, all made of gilded
copper sheet. Examples are some human male figures, copper sheets, were sewn. The central figure in high-
numerous platelets, and many rattle cones that were
sewn on a shirt-like garment of the Lord or were part
of two banners. One of the banners, after cleaning and
Fig. 16. Cross section through the ornamental platelet in Fig.

15 revealing a microstructure with copper corrosion
products in the bulk and above the original surface of the
Fig. 14. Cleaned and reconstructed banner with numerous platelet that is marked by a thin ``gold'' film (2 ± 6 mm thick).
ornamental platelets and a central human male figurine in Sample polished and viewed in polarized light. (Magnifica-
high-relief (width: 54 cm, height: 48.5 cm). tion bar is 100 mm.)
decomposed into corrosion products during the

nearly 1700-year-long burial. Only the thin gold films
withstood the corrosion attack, enabling a restoration
of the platelets to give them a lustrous appearance
similar to what they had once been.
It is of interest to note that the transformation of
copper into corrosion products results in an increase
of volume; e.g., the ratio of the molar volumes of
copper and cuprite amounts to 1:2. In spite of this,
the gold films obviously have maintained their
original shape (Fig. 16). Therefore, it must be
assumed that in a first stage of the corrosion of the
platelets, copper ions diffused through the gold film
to the outer surface where they were oxidized and
formed a cuprite layer. This layer increased in
thickness and then lost adherence to the surface. In
Fig. 13. Examination of the segregation bands shown in Fig.
a later stage, in the presence of carbon dioxide,
12c by a WDS line scan of the arsenic concentration vs. water, and chlorides, cuprite partially transformed
distance across a small area of the sample. into malachite/paratacamite. In addition, the corro-
sion of copper took place also in the bulk of the
platelets beneath the gold film. The growth of the
relief, which is assembled from individual pieces, is inner voluminous copper oxides was supported by
richly decorated and exhibits a flat helmet, raised the many lattice defects, especially vacancies and
arms, and the feet pointing out to the sides. The pores that had formed during the preceding outward
ornamental platelets surrounding the small figure are diffusion of copper [45].
approximately quadratic; those located along the outer There is no doubt that the Moche metalsmiths
edges of the banner were each embossed to show the crafted the copper platelets by applying the sheet
relief of an ulluchu fruit. Along the lower edge of the technique. This method comprises the shaping of the
banner was a row of attached gilded copper cones (not original cast ingot into sheet metal by alternate
visible in Fig. 14) serving as decorative fringe [40]. hammering and annealing. Actually, the cross-sec-
The cones exhibited a banded surface relief; they were tional views through some corroded platelet frag-
hollow and contained copper pellets that gave them ments revealed a layered structure that indicates the
the function of rattles (see Functional objects). previous heavy deformation of the material (Fig. 17).
When the banner was excavated, the metallic Frequently, in such micrographs, a weak recrystal-
items were covered with a dark green patina layer. lized structure of large grains was seen to be super-
As an example, Fig. 15 shows an ornamental platelet
with an ulluchu fruit relief (dimensions: 32 29
mm2). In a small area at the center of the fruit, where
the green corrosion crust has been removed, the
original surface of the gilded copper platelet is visible
(bright). The microstructure of a polished cross sec-
tion through the platelet, viewed in polarized light, is
presented in Fig. 16. It is seen that the item, which is
approximately 0.4 mm thick at the center, is heavily
corroded throughout. A thin ``gold'' film (2 ± 6 mm)
clearly marks the original surface of the platelet and
separates the dark-brown-colored corrosion species in
the bulk of the platelet from the thick corrosion layers
that developed above the gold film. The exterior
corrosion crust consists mainly of reddish-brown
and orange cuprite (copper (I) ± oxide, Cu 2 O),
green-to-blue malachite (basic copper carbonate,
CuCO3Cu(OH)2), and paratacamite (basic copper
chloride, CuCl23Cu(OH)2) [45]. The metallographic Fig. 15. Ornamental platelet (32 29 mm2) with an ulluchu
examination of some other samples confirmed that fruit relief covered with a green patina layer and showing a
the copper platelets have, in general, completely small area of the bare original gilded surface.
Fig. 17. Light micrograph of the cross section of a platelet Fig. 19. Cross section of a platelet fragment revealing
fragment showing the layered structure of the corroded bulk details of the ``gold'' film> embedded in the corrosion
of the material. Sample polished and viewed in bright field. products of copper. The gold film closely follows the original
surface of the copper substrate and covers even the edges.
imposed on the prevailing layered deformation struc- Sample etched in 50% aqueous HNO3 solution and viewed in
bright field.
ture. This observation suggests that the material was
annealed subsequent to the copper working. Addi-
tional indications of an annealing treatment can be EDS and WDS analyses revealed that the coat-
seen in Fig. 18, which shows a fracture surface across ings consist not of pure gold but a gold ± copper
a small residual metallic region of a platelet fragment. solid solution (containing some silver) that changes
The forced fracture is of the mixed type and exhibits in composition across the film. For example, near
large recrystallized grains and twins as well as many the interface between the film and the (corroded)
pores. The pores are frequently elongated in one copper the composition was 70% Cu, 28% Au, and
direction, thus indicating the previous directional 2% Ag, whereas in the center of the film the
working of the material. composition was 56% Cu, 41% Au, and 3% Ag.
Special attention was focused on the characteris- From these results, it may be concluded that the
tics of the gold films encasing the platelets. The platelets were heated after being coated with the film
inspection of microstructures like those presented in of gold. Due to this treatment, interdiffusion of
Figs. 16 and 19 shows that the thin gold films on the copper and gold across the gold ± copper interface
whole are rather uniform and even, but they exhibit took place, resulting in the formation of a transient
short distance variations in thickness from 2 to 6 mm. solid solution zone. This process was accompanied
Due to defects, the films are not continuous. Strik- by an increase of the thickness of the original
ingly, the gold films closely follow the original sur- deposited gold film. The interdiffusion between the
face of the copper platelets and even cover their copper and gold can be expected to have occurred
edges. Thus, the films resemble modern deposits preferentially along grain boundaries. Thus, some of
produced electrochemically [64 ± 66].
Fig. 18. Scanning electron micrograph of a recrystallized Fig. 20. Scanning electron micrograph of the near-surface
residual metallic region in the bulk of a platelet showing the region of a platelet fragment revealing a bamboo-like grain
surface of a forced fracture (mixed type) with large grains, structure of the ``gold'' film. Sample etched in 50% aqueous
twins, and elongated pores. HNO3 solution.
the tiny protrusions of the gold ± copper film directed The electrochemical replacement plating can be
into the interior of the platelet (Fig. 19) may reflect characterized by the ion exchange reaction [68]:
former grain boundaries of the metallic copper
intersecting the surface of the platelet. Remarkably, 2Au3 3Cu ) 2Au0 3Cu2
the decoration film shows a bamboo-like structure
(Fig. 20) that might be considered as a further according to which copper is dissolved in the
indication for an annealing treatment of the platelets electrolytic solution as ions, while gold ions from
subsequent to the gilding procedure. It is possible the solution are deposited and neutralized on the
that the abovediscussed signs of recrystallization in copper surface. The reaction is based on the large
the bulk of the platelets (Fig. 18) are caused also by potential difference between gold (noble) and copper
the heating of the platelets after their coating with (less noble) in the electrochemical series of chemical
the gold film. elements. It requires anodic (positive) and cathodic
Of great interest is the method applied by the (negative) areas, which are provided by different parts
Moche metalsmiths to gild the copper objects. This of the same copper surface. As supposed by Lechtman
problem has been treated previously by Lechtman [29], small pits or irregularities on the surface of the
[29,64 ± 66] in her study on gilded copper objects of copper may act as anodes. The anodic activities
Moche style found at Loma Negra, located in the should continue as long as possible to favor deposition
Piura Valley in northern Peru. The Loma Negra of gold onto the adjacent cathodic surface areas.
copper objects were also made of hammered sheet
metal and exhibited remarkably thin (0.5 ± 2.0 mm)
and uniform gold (or silver) coatings that, in their
5. Working of copper ± silver alloys
characteristics, were similar to those of the gold films
on the SipaÂn ornamental platelets. Probably, these
objects were manufactured by the Moche at about the 5.1. Human-head beads
same time when the artifacts stemming from the tomb
of the ``Lord of SipaÂn'' were made [40]. By perform- The investigated ``silver'' human-head beads
ing experiments designed to reproduce the gilding of belong to a necklace of 10 beads. Fig. 21 shows one
copper, Lechtman demonstrated that the Moche of them after cleaning and restoring. When the head
metalsmiths achieved the surface gilding by a sophis- beads were excavated, they were covered with green-
ticated electrochemical deposition method that today colored crusts containing copper corrosion products,
is referred to as electrochemical replacement plating indicating a high copper content; some of the beads
[29,64 ± 67]. had even disintegrated into fragments. Made from thin
Following the studies of Lechtman, the Moche sheets of a copper ± silver alloy by embossing, punch-
metalsmiths presumably dissolved gold (which con- ing, and chasing, the head beads were hollow and
tained some silver) in aqueous mixtures of corrosive composed of two halves (one for the face and one for
minerals, such as common salt (NaCl), potassium the back of the head) that were joined metallurgically
nitrate (KNO3), and potassium aluminum sulfate along their edges. Inside each of the beads, two copper
(KAl(SO4)212H2O). These minerals were available
in the desert environment at the north coast of Peru.
It should be noted that in mixing the above minerals
in equal parts, a highly acidic aqueous solution is
obtained containing trivalent gold ions from which
chloroauric acid (H(AuCl4)3H2O) would crystallize.
Therefore, Lechtman, in her experiments, alkalized
the solution to a pH value of 9. Only then did she
succeed in coating a copper sheet with a film of gold
approximately 1 mm thick, when the sheet was
dipped for 5 min in a gently boiling solution. To
bond the film permanently to the copper surface, the
object was heated at a temperature between about
500°C and 800°C at which solid-state diffusion of
copper and gold could proceed. Due to this treatment,
a transient gold ± copper zone developed at the sur-
face and the copper objects began to recrystallize. Fig. 21. ``Silver'' human-head-shaped bead after cleaning
Both phenomena were observed on the investigated and restoration (width: 5.1 cm, height: 4.0 cm) that belongs
ancient items. to a necklace of 10 beads.
Fig. 22. Scanning electron micrographs of the polished cross section through a head-shaped bead fragment. (a) Lamellar structure
of the heavily deformed material consisting of silver-rich lamellae, stringers, and globules (light) embedded in copper-rich layers
(dark). (b) Detail of the section in (a) showing the morphology of the silver-rich phase (light).
pellets were placed to stabilize the necklace and to views of fragments of the objects (Fig. 22a). As
give it the function of a multirattle when moved. The predicted by the constitution of the eutectic silver ±
shapes, dimensions (ranging from 5.0 to 5.2 cm in copper system (Fig. 6) [63] and illustrated by the
width and from 4 to 5 cm in height), and facial exemplary cast structure in Fig. 5a, the melt of this
features are similar but differ from head to head. alloy is expected to solidify through the formation of
These slight variations suggested that the Moche primary dendritic copper-rich crystals and an eutectic
metalsmiths had crafted the beads by using mold- mixture of silver and copper crystals. When the ingot
shaped beds and by subsequently working out the was alternately hammered and annealed, the consti-
details individually. Originally, the head beads were tuents became increasingly elongated in the direction
kept apart by spacer tubings that were made of thin of the material flow. After many cycles of hammer-
sheets of metal (thickness: 0.15 mm) of the same ing and annealing, the original cast structure was
copper ± silver alloy as used for the head beads. transformed into a structure exhibiting an increasing
For studying the structure and chemical composi- phase separation into alternating silver-rich and cop-
tion of both the human-head beads and the spacer per-rich lamellae. This microstructure was character-
tubings, several fragments of these items were ized by large interfacial areas between the two
sampled. The metallographic examination of many phases with a high interfacial free energy. Hence,
cross sections revealed two different types of micro- the disintegration of the thin silver lamellae into
structures. The first type (Fig. 22) is characterized by small stringers and globular particles, as observed
a lamellar microstructure typical for a drastically
deformed heterogeneous material. This structure is
reflected in WDS line scans (Fig. 23) by periodical
changes in the copper and silver concentrations. The
bright lamellae, which frequently are disintegrated
into stringers and globules (Fig. 22 a and b), are
found to be rich in silver, while the dark broader
layers are rich in copper. The copper is partially
transformed into its corrosion products, cuprite and
malachite/paratacamite. This can be concluded by
examining the microstructure of polished sample
sections with polarized light.
The occurrence of the lamellar microstructure can
be understood by considering that the human-head
beads and the spacer tubings were crafted from thin
sheet metal. The sheet material itself was made from
the cast ingot of a copper ± silver alloy having the
probable composition of 79% Cu, 20% Ag, and 1% Fig. 23. WDS line scans of the concentrations of copper
Au. The concentrations of copper and silver were (Cu), silver (Ag), and gold (Au) as a function of the distance
estimated from the fractional areas of the copper-rich across a small area of a layered structure like that shown in
and silver-rich phases appearing in cross-sectional Fig. 22.
Fig. 24. Scanning electron micrographs of the polished cross section of another head-shaped bead fragment. (a) Pseudo-cast
structure consisting of copper-rich crystals (light and dark grey) and a silver-rich eutectic mixture (light). (b) Detail of the section
in (a) showing partial corrosion of the copper-rich crystals.
in Fig. 22b, can be attributed to the tendency to like that shown in Fig. 24 can be expected to develop.
minimize this energy. It may be assumed that the high-temperature treat-
Another direct consequence of the metalworking ment of the material was performed locally to join the
by alternate hammering and annealing was the for- two halves of a head-shaped bead along their edges.
mation of a silvered surface on the sheet metal. Although this assumption could not be proven based
During the intermediate annealing treatments to keep on an examination of the head-bead samples, such
the material malleable, copper oxide formed on the joining was detected in the analysis of a ``silver''
surface. The Moche metalsmiths probably removed peanut bead.
the oxide scales using acidic plant juices or stale
urine that had degraded to ammonia. After many 5.2. Peanut beads
cycles of hammering, annealing, and pickling off the
copper oxide, the copper ± silver sheet in the near- The investigated ``silver'' peanut beads belong to a
surface region was depleted of copper and enriched necklace consisting of two strands, each with 10
with silver. As a result, the object that was manu- beads. Five of them were made of ``gold '' and the
factured from this sheet metal appeared as if it were other five of ``silver,'' thus expressing the Moche's
made of pure silver (depletion silvering) [29], pairing of gold and silver in a symbolic duality
although the copper ± silver alloy contained only [40,60]. In Fig. 25, a small section of the necklace is
about 20% silver. reproduced after restoration. As found for the human-
The second type of microstructures (Fig. 24) head-shaped beads, the hollow peanut beads comprise
detected in some other fragments of human-head two halves that were joined metallurgically along their
beads, but not of spacer tubings, exhibits the char- edges. Moreover, these beads also contained copper
acteristics of a cast material. Using EDS and WDS pellets and were made of thin sheets of a copper ±
analyses, the large light- or dark-grey grains could be silver alloy. However, contrary to the case of the
identified as being rich in copper, while the white
structural elements are silver-rich. The copper was
found to have at least partially transformed into
corrosion products. An estimation of the silver con-
centration again led to a value of about 18%. Thus,
both structures observed in fragments of human-head
beads obviously are based on the same original
copper ± silver alloy and, moreover, the pseudo-cast
structure must have developed from the deformed
structure. By considering the features of the eutectic
silver ± copper phase diagram in Fig. 6, it is evident
that this transition required an intermediate heating of
the material to a point at least above the eutectic
temperature of 779°C. As a result, the material
transformed from the solid into a semiliquid state in Fig. 25. Cleaned and restored ``silver'' and ``gold'' peanut
which solid copper-rich crystals were embedded in a beads (width: 6.8 ± 8.7 cm, height: 3.1 ± 4.1 cm) belonging to
silver-rich melt. After slow cooling, microstructures a necklace.
Fig. 26. Scanning electron micrograph of the polished cross section of a peanut fragment. (a) Pseudo-cast microstructure with
silver-rich crystals embedded in a eutectic mixture of silver and copper crystals. (b) Detail of the section in (a) showing the fine
lamellar structure of the eutectic mixture.
investigated head beads, the silver concentration was the joint was necessary to avoid complete melting of
determined to be very high, amounting to about 80%. the materials involved.
The metallographic examination of peanut frag-
ments revealed structures that were typical for either
deformed or cast material. Fig. 26 shows a pseudo-cast 5.3. Ceremonial knife (tumi)
microstructure with large grains, which are partially
embedded in a mostly degenerated eutectic. Based on Another object examined, manufactured from a
EDS and WDS analyses, the grains were found to be copper ± silver alloy, is the ceremonial knife (tumi)
rich in silver. As with the head-shaped beads, the shown in Fig. 28 after cleaning and restoring. The
occurrence of a pseudo-cast structure indicates that tumi is photographed against a gold backflap and
in the manufacture of the peanut beads, an intermedi- together with some owl-head beads. In Moche art,
ate local heating of the material had been carried out tumis are frequently depicted as being used to cut off
above the eutectic temperature of 779°C (see phase the heads of prisoners or human sacrifices. They were
diagram in Fig. 6). This heating was certainly neces- also made from copper ± gold ± silver alloys. In the
sary to join the halves of the peanut beads. tomb of the Lord of SipaÂn, the symbolic duality of
Fig. 27 illustrates cross-sectional views through a silver and gold objects is reflected by a pair of tumis
peanut fragment showing a joint that is composed of of comparable form and size (11.5 cm high for the
the two parts of the peanut and a filler material gold tumi and 12.0 cm for the silver tumi) [40,60].
introduced between these parts. In Fig. 27a, the areas Both tumis rested on the chest of the deceased Lord
of the peanut pieces are shown in bright field, together with four necklaces (see Fig. 42). The upper
whereas the filler material is tinted red. It is seen that narrow part of the silver knife in Fig. 28 serves as a
the peanut pieces were joined in a configuration by handle; the wider part at the bottom (8.2 cm broad) is
which the pieces were slightly spread out and slightly the blade. The cutting edge, however, is not sharp,
overlapping along their edges. indicating that the tumi was not for use as a knife but
EDS analyses carried out across the joint had the meaning of an ornamental object that could
revealed that the composition of the filler is only have been worn at the belt. For this use, the top of the
slightly different from the composition of the peanut handle is perforated, allowing to draw a loop of
material. These results suggest that both materials cordage through the hole.
originated from the same or similar alloys. The filler In Fig. 29, cross sections of a tiny sample
does, however, exhibit a higher concentration of stemming from a region near the edge of the tumi
defects than that of the two peanut pieces. In the are represented. The microstructure in Fig. 29a,
micrograph of Fig. 27b, viewed in polarized light, viewed in bright field, shows the characteristic
the defects appear differently colored, indicating the structural features of the casting of a copper ± silver
presence of cuprite, malachite/paratacamite, or cal- alloy consisting of primary dendritic crystals and an
cium carbonate. The small white areas simply repre- eutectic mixture. EDS and WDS analyses revealed
sent bubbles. Most striking is the perfect union of that the light- and dark-brown primary crystals are
the two peanut parts mediated by the filler material. rich in copper (differing slightly in concentration),
This technique of joining certainly made great whereas the light eutectic mixture, in which numer-
demands on the skill of the Moche metalsmiths. In ous small dark copper-rich particles are embedded,
particular, a reliable control of the local heating of is rich in silver. Fig. 29b shows a detail of this
Fig. 27. Cross section through the joined region of two parts of a peanut bead showing that the filler material contains a high
density of defects (bubbles and inclusions). Polished section viewed in (a) bright field; the filler material tinted red and in (b)
polarized light. (Magnification bar is 500 mm.)
structure that can be compared with that of the cast tured by casting. This technique was considerably
silver ingot in Fig. 5a. The concentration changes in less frequently applied by the Moche metalsmiths
copper and silver and the constant concentration of than the sheet technique [29]. It is thought that
gold impurities are clearly reflected by the WDS line casting was done using an open mold. The edges
scans in Fig. 30. Striking is the occurrence of a of the tumi were rounded by a subsequent hammer-
broad near-surface zone that is practically free of ing. As a consequence, the thickness of the ceremo-
copper particles and contains about 90% silver. This
zone, which might be 15 ± 40 mm deep (Fig. 29a),
gives the tumi the appearance of pure silver,
although the average silver content of the original
copper ± silver alloy may be estimated to be lower
than 50%. To achieve the surface silvering, the
Moche metalsmiths probably removed the near-sur-
face copper by selective chemical dissolution. Con-
sidering the broad copper-depleted zone, it must be
assumed that the object was heated intermediately in
order to initiate the diffusion of copper to the surface
with subsequent oxidation of copper and etching
away the copper oxides that form in the process.
The metallographic results on the ceremonial
knife give evidence that this object was manufac-
Fig. 29. Cross sections through a tiny sample of the tumi

edge exhibiting a dendritic cast microstructure that consists
of primary copper-rich crystals (brown or dark-toned)
Fig. 28. Cleaned and restored ceremonial ``silver'' ceremo- embedded in a eutectic mixture of copper and silver crystals.
nial knife (tumi) with a width up to 8.2 cm and a height of (a) Sample color etched in Klemm III solution and viewed in
12.0 cm. The tumi is photographed together with a ``gold'' bright field (magnification bar is 30 mm). (b) Scanning
backflap and some original owl's head beads. electron micrograph of polished sample.
etched and viewed in polarized light or bright field,

respectively, reveal a layered structure that is drasti-
cally disturbed by widespread and voluminous green
corrosion products of copper (malachite/parataca-
mite). The apparently metallic parts of the material,
which exhibit in Fig. 32a the geometric array of
alternate light- and dark-brown layers parallel to the
surface, occur only in relatively small areas. In other
larger areas, the layers are disintegrated into smaller
pieces, as illustrated in Fig. 32b at a higher magni-
fication. Numerous cracks are present also in the
better-preserved parts of the material (Fig. 33), indi-
cating that the headdress ornament was heavily
damaged by stress corrosion cracking.
WDS analyses were performed across small sam-
Fig. 30. WDS line scans of the concentrations of copper ple areas that exhibited a rather intact layered struc-
(Cu), silver (Ag), and gold (Au) as a function of the distance ture. From the line scans in Fig. 34, it is seen that
from the edge across a small area of the sample in Fig. 29a marked periodical changes in the concentrations of
reflecting the broad silver-enriched zone at the surface. copper (48 ± 66%) and gold (38 ± 22%) occur, while
the low concentration of silver amounts to about 6%.
nial knife decreases from the central areas (2.2 ± 2.6 In general, the sum of all metal concentrations is only
mm) to the edges (1 ± 2 mm). The mechanical weakly oscillating and yields 87 ± 97%. The concen-
deformation is also reflected by the microstructure tration changes for copper and gold are similar in
in Fig. 29a, which shows that the copper-rich crys- magnitude, but opposite in sign. This coupling sug-
tals near the edge of the tumi are elongated parallel gests that the light- and dark-brown toned layers in
to the surface. Fig. 32a originate from segregation zones in the
initial cast ingot, which were deformed by hammer-
ing during the manufacture of the headdress.
6. Working of copper ± gold ± silver alloys The assumption of an essentially segregation-
determined microstructure is supported by the fol-
6.1. Headdress lowing other arguments. The average composition of
the alloy from which the artifact was made was
Beneath the banner shown in Fig. 14, another estimated from WDS and ICP-OES analyses to be
spectacular ornamental object was found in the tomb 60% Cu, 34% Au, and 6% Ag. Ignoring silver due
of the Lord of SipaÂn (Fig. 31). It was covered with to its low concentration, the microstructure of the
green copper corrosion products, indicating a rather original cast ingot can be expected to be governed
high copper content. In spite of this, after cleaning by the constitutional features of the gold ± copper
and restoring, the object exhibited a golden appear- system. This system is characterized by liquid and
ance. The artifact consists of a large sheet of a
copper ± gold ± silver alloy shaped in the form of a
headless figure with extremely long and broad, raised
arms, with short legs, and feet that point sideways. It
is 36 ± 65 cm broad and 42 cm high; the thickness is
about 0.3 ± 0.4 mm. At the center of the object, a
small richly decorated male figure is worked out in
high relief. This figure is similar to that depicted on
the banner in Fig. 14. It may be noted that the gesture
expressed in the form of the basic metal sheet is
repeated in the central figurine. The function of this
object was uncertain [40], until quite recently the
artifact could be identified as part of a headdress
ensemble (M. Fecht, RoÈmisch-Germanisches Zentral-
museum, Mainz, private communication). Fig. 31. Cleaned and restored headdress (width: 36 ± 65 cm,
The metallographic investigation of fragments of height: 42 cm) consisting of a large sheet of a copper ±
the headdress resulted in micrographs such as that gold ± silver alloy in form of a headless figure with a central
shown in Fig. 32. The cross sections, polished or small figurine in high relief.
Fig. 32. Light micrographs of the cross sections through a fragment of the headdress. (a) Layered structure that is heavily
disturbed by voluminous inclusions of green copper corrosion products (malachite/paratacamite). (b) Structure decomposed in
many small particles. On the right hand side, an approximately 3-mm-thick layer (light) enriched in gold and silver is visible.
Sample (a) polished and viewed in polarized light; sample (b) etched in saturated potassium dichromate solution + HCl (5:1) and
viewed in bright field. (Magnification bars are 50 and 20 mm, respectively.)
solidus curves showing a minimum at 20% Cu and As a consequence of the metalworking by

by complete miscibility of gold and copper in the repeated hammering and annealing, the surface of
solid state above 410°C [63]. Thus, the melt of the the sheet metal took on a golden appearance [29]. As
alloy under consideration should solidify through with the silver human-head beads, copper oxide
the formation of a series of solid solutions, exhibit- formed on the surface during the intermediate anneal-
ing segregation. Considering the high average cop- ing treatments that kept the material malleable.
per concentration of about 60% lying above the Again, these oxide layers had to be removed by
concentration of 20%, it is realistic to suppose that pickling off in acid plant juices or stale urine that
the cast microstructure was composed of primary had degraded into ammonia. After many cycles of
dendritic copper-rich crystals embedded in the soli- hammering, annealing, and pickling, the surface of
dified residual melt containing less copper and more the copper ± gold ± silver sheet was depleted in copper
gold. During the subsequent processing of this and, thus, enriched in gold and silver. Such a surface
material to shape it into sheet metal by alternate layer, which is only about 2 ± 3 mm thick, is visible in
hammering and annealing, the structural elements of the etched cross section of the headdress fragment in
the cast ingot having different chemical composi- Fig. 32b on the right side. The AES depth profiles in
tions were elongated to form layers parallel to the Fig. 35 demonstrate that the gold concentration at the
sheet surface as shown in Fig. 32a. surface increased to about 60 at.% (75 wt.%),
Fig. 39. Light micrographs of the etched cross sections of a chin ornament fragment viewed in bright field. (a) Striated structure
due to solid solution segregation and material deformation exhibiting numerous aligned particles and lamellae (dark) of the silver-
rich phase and cuprite. Sample etched in 20% ferric chloride solution. (b) Similar section, etched in saturated potassium
dichromate solution + HCl (5:1), showing again a banded structure that, in addition, exhibits clear signs of recrystallization. At
both surfaces, white layers (20 ± 40 mm thick) are visible, which are enriched in gold and silver (see AES depth profiles in Fig. 40).
(Magnification bars are 100 mm.)
Fig. 33. Scanning electron micrograph of a detail in the

polished cross section shown in Fig. 32a illustrating the
disintegration of the material by stress corrosion cracking.
Fig. 35. AES depth profiles of the concentrations of copper
whereas the copper concentration decreased to nearly (Cu), gold (Au), and silver (Ag) as a function of the distance
10 at.% (4 wt.%). Also, the silver concentration from the surface across a headdress fragment give evidence
increased markedly at the surface to about 30 at.% of surface enrichment in gold and silver.
(21 wt.%). Therefore, the surface of the headdress
ornament appears in the luster of an Au 750 alloy (18 polished and the back side of the object shows a nap-
carat), although the average gold content in the bulk like pattern, which obviously reflects the marks of the
of the object is actually poor (34 wt.% Au, 8.2 carat). bed used in the process of embossing. Moreover, some
long cracks at the edge of the lower part of the chin
6.2. Chin ornament ornament intensify the impression that this object was
in hurry ± scurry, rather crudely worked, and meant
The chin ornament under consideration was part of only for use in the funeral ceremony. In contrast, the
the Lord's death mask. All items were found on the face other parts of the Lord's death mask were finely crafted
of the deceased in good condition, exhibiting a golden from small sheets of metal by careful embossing and
appearance. The chin ornament was made of a large chasing to image the eyes, the nose, and the band of
sheet of a copper ± gold ± silver alloy hammered into teeth. These items exhibit a polished front surface and,
the shape of cheeks, mouth, chin, and upper neck of the with the exception of the band of teeth, the thickness
Lord (Fig. 36). It is maximal 19.5 cm broad and 16 cm amounts to only 0.1 mm and less [40].
high; the thickness varies between 0.6 mm at the edge The scanning electron micrograph of the polished
and 0.9 mm near the center. The front side is not section through a sample of the chin ornament, imaged
with backscattered electrons (Fig. 37a), reveals a
periodical alternating weak light- and dark-grey-toned
Fig. 34. WDS line scans of the concentrations of copper

(Cu), gold (Au), and silver (Ag) as a function of the distance Fig. 36. Cleaned chin ornament with a width up to 19.5 cm
across a small area of the sample in Fig. 32a that exhibits an and a height of 16 cm belonging to the deceased Lord's
apparently intact metallic layer structure. death mask.
Fig. 37. Scanning electron micrographs of the polished cross section through a fragment of the chin ornament, imaged with
backscattered electrons. (a) Striated structure of the deformed material in which inclusions of a silver-rich phase (light) and
cuprite (dark) are aligned parallel to the direction of the striae. (b) Detail of the section in (a) showing that the silver-rich phase
(light) appears in the form of lamellae, stringers, and globules. The black beam marks the trace of the WDS line scans in Fig. 38.
contrast resulting in a striated structure. Embedded in a distance of 31 mm, which is accompanied by a

this basic pattern are light and dark inclusions that are marked decrease in copper and a slight decrease in
aligned parallel to the direction of the striae. These gold concentrations, is caused by a small silver-rich
inclusions have the form of lamellae, stringers, and inclusion. Since this inclusion is only about 1 mm
globules as can be seen for the white phase, at higher thick, the silver concentration is, by far, underesti-
magnification in Fig. 37b. The various elements of the mated by the WDS measurements. According to Fig.
microstructures shown in Fig. 37a and b could be 37b, the silver-rich inclusions appear only in segrega-
identified by the evaluation of EDS and WDS analyses. tion zones that are rich in silver. They may have been
It was found that the dark phase is cuprite, Cu2O, present, at least partially, already in the original cast
whereas the white phase is silver-rich. ingot. More probably, the silver-rich phase had pre-
The striated pattern in Fig. 37b is reflected by cipitated during the process of shaping the material
WDS line scans of the copper (Cu), gold (Au), and by alternate cycles of hammering (embossing) and
silver (Ag) concentrations (Fig. 38) showing periodic annealing. By this working, the particles were elon-
variations of the copper and silver contents. The gated and aligned. However, as seen in Fig. 37b,
traces of the line scans are marked in Fig. 37b by many small particles exhibit a globular form. This is
the black beam. The changes in the concentrations of essentially due to final heat treatments of the ready-
copper and silver are similar in magnitude, but fabricated chin ornament (see next passage).
opposite in sign. Apparently, they can be interpreted The silver ± copper solid solution segregation is
as segregation zones that were present already in the clearly seen also in the light optical micrographs of
original cast ingot and that were deformed by ham- etched cross sections in Fig. 39. In addition, Fig.
mering and embossing the material during the man- 39a shows the dark elongated and aligned cuprite
ufacture of the chin ornament (see the Headdress
section). The sharp peak of the silver concentration at
Fig. 38. WDS line scans of the concentrations of copper Fig. 40. AES depth profiles of the concentrations of copper
(Cu), silver (Ag), and gold (Au) as a function of the distance (Cu), gold (Au), and silver (Ag) as a function of the distance
across a small area of the striated structure in Fig. 37b. from the surface of a chin ornament fragment.
Fig. 41. Cross-sectional view through a fragment of the chin

ornament that is heavily deteriorated on the left side. The
light micrograph shows that the gold- and silver-enriched
layer (light) covers both the exterior surfaces of the object
and the interior surfaces of a cavity. Sample etched in 20% Fig. 48. Light micrograph of a gold bead's cross section
ferric chloride solution + H2O2 (10:1); viewed in bright field. showing a sweat-welded joint with filler material. Originally,
(Magnification bar is 200 mm.) the filler had the shape of two rings. Sample polished and
viewed in polarized light. (Magnification bar is 100 mm.)
and silver-rich inclusions, while in Fig. 39b the
weak pattern of a superimposed recrystallized struc-
ture is visible, suggesting that the chin ornament had
been finally annealed. Remarkable are the light
layers on the surface of the chin ornament in Fig.
39b, which could be identified by WDS, EDS, and
AES analyses as gold- and silver-rich films. The
AES depth profiles in Fig. 40 demonstrate that on
the surface the gold concentration is increased,
whereas the copper concentration is decreased. Also,
silver is remarkably enriched on the surface. Strik-
ingly, these concentrations are similar to those
measured at the surface of the headdress ornament.
Moreover, that object seems to have a similar Fig. 50. Cross-sectional view of a gold bead fragment showing
average chemical composition as the chin ornament. a pseudo-cast structure. Sample etched in saturated potassium
However, by comparing the AES depth profiles in dichromate solution + HCl (5:1); viewed in bright field.
(Magnification bar is 200 mm.)
Fig. 44. Light micrograph of the sample section in Fig. 43b

shows, in bright field, a white ± red pattern indicating solid Fig. 51. Cross-sectional view through a gold bead compris-
solution segregation. The pattern is weakly stretched in the ing two sweat-welded joints. The modern bead was made by
direction of material deformation. Sample etched in attempting to reproduce the Moche processing methods. The
saturated potassium dichromate solution + HCl (5:1). (Mag- joints resemble those of the ancient beads. Section polished
nification bar is 200 mm.) and viewed in polarized light (11).
ture, visible in Fig. 39b, supports the assumption of

final heat treatments of the object.
6.3. Ornamental disc
The ornamental disc studied is part of a necklace

consisting of 16 gold discs. The necklace is photo-
graphed in Fig. 42 together with two ceremonial
knives. It was found lying on the chest of the
deceased Lord. The gold discs were excavated in
well-preserved condition due to a high gold content
of about 61% (Table 2). The discs show a rather
perfect circular form. They are shaped slightly con-
vex on the front side, which is polished, whereas the
surface on the back side is dull. The outer edge of the
discs is rounded; the thickness increased from 0.9
mm at the circumference to about 1.3 mm at the
center. These values as well as the diameters (46 ± 48
mm) and weights (21.5 ± 28.5 g) exhibit only small
changes from one item to the other, indicating that
the discs had been manufactured by using mold-
shaped beds. It should be noted that each disc is
perforated with two tiny holes near one part of the
edge, which allowed the discs to be strung with two
parallel cotton strings. The holes are not perfectly
round but oval, suggesting that the necklace had been
used for a longer time.
Fig. 42. Cleaned necklace with 16 ``gold'' ornamental discs, Metallographic investigations were carried out on
photographed together with two ceremonial knives. The
a near-edge fragment of one of the discs. The scanning
discs exhibit diameters of 4.6 ± 4.8 cm.
electron micrograph of a polished cross section in Fig.
43a reveals many cuprite particles aligned in parallel
rows. This gives strong evidence of mechanical
Figs. 35 and 40, it is seen that for the chin ornament, deformation of the material. It is noteworthy that an
the concentrations in the near-surface region change image taken by backscattered electrons shows only a
more moderately with the distance from the surface weak additional contrast. However, after etching the
than for the headdress ornament. Actually, from sample, a white ± black pattern appears. In light photo-
micrographs, as shown in Figs. 32b and 39b, the micrographs illuminated in bright field, a white ± red
thickness of the gold- and silver-enriched scale is pattern is visible (Fig. 44) that is ascribed to solid
determined as 20 ± 40 mm for the chin ornament and solution segregation. In this pattern, a weakly pro-
2 ± 4 mm for the headdress ornament. For explaining nounced preferred direction is observed that obviously
the relatively thick gold- and silver-enriched layers corresponds to the direction of deformation of the
on the surfaces of the chin ornament, it is assumed material. As demonstrated in the scanning electron
that the Moche metalsmiths exposed the ready- micrograph in Fig. 43b showing a recrystallized grain
manufactured chin ornament to a final treatment structure, the gold disc was finally annealed.
similar to that applied in the case of the ceremonial As a consequence of the manufacture of the gold
knife. By alternately heating the object and chemi- disc by hammering, intermediate annealing, and pick-
cally dissolving the formed copper oxides from the ling off the formed copper oxides, the surface became
object's surface, the Moche smiths probably depleted in copper and enriched in gold and silver
increased the thickness of the original thin decora- (for process of depletion gilding, see the Headdress
tive surface layer. This suggestion is supported by section). This is demonstrated by the AES depth
the cross-sectional view of a fragment of the chin profiles in Fig. 45 showing that the gold concentra-
ornament that is in part heavily deteriorated. Fig. 41 tion increases in a very small zone of about 2 mm to
shows that the gold- and silver-enriched layer (light) about 82 at.% (90 wt.%), whereas the copper con-
covers both the exterior surfaces of the object and centration decreases to 3 at.% (1 wt.%). Considering
the interior surfaces of the extended cavity on the silver, only a weak increase in concentration is
left side. In addition, the recrystallized grain struc- observed, reaching about 15 at.% (9 wt.%).
Fig. 43. Scanning electron micrographs of longitudinal sections of an ornamental disc fragment. (a) Numerous cuprite particles,
partially elongated and aligned parallel to the surface indicating the direction of previous deformation, sample polished. (b)
Etching of the sample in saturated potassium dichromate solution + HCl (5:1) reveals a recrystallized structure.
6.4. Ornamental beads appearance after the surface patina was coarsely
removed. The beads are hollow and have holes by
Tiny gold beads were used by the Moche elite for which they could be strung on strings. Each is com-
various applications, e.g., as links in bracelets. In Fig. posed of two half shells that are joined along their
46, some beads are shown that exhibit a golden edges as indicated by the fissure along the circumfer-
ence of one of the beads in the center of the photograph.
Considering the different shape, size (average dia-
meter: 2.3 ± 3.4 mm), quality, and composition of the
beads, it seems that the beads belong to various
production series. The beads shown in Fig. 46 were
Fig. 45. AES depth profiles of the concentrations of copper

(Cu), gold (Au), and silver (Ag) as a function of the distance
from the surface of a disc fragment indicating surface Fig. 46. Coarsely cleaned ``gold'' ornamental beads
enrichment of gold and silver. (diameter: 2.3 ± 3.4 mm).
the filler material (75.2% Au, 12.0% Ag, and 12.8%

Cu) was only slightly different from the composition
of the bead material (71.3% Au, 12.7% Ag, and
16.0% Cu). Thus, both materials obviously originated
from the same or similar alloys.
An interesting aspect in the joining of the two
halves of a bead refers to the function of the ring-
shaped filler material. As indicated in Fig. 48, and
more clearly in the scanning electron micrograph in
Fig. 49, the filler obviously did not melt completely
during welding and, thus, could not produce a con-
tinuos fusion weld between both parts of the bead.
The circular-shaped defects in the wall structure are
Fig. 47. WDS line scans of copper (Cu), gold (Au), and bubbles, which probably have formed during weld-
silver (Ag) across a small near-surface area indicating a ing. The welding technique utilized required reliable
weak gold and silver enrichment. temperature control to ensure that only the surfaces of
the rings and of the edges of the bead halves just
made of hammered sheet metal by shaping circular began to melt. The surface melting certainly started
pieces of the sheet into half shells and joining the shells. on the rings because they were much thinner than the
Microstructural evidence for the use of hammered wall of the bead, and because they were protruding
sheet was found in some cross sections of beads. Small beyond the interior and exterior surfaces of the bead.
copper oxide particles, pores, fissures, and cracks were As shown in Fig. 49, the material of the bead
aligned parallel to the surface of the beads, indicating halves on both sides of the weld exhibits a weak
the direction of the material flow during deformation. recrystallized grain structure indicating that no melt-
Furthermore, in some of the samples examined, a weak ing had occurred. This, however, is not typical for all
surface enrichment of gold and silver was revealed by investigated ornamental beads. In some cases, the
WDS line scans (Fig. 47). ``temperature control'' obviously was not effective
Particular attention was paid to the question of enough to avoid partial melting. In Fig. 50, the etched
how the Moche smiths accomplished the joining of cross section of a bead fragment, viewed in bright
the half shells of a bead. The metallographic exam- field, shows the structure of a material that apparently
ination of numerous cross sections of bead fragments had begun to melt. This pseudo-cast structure can be
revealed that the Moche craftsmen joined the bead compared with corresponding structures, which were
halves by a technique that is a modification of modern observed in the ``silver'' human-head beads and
welding with a filler material [29,69,70]. Originally, peanut beads (Figs. 24 and 26).
the filler consisted of two rings that were placed on the The same type of welded joints, as detected in the
edges of the two bead-halves. The two filler rings ornamental beads, was observed also by Lechtman et
were protruding beyond the interior and the exterior al. [70] in their study of the tails of the ``Peruvian Gold
surfaces of the beads, i.e., the inner diameter of the Jaguars'' and designated as sweat-welded joints. With
rings was smaller than that of the bead and the outer the help of a professional goldsmith, these authors
diameter of the rings was larger than that of the bead.
After the welding, the joints were structured, as
illustrated in Fig. 48, by a cross-sectional view. The
tiny ribbons that emanate as a pair from the joint and
extend into the interior of the bead were part of the
inner edges of the rings that obviously had bent over
and subsequently had curled during welding. It should
be noted that the third visible ribbon is a leftover
fragment of the rings. Originally, a pair of ribbons was
present also at the exterior surface of the bead.
However, these ribbons were removed by the Moche
smiths to make the surface smooth. According to Fig.
48, the ring-shaped filler material was made of an
extremely thin sheet metal having a thickness of Fig. 49. Scanning electron micrograph of a detail in the cross
0.01 ± 0.03 mm, whereas the thickness of the wall of section in Fig. 48 revealing that the sweat-welding did not
the bead halves near the joint was 0.07 ± 0.10 mm. produce a thorough union between the two parts of the bead.
EDS analyses showed that the average composition of Sample etched in Klemm III solution.
could reproduce experimentally the ancient welding. [12] Masuda S, Shimada I. O È kologie und Zivilisation im
At our institute, the sweat-welding technique was also Zentralen Andenraum. In: SicaÂn-Ein FuÈrstengrab in
successfully reproduced with the help of a skillful Alt-Peru. Eine Ausstellung in Zusammenarbeit mit
dem peruanischen Kulturministerium. ZuÈrich, Switzer-
goldsmith. The results of these efforts are demonstrated
land: Museum Rietberg, 1997, pp. 14 ± 31.
in Fig. 51 by presenting the cross section through a È kologie und Zivilisation im
[13] Masuda S, Shimada I. O
``self-made'' bead containing joints of high quality. Zentralen Andenraum. In: SicaÂn-Ein FuÈrstengrab in
Using an alloy that had a composition of 75% Au, 15% Alt-Peru. Eine Ausstellung in Zusammenarbeit mit
Ag, and 10% Cu, the partial steps in the manufacture of dem peruanischen Kulturministerium. ZuÈrich, Switzer-
the bead were chosen similar to those that were thought land: Museum Rietberg, 1997, pp. 25 ± 7.
to be part of the technical procedure applied by the [14] Benson, EP. The world of Moche. In: Townsend RF,
Moche smiths and that have been described above. general editor. The ancient Americas. Art from sacred
Comparing Figs. 48 and 51, it is seen that the joints of landscapes. The Art Institute of Chicago, IL. Munich,
the self-made bead are quite close in their visual Germany: Prestel Verlag, 1992, pp. 303 ± 15.
[15] Donnan CB. Masterworks of art reveal a remarkable
characteristics to the joint of the ancient bead.
pre-Inca world. Natl Geogr 1990;177:16 ± 33.
[16] Alva W, Donnan CB. Royal Tombs of SipaÂn. Los An-
geles, CA: Fowler Museum of Cultural History, Univer-
Acknowledgments sity of California, 1993, pp. 19 ± 25, 127 ± 41, 219 ± 27.
[17] Donnan CB. Moche art of Peru. Pre-Columbian sym-
bolic communication. Los Angeles, CA: Fowler Mu-
The authors are grateful to Dr. K. Weidemann, seum of Cultural History, University of California, 1978.
managing director of the RoÈmisch-Germanisches [18] Donnan CB. Ceramics of ancient Peru. Los Angeles,
Zentralmuseum RGZ, Mainz, for initiating this study CA: Fowler Museum of Cultural History, University of
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Max-Planck Institut fuÈr Metallforschung, Stuttgart.
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Materials Characterization 45 (2000) 391 ± 420

The treasure of gold and silver artifacts from the Royal

Cu ± As Rattle pellet Casting and working

Cu ± Ag ``Silver'' ingot Casting

Fig. 2. Phase diagram of the ternary gold ± silver ± copper

of the ``gold'' ingots has a gold content of 48.4%.

uted to the tree species, Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC,

Inside and along these defects, much brown ± red

Fig. 9. Cleaned head of a spear (length: 14 mm, diameter at

Fig. 16. Cross section through the ornamental platelet in Fig.

decomposed into corrosion products during the

Fig. 29. Cross sections through a tiny sample of the tumi

etched and viewed in polarized light or bright field,

solidus curves showing a minimum at 20% Cu and As a consequence of the metalworking by

Fig. 33. Scanning electron micrograph of a detail in the

Fig. 34. WDS line scans of the concentrations of copper

contrast resulting in a striated structure. Embedded in a distance of 31 mm, which is accompanied by a

Fig. 41. Cross-sectional view through a fragment of the chin

Fig. 44. Light micrograph of the sample section in Fig. 43b

ture, visible in Fig. 39b, supports the assumption of

6.3. Ornamental disc

The ornamental disc studied is part of a necklace

Fig. 45. AES depth profiles of the concentrations of copper

the filler material (75.2% Au, 12.0% Ag, and 12.8%

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