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2. Telephone system should introduce Minimum amplitude distortion & reasonable amt.
of phase & Freq. distortions.
Apparatus and Transmission media should be capable to transmit freq. spectrum of 300 –
3400 Hz.
Transmitter---
Receiver---
2. Telephone Exchange – switching centre which houses the terminating & switching
equipment.
OPERATION –
2. Operator plugs answering plug of free cord connects into callers line jack &
operates Speak/Ring key to speak person.
4. Inserts calling plug into called subs line jack. Cranks generator holding Ring key in
Ring person.
7. Operators operates Speak/Ring key to confirm end of call & removes calling and
answering plugs to free cord connect.
The circuit that combines signals at the source (transmitting) end of a communications
link is known as a multiplexer.
It accepts the input from each individual end user, breaks each signal into segments, and
assigns the segments to the composite signal in a rotating, repeating sequence. The
composite signal thus contains data from multiple senders.
At the other end of the long-distance cable, the individual signals are separated out by
means of a circuit called a demultiplexer, and routed to the proper end users.
GUIDED MEDIUMS
Coaxial cable is a type of electrical cable that has an inner conductor surrounded by a tubular
insulating layer, surrounded by a tubular conducting shield. Many coaxial cables also have an
insulating outer sheath or jacket. The term coaxial comes from the inner conductor and the outer
shield sharing a geometric axis. Coaxial cable was invented by English engineer and
mathematician Oliver Heaviside, who patented the design in 1880. Coaxial cable differs from
other shielded cables because the dimensions of the cable are controlled to give a precise, constant
conductor spacing, which is needed for it to function efficiently as a transmission line.
Coaxial cable is used as a transmission line for radio frequency signals. Its applications include
feedlines connecting radio transmitters and receivers with their antennas, computer network (Internet)
connections, digital audio (S/PDIF), and distributing cable television signals.
Twisted pair cabling is a type of wiring in which two conductors of a single circuit are twisted
together for the purposes of improving electromagnetic compatibility. Compared to a single
conductor or an untwisted balanced pair, a twisted pair reduces electromagnetic
radiation, crosstalk between neighbouring pairs and improves rejection of external electromagnetic
interference.
Unshielded twisted pair- (UTP) cables are found in many ETHERNET networks and telephone systems. For
indoor telephone applications, UTP is often grouped into sets of 25 pairs according to a standard 25-pair color
code originally developed by AT&T Corporation. A typical subset of these colors (white/blue, blue/white,
white/orange, orange/white) shows up in most UTP cables. The cables are typically made with copper wires
measured at 22 or 24 American Wire Gauge (AWG), with the colored insulation typically made from an
insulator such as polyethylene or FEP and the total package covered in a polyethylene jacket.
Shielded twisted type-Twisted pair cables are often shielded in an attempt to prevent electromagnetic
interference. Shielding provides an electrically conductive barrier to attenuate electromagnetic waves external to
the shield, and provides a conduction path by which induced currents can be circulated and returned to the
source, via ground reference connection.
This shielding can be applied to individual pairs or quads, or to the collection of pairs. Individual pairs are
foiled, while overall cable may use braided screen, foil, or braiding with foil.
When shielding is applied to the collection of pairs, this is usually referred to as screening, but different vendors
and authors use "screening", "shielding", and "STP" (shielded twisted pair), inconsistently, in attempting to
denote various shielded cable types.
Common types
Switch:
Control consisting of a mechanical or electrical or electronic device for making or breaking or
changing the connections in a circuit.
And the process is called SWITCHING.
As the number of subscribers increased beyond a certain limit, the need for a so-called switching
system or switching office or switching exchange was realized. In this new system, the
subscribers are directly connected to the exchange and not to one another as in the case of point-
to-point communication
What is an exchange
• The prime purpose of an exchange is to provide a temporary path for simultaneous, bidirectional transmission
of speech between
– Subscriber lines connected to same exchange(Local Switching)
– Subscriber lines and trunks to other exchanges(Outgoing trunk call)
– Subscriber lines and trunks from other exchanges (Incoming trunk call) and
– Pairs of trunks towards different exchanges(transit switching)
• These are switching functions of an exchange & are implemented through the equipment called the Switching
Network.
• Strowger Exchange, the first automatic exchange having direct control feature, appeared in 1892 in Le Porte
(Indiana).
• As a result of further research & development, cross-bar exchanges having an indirect control system
appeared in 1928 in Sweden.
• However much more improvement was expected and the revolutionary change in field of electronics provided
it.
• A large number of moving parts in Registors, Markers, Translators were replaced by a single computer.
A crossbar switch is an assembly of individual switches between a set of inputs and a set
of outputs. The switches are arranged in a matrix. ... Non-blocking means that other
concurrent connections do not prevent connecting other inputs to other outputs.
Switched network
• Switches are hardware and/or software devices capable of creating temporary connections
between two or more devices linked to the switch but not to each other.
• Methods of switching
• Circuit switching creates a direct physical connection between two devices such as phones or
computers.
2. Message switching was the precursor of packet switching, where messages were routed in their
entirety, one hop at a time. It was first introduced in 1961. Nowadays, message switching systems are
mostly implemented over packet-switched or circuit-switched data networks. E-mail is example of a
message switching system.
3. Packet switching is a communications paradigm in which packets (discrete blocks of data) are
routed between nodes over data links shared with other traffic. The term "packets" refers to the fact
that the data stream from your computer is broken up into packets of about 200 bytes (on average),
which are then sent out onto the network. Each packet contains a "header" with information necessary
for routing the packet from source to destination. Each packet in a data stream is independent.
The main advantage of packet-switching is that it permits "statistical multiplexing" on the
communications lines. The packets from many different sources can share a line, allowing for very
efficient use of the fixed capacity. With current technology, packets are generally accepted onto the
network on a first-come, first-served basis. If the network becomes overloaded, packets are delayed or
discarded ("dropped").
Switching System- The switching centers receives the control signals, messages or conversations
and forwards to the required destination, after necessary modification (link amplifications) if
necessary. A switching system is a collection of switching elements arranged and controlled in
such a way as to setup a communication path between any two distant points.
A switching center of a telephone network comprising a switching network and its control and
support equipment is called a central office.
Electronic Switching
Time division switching is done through a device called time-slot interchanger, which buffers m
incoming time-slots, e.g. 30 time-slots of an E1 frame, arranges new transmit order and transmits n
time-slots. Time-slots are stored in buffer memory usually in the order they arrive or in the order they
leave the switch - additional control logic is needed to decide respective output order or the memory
slot where an input slot is stored.
The comparison of space and time switches is given below:
The space and time switches may be used individually or in combination. The commonly used
configurations in modern switches are:
1. E10B - T-S-T
2. EWSD - T-S-S-S-T
3. 3. AXE10 - T-S-T
4. 5ESS - T-S-T
5. OCB283 - T
The consultative committee on international telegraphy and telephony (CCITT) based in Geneva,
recommended seven formats related to signaling. The first five formats related to Inband signaling
and the last two in the category of common channel signaling. In In-band signaling, voice
information and signaling information travel on common paths, where as in common channel
signaling, they travel on separate paths.
BROADBAND TECHNOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
The term BROADBAND refers to a high speed internet access. It is non-specific
term. In fact there is no specific international definition for broadband.
As the Internet market continues to grow, demand for greater BW and faster
connection speeds have led to broadband access to all consumer.
The rapid growth of distributed business application-commerce and BW
intensive application (such as multimedia, video conferencing and video on
demand) generates the demand for BW and access network.
Huawei DSLAM
Alcatel DSLAM
FTTH
Two main layers are known as core (central, of 8 to 50µm) & cladding(outer,50to125µm)
It transmits the Optical waves (Light) through it at the speed of 2/3 of speed of light in vacuum
observing the total internal reflection principle.
Light is either reflected or refracted depending upon the angle of incident at which it strikes the layer
of separation.
It reflects when it crosses the critical angle,which is known as phenomenon of TOTAL INTERNAL
REFLECTION
Fiber To The Home Can be accomplished by
• Active Ethernet
• PON
PON (Passive Optical Network)
• Point to Multipoint Technology
• No Active component in the ODN
• One fiber from the CO
TYPES OF PON
• APON (155 Mbps /155 Mbps)
• BPON ( 622 Mbps / 155 Mbps)
• GE PON (1.25 G /1.25 G)
• GPON (2.5 G/1.25 G)
DSL GPON
A valid comparison would be on the basis of cost per meter per telephone channel, rather than
just cost per meter.
Resource plentiful:
The basic materials are either silicon dioxide for glass fibers or transparent plastic which are
plentiful
Less attenuation:
A typical fibre attenuation is 0.3 dB/km. Whereas a coaxial cable (RG-19/U) will attenuate a
100-Mz signal by 22.6 dB/km.
Greater safety:
Optic fibers glass/plastic, are insulators. No electric current flows through them. GREATER
SAFETY AND IMMUNE TO EMI & RFI, MOISTURE & COROSSION
Fibers have excellent rejection of radio-frequency interference (RFI) caused by radio and
television stations, radar, and other electronics equipment.
No cross-talk:
The optic wave within the fiber is trapped and does not leaks out during transmission to
interfere with signals in other fibers.
Higher Security:
fibers offer higher degree of security and privacy
Telecommunications:
Long-Distance Telecommunications.
Inter-exchange junction.
Video Transmission:
Broadband Services:
provisioning of broadband services, such as video request service, home study courses,
medical facilities, train timetables, etc.
Can be laid along railway track, through power substations and can be suspended directly
from power line towers, or poles.
2.3G
3.LTE
2.75G EDGE/EGPRS
3G UMTS
3.5G HSDPA ·
3.75G HSUPA ·
4G LTE Advanced
• GSM
GENERATION OF GSM
The BTS contains the RF components that provide the air interface for a particular
cell .This is the part of the GSM network which communicates with the MS. The
The BSC as its name implies provides the control for the BSS. The BSC
communicates directly with the MSC. The BSC may control single or multiple
BTSs.
3) The Transcoder – XCDR
The Transcoder (XCDR) is required to convert the speech or data output from the MSC
(64 kbit/s PCM), into the form specified by GSM specifications for transmission over the
air interface, that is, between the BSS and MS (64 kbit/s to 16 kbit/s and vice versa)
BSS includes the network elements taking care of the radio cellular resources within the GSM
network
On one side, it is directly linked to the MSs through the radio interface (Air interface)
– its role consists in connecting MS and NSS and hence in connecting the caller to the
other users
Mobile services switching center (MSC) performs the switching functions for all mobile stations
located in the geographical area covered by its assigned BSSs.
• Handling location registration and ensuring internetworking between mobile station and VLR.
The Home Location Register (HLR) contains the identities of mobile subscribers, their service
parameters, and their location information.
• Generates unique data pattern called a cipher key (Kc) needed for encrypting user speech and
data.
The Equipment Identity Register (EIR) is accessed during the equipment validation procedure
when a mobile station accesses the system .It contains the identity of mobile station equipment
which may be valid, suspect, or known to be fraudulent.
This contains :
The Operation and maintenance Center (OMC) is the centralized maintenance and diagnostic heart
of the base station system (BSS). It allows the network provider to operate, administer , and monitor
the functioning of the BSS.
3G
3-G is next generation of mobile service capabilities in terms of Bandwidth and Network
Functions
2500
144Kbps in wide area mobile
2000 environments
1500
Kbps
1000
500
0
2G GPRS EDGE 3G
ARCHITECTURE of 3G-
Base Station
Network Subsystem
Mobile Station Subsystem Other Networks
MSC/ GMSC
BSC VLR PSTN
BTS
ME
SIM
RNS
GGSN
SGSN
Node RNC Internet
ME B
USIM
UTRAN
+
SD
Node B-
Known as 3G-BTS.
Responsible for the transmission /reception radio from/to MS in one or more cells .
RNC-
RNC is connected to core –switch part and also to core-packet part in 3g.
HLR-
HLR stores location data that allow to appraisal and direction of call and sms to the MSC/SGSN
where MS is registered
VLR-
AUC-
AUTHENTICATION CENTRE.
In 3G , not only customer is authenticated but also the network too authenticated i.e two way
authentication.
SGSN-
It is in core-packet of 3g.
SGSN establishes PDP context for routing packet data with GGSN.
GGSN-
TDD-
TDD is the multiple access method in 3g.
LTE