EVALUATION OF WATER QUALITY OF THE QARAAOUN

RESERVOIR, LEBANON: SUITABILITY FOR MULTIPURPOSE USAGE

MEY JURDI1∗ , SAMIRA IBRAHIM KORFALI2 , YESTER KARAHAGOPIAN3 and

BRIAN E. DAVIES4
1 Department of Environmental Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, American University of Beirut,
Beirut, Lebanon; 2 Natural Science Division, Lebanese American University, Beirut, Lebanon;
3 Faculty of Health Sciences, American University of Beirut, Lebanon; 4 Department of Geological
Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina, U.S.A.
(∗ author for correspondence, e-mail: mjurdi@inco.com.lb)

(Received 30 January 2001; accepted 10 July 2001)

Abstract. The increased demand on water resources in Lebanon as a result of: progressive urban-
ization, socio-economic growth, agricultural activities and development of industries is, according
to the national authorities, a major critical factor by the year 2010. Political difficulties in earlier
years imply a dearth of pertinent data. The objective of this study was to evaluate water quality
of the Qaraaoun Reservoir of the Litani River and assess its feasibility for multi-purpose usage as
one of the solutions to the aggravated water problems in Lebanon. Samples were collected from
18 sampling sites at several dates during the dry season. Parameters analysed were, pH, electrical
−
conductivity, TDS, turbidity, alkalinity, Ca, Mg, TH, Cl− , SO2− 3−
4 , NH3 , NO3 , PO4 , Fe, Al, Na,
Zn, Cr, Cu and As. The reported data were in compliance with WHO guidelines, USEPA regulation
and EEC directives. Statistical analysis of the data defined three distinct environmental zones and
water quality in the central, main zone satisfied most criteria. It is concluded that the reservoir water
is fit for multipurpose uses, namely, drinking, domestic, recreational activities, irrigation, fisheries,
livestock and industrial, and should be properly managed accordingly.

Keywords: Lebanon, multi-purpose water usage, Qaraaoun Reservoir, water chemistry, water quality

1. Introduction

Lebanon depends primarily on groundwater that is deteriorating rapidly in quality

through pollution and possible saline intrusions along its populous coast (Jurdi,
1992, 1998; Khair et al., 1994; Sene et al., 1999). Progressive urbanization, socio-
economic growth, agricultural activities and industrial development are making
increasing demands on the aquifers and an inadequacy of supply is cited by national
authorities as a probable major critical limitation by the year 2010 (Mudallal,
1989; Fawaz, 1992; Jaber, 1993; Hajjar, 1993). To alleviate this situation wider
exploitation of surface water resources is being urged although major utilization is
currently limited to irrigation and power production (MOE, 2001). Unfortunately,
a lack of water quality data is hindering the optimal utilization of surface waters.
This article reports and interprets new data for the country’s major reservoir.

Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 77: 11–30, 2002.

© 2002 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.
12 M. JURDI ET AL.

Compared with neighbouring countries Lebanon is relatively fortunate since

rainfall is high (823 mm annually) and the high mountain areas receive 1400 mm
annually. However, most rainfall occurs on eighty to ninety days in the period
between October and April. Most rivers originate in and flow entirely within the
country. The river El Assi (Orontes) flows into Syria in the northeast and the river
Hasbani flows into Israel in the southeast, and most rivers originate in and flow
entirely within the country.
The optimal management of Lebanon’s rivers is limited by a scarcity of both
hydrological and water quality data. Both monitoring and research more or less
ceased during the long civil war. Sene et al. (1999) have discussed in detail the
planning problems posed by the present lack of hydrometric data in relation to op-
erational forecasting of water shortages and flood events. There is also the problem
of surface water pollution.
Both solid and liquid wastes are everywhere disposed to watercourses without
treatment (Jurdi, 1992, 1998): especially in inland villages and communities. It
is essential therefore to conduct studies relating to: (a) surface and subsurface
mapping to identify sources and types of contaminants, (b) assessing water quality
for multipurpose utilization and (c) continuous monitoring to determine factors
relating to self-purification.
This article reports new results for water quality in the Qaraaoun Reservoir,
an impoundment of the Litani River. This is Lebanon’s only major surface water
reservoir and the scope for developing reservoirs in other drainage basins is limited
by Lebanon’s karstic geology. The present study aimed at evaluating the water
quality of the Qaraaoun Reservoir so as to assess the suitability of water extraction
for possible various types of utilization such as: domestic, recreational, irrigation,
fishery, livestock and industrial purposes.

2. The Study Area

The river Litani is the longest (170 km) and largest river in Lebanon. The average
annual discharge rate is 770 million m3 (UNDP, 1970; Mudallal, 1989; Beschorner,
1992). The Litani basin (area of about 2186 km2 ) extends between latitude 33◦ 50 –
34◦ 50 N and longitude 35◦ 15 –36◦ 25 E. The river’s source is the Al Oliek spring
in the Bekaa Plain (west of Baalbeck), and it flows southward parallel to Mount
Lebanon. Southwest of Marjaayoun it deviates to the west in a deep V-shaped
valley, which discharges into the Mediterranean sea 7 km north of Tyre. Geo-
morphologically, the Litani basin is divided into three sub-basins, the largest is
the upper one stretching from the Bekaa Plain to Qaraaoun Dam, which was built
between 1958–1965. The Dam is 110 m long and 61 m high forming the Qaraaoun
Reservoir that can store up to 220 million m3 of water of which 160 million m3 are
used annually (for irrigation, industry and hydropower) and 60 million m3 remain
in storage over the dry seasons (Khair, 1993; Owaydah, 1993).
 EVALUATION OF WATER QUALITY OF THE QARAAOUN RESERVOIR, LEBANON 13

The rocks outcropping in the Qaraaoun Reservoir basin belong to the Jurassic,
Cretaceous, Tertiary and Quaternary system (Figure 1). Most of the rocks of the
Jurassic system (J6 ), Cenomanian (C4 ) and Eocene (e2b ) are limestone and dolo-
mitic limestone. These rocks exhibit high permeability with an infiltration ranging
between 34 and 45% (UNDP, 1970). In a few localities, Conomanian rocks (C3 and
C6 ) outcrop consisting mainly of chalky marl.
The Quaternary deposits (q), are of limited extent and comprise mainly alluvial
deposits consisting of clay, silt, sand and gravel.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. F IELD METHODS

The river Litani valley north of the Qaraaoun Reservoir was inventoried prior to
the water sampling to identify possible sources of discharge and hence the pos-
sible types of contaminants entering the reservoir (Mansour, 1994; Jaafar, 1994;
Abou-Ziad, 1995; Jurdi et al., 1995; Stephenson et al., 1998; MOE, 2001). Major
contamination sources comprise: (a) sewage network outlets, (b) municipal solid
waste dumping, (c) industrial zones (dyeing and tanning, electroplating, manufac-
turing of batteries, chemicals, sponge and paper), (d) food processing plants (sugar
beet, dairy products, other foodstuffs and vegetable canning), (e) farms (swine,
cows, sheep and poultry), and (f) agricultural runoff water. Sampling sites in the
reservoir were selected after a preliminary reconnaissance survey. A total of 18
sampling sites (S1–S18) were located in mid-reservoir (approximately over the
original Litani channel) at regularly spaced distances of 350 m (Figure 1). Sites
S1–S7 are within the zone of the river inflow into the reservoir. Sites S7–S18 are
within the main reservoir basin. The last accessible station (S18) was about 800 m
from the dam.
Sampling was carried out in the dry season when incoming river flow is at its
lowest and therefore there would be least dilution of water borne pollutants; i.e., a
worst-case scenario. Fluctuations in water quality were expected to be influenced
by: (a) variability of river inflow due to extraction of water for irrigation, (b) evap-
oration, (c) peak of the dry season, (d) reduced water level due to maintenance
activities along the dam of the reservoir, (e) and contaminant pooling. Sampling
dates (13 July, 2 August, 26 September and 6 October, 1995) were chosen to
represent the duration of the dry season.
Samples for analysis were collected at each sampling site at mid depth from the
surface using two 1 L polyethylene bottles. The polyethylene bottles were pre-
soaked overnight in 10% (v/v) nitric acid and then rinsed with distilled water.
Before filling with the sample they were also rinsed twice with reservoir water.
Samples (300 mL) were also collected in borosilicate glass bottles for bacteri-
ological analysis. The method of sampling and collection are in accordance with
14 M. JURDI ET AL.

Figure 1. Geological and sampling site map of studied area, after Dubertret, 1955.

Standard Methods APHA, AWWA, WPCF (1992). The samples were transported
to the laboratory in portable coolers.

3.2. L ABORATORY ANALYSIS

The physical, chemical and bacteriological parameters selected for water quality
assessment were based on the sources of discharges identified by the pre-study
inventory of contaminants along the river basin.
 EVALUATION OF WATER QUALITY OF THE QARAAOUN RESERVOIR, LEBANON 15

The various parameters were determined using standard procedures (APHA,

AWWA, WPCF, 1992). Temperature, electrical conductivity (ECw ) and total dis-
solved solids (TDS) were measured on site using Hach Model 44600 Conduct-
ivity/TDS Meter (resolution Conductivity 0.1 µS cm−1 , TDS 0.1 mg L−1 ). In
addition the dissolved oxygen (DO) was also measured on site by membrane elec-
trode.
Water samples collected in the polyethylene bottles were filtered through an
0.45 µm filter and divided into two parts: one bottle was acidified with nitric acid
to pH < 2 and stored at 4 ◦ C for metal analysis (Fe, Na, Zn, Cu , Cr, Al, As) by
atomic absorption spectrophotometry with an air/acetylene flame and background
correction with a deuterium lamp. Working standard solutions were prepared by
dilution of stock solutions (1 mg metal mL−1 in 2% HNO3 ) with MilliQ water.
The other bottle was stored at 4 ◦ C without the addition of preservatives. These
samples were analysed with the certified prepared reagents (EPA standards) of
Hach Chemical Company, U.S.A., and the procedures followed according the Stan-
dard Method (APHA, AWWA, WPCF, 1992). A titration procedure was used for
alkalinity (0.02 N H2 SO4), Cl− (0.0141 N mercuric nitrate), Ca, Mg and total
hardness (0.01 M EDTA) and a spectrophotometer was used for ammonia (Direct
Nesslerization), NO− − 2−
2 (Diazotization), NO3 (Cadmium reduction), SO4 (turbid-
imetry) and PO3− 4 (Ascorbic acid). The BOD was based on 5 days incubation at
20 ◦ C. The bacteriological analyses were determined by the membrane filtration
technique (Millipore).

3.3. S OFTWARE USED IN ANALYSIS

The statistical analysis of the physio-chemical parameters was performed using

the SPSS software (SPSS for Windows, version 7.5, 1996) and the Geochemical
software AquaChem/Window 95 NT (Waterloo Hydrogeologic, Inc., 1998).

4. Results and Discussions

4.1. C HACTERIZATION OF Q ARAAOUN R ESERVOIR WATER

The average values of the physiochemical parameters that characterize the water
quality of the Qaraaoun Reservoir are presented in Table I.
These average values represent the water quality through out the dry season.
The variation between the different dates was insignificant. This is justifiable based
upon the range of the standard deviation, SD (Table II) and the statistical insigni-
ficant difference derived from the results of the one sample statistical t-test analysis
for all the monitored physiochemical quality parameters, at the indicated sampling
dates (13 July, 2 August, 26 September and 6 October, 1995). The change of tem-
perature from the highest value in August (26 ◦ C) to lowest in October (23 ◦ C)
 16

TABLE I
Mean values (July, August, September, October, 1995) of physical and chemical parameters in mg L−1 (except as specified) of Qaraaoun Reservoir,
Lebanon

Site Temp pH Cond. TDS HCO3 Cl PO4 SO4 NO3 NO2 NH3 DO BOD Ca Mg Na Al Fe Zn Cr Cu As
(◦ C) (µS cm−1 )

1 28.7 7.55 339 160 159 30 1.57 28 1.7 0.040 0.25 6.0 1.6 40 9.6 8.6 0.072 1.03 0.089 0.042 0.032 0.025
2 28.2 7.55 337 167 134 25 0.25 35 1.6 0.055 0.07 5.8 1.2 40 9.6 8.6 0.044 0.076 0.063 0.013 0.025 0.015
3 26.2 7.37 346 172 146 25 0.09 37 1.7 0.052 0.05 6.1 1.8 40 9.6 8.9 0.052 0.088 0.078 0.033 0.020 0.004
4 26.1 8.01 350 175 134 30 0.22 23 1.9 0.053 0.12 6.2 0.8 40 9.6 9.0 0.063 NDa 0.031 0.024 0.023 0.003
5 26.9 7.80 361 180 161 28 0.22 24 2.3 0.080 0.08 6.5 1.1 40 10.8 8.7 0.062 ND 0.066 0.020 0.022 ND
6 26.1 7.50 361 176 143 23 0.22 24 2.4 0.049 0.06 6.4 0.9 40 10.8 8.2 0.043 ND 0.053 0.014 0.011 ND
7 26.2 7.66 357 172 144 30 0.28 23 2.4 0.057 0.15 7.8 1.1 40 12.0 8.1 0.099 ND 0.038 0.021 0.013 ND
8 26.3 7.67 344 178 136 33 0.29 25 2.3 0.049 0.16 7.5 0.9 44 9.6 8.8 0.055 ND 0.042 0.032 0.024 0.005
9 26.4 7.42 360 179 142 28 0.27 24 2.4 0.053 0.10 7.3 0.7 32 18.0 9.1 0.068 ND 0.038 0.024 0.015 0.004
M. JURDI ET AL.

10 26.0 7.39 360 185 145 30 0.20 27 2.3 0.053 0.15 7.2 0.8 36 15.6 9.1 0.043 ND ND 0.021 0.012 0.007
11 25.3 7.34 370 184 143 30 0.24 25 2.2 0.053 0.14 7.2 1.0 38 18.0 9.0 0.062 ND ND 0.011 0.016 ND
12 25.4 7.27 373 186 155 38 0.24 24 2.3 0.052 0.13 6.4 1.0 44 13.2 9.7 0.064 ND 0.043 0.013 0.004 ND
13 25.0 7.06 373 190 176 35 0.25 24 2.0 0.049 0.14 5.7 1.3 36 14.4 9.1 0.061 0.036 0.087 0.018 0.008 ND
14 25.3 7.24 385 176 149 33 0.30 23 1.8 0.049 0.15 6.2 1.6 34 18.0 9.4 0.042 0.053 0.078 0.021 0.028 0.008
15 24.8 7.17 354 194 167 30 0.30 25 1.7 0.038 0.20 6.0 1.1 34 18.0 9.5 0.052 0.14 0.039 0.022 0.008 0.007
16 24.8 7.16 388 197 173 30 0.40 25 1.7 0.052 0.15 6.4 0.9 34 19.0 9.0 0.032 ND 0.039 0.014 0.015 ND
17 24.6 7.32 388 194 168 33 0.47 25 1.7 0.051 0.15 6.5 1.1 36 17.0 9.1 0.068 ND 0.182 0.013 0.007 ND
18 24.7 7.33 375 188 174 30 0.38 26 1.9 0.043 0.13 6.4 0.7 36 17.0 9.6 0.092 ND 0.670 0.010 0.012 0.018

a ND = Not detected.
 EVALUATION OF WATER QUALITY OF THE QARAAOUN RESERVOIR, LEBANON 17
TABLE II
Variation of water quality among the four sampling dates (July, August, September,
October 1995)

Parameter Range of SD t-Value df Significance

(P)

Temperature (◦ C) 0.97 – 1.66 0.802 3 0.481

pH 0.190– 0.37 0.119 3 0.913
Conductivity (µS cm−1 ) 7.150–24.98 0.000 3 1.000
TDS (mg L−1 ) 6.310–14.44 0.301 3 0.783
TCO3 (mg L−1 ) 14.270–16.03 1.360 3 0.267
Cl (mg L−1 ) 2.780– 4.41 –0.091 3 0.933
PO4 (mg L−1 ) 0.290– 0.41 0.169 3 0.877
SO4 (mg L−1 ) 3.140– 5.46 0.000 3 1.000
NO3 (mg L−1 ) 0.170– 0.42 0.043 3 0.968
NO2 (mg L−1 ) 0.037– 0.065 0.080 3 0.941
NH3 (mg L−1 ) 0.080– 0.15 –0.151 3 0.889
DO (mg L−1 ) 0.550– 0.70 0.030 3 0.978
BOD (mg L−1 ) 0.250– 0.39 –0.118 3 0.914
Ca (mg L−1 ) 8.460–10.36 0.055 3 0.959
Mg (mg L−1 ) 3.230– 4.10 0.063 3 0.954
Na (mg L−1 ) 0.360– 0.72 –0.011 3 0.992
Al (mg L−1 ) 0.016– 0.021 0.080 3 0.941
Fe (mg L−1 ) 0.190– 0.31 0.417 3 0.710
Zn (mg L−1 ) 0.130– 0.17 –0.173 3 0.874
Cr (mg L−1 ) 0.008– 0.009 0.346 3 0.752
Cu (mg L−1 ) 0.008– 0.010 0.000 3 1.000
As (mg L−1 ) 0.006– 0.009 0.765 3 0.500

did not vary nor did the ECw of water content (362 to 320 µS cm−1 ). It was
concluded that any effects on water quality when reservoir volume was reduced
through evaporation, extraction for irrigation or during dam maintenance were in-
significant. As such, the assessment of the water quality of the Qaraaoun Reservior
was based on the average values of the dry season sampling dates (Table I). The
variation in the water quality was detected by the percentage coefficient variation
(%CV), t-test analysis of the physiochemical parameter of the 18 sampling sites
(Table III) and the correlation analysis among the different aforementioned water
quality parameters (Table IV).
This variability study would help to characterize the water quality of the re-
servior. The Qaraaoun water is alkaline (mean pH value of 7.43) which is typical
18 M. JURDI ET AL.

of water bodies underlain by carbonate rocks (Stumm and Morgan, 1996; Korfali
and Davies, 2000). The prevalence of carbonate sedimentary rocks in the reservoir
drainage basin is reflected in the water chemistry. For example, the concentration
order of cations is Ca2+ > Mg2+ > Na+ and that of anions HCO− −
3 > Cl > SO4 >
2−
− 3− −
NO3 > PO4 . The correlations between ECw and HCO3 (r = 0.58, p < 0.05) and
ECw and Mg2+ (r = 0.75, p < 0.01) were both statistically significant.
The sources of contaminants entering the reservior are characterized into six
major categories: (a) sewage network outlets, (b) municipal solid waste dumping,
(c) industrial zones (dyeing and tanning, electroplating, manufacturing of batter-
ies, chemicals, sponge and paper), (d) food processing plants (sugar beet, dairy
products, other foodstuffs and vegetable canning), (e) farms (swine, cows, sheep
and poultry), and (f) agricultural runoff water (Mansour, 1994; Jaafar, 1994; Abou-
Ziad, 1995; Jurdi et al., 1995; Stephenson et al., 1998; MOE, 2001). The pooling
of contaminants throughout the dry season, may explain the higher values of most
−1 −1
parameters at site 1 (Table I) such as: PO3− 2−
4 (1.57 mg L ), SO4 (37 mg L ),
−1 −1 −1
ammonia (0.25 mg L ), Fe (1.03 mg L ), As (0.025 mg L ) and Cr (0.042).
Table IV reports correlations between analyte values and these correlations may
account for the possible association of the analytes to the indicated contaminant
sources. For example, sewage and domestic wastewater discharges can explain the
significant association between chloride and ammonia (r = 0.534, p < 0.05) or
chloride and sodium (r = 0.582, p < 0.05). The ammonia/phosphate association (r
= 0.702, p < 0.01) can indicate inputs of sewage and municipal solid wastes as well
as fertilizers and other agricultural sources. The correlation between total hardness
and magnesium (r = 0.860, p < 0.01) is indicative of the dissolution of dolomite as
the source of magnesium ions (Deutsch, 1997). In addition, the correlation of Cu
and Cr (r = 0.535, p < 0.05), Fe and As (r = 0.711, p < 0.01), and Cr and Fe (r =
0.658, p < 0.01), can be explained by industrial discharges from dying and tanning,
mineral processing and electroplating.
The fluctuation of the water quality within the lake as a whole was not signi-
ficantly different as reported by the t-test analysis, but it was significantly different
as indicated by the high % coefficient of variation (Table III). This may be due
to much higher values at ends of the reservoir (entrance-pooling of contaminants
or dam anaerobic inducing effect) that cannot be neglected. Like this, the high
%CV values replicates on the geologic, hydrologic and contaminant profile of the
reservoir, which is observed during the dry season. The Litani River replenishes
the Qaraaoun Reservoir in winter when most of the water will be derived from rain
precipitation (865 mm between January and March, Khair, 1993) and catchment
run off. In summer, precipitation rate is nil (0–5 mm, Khair, 1993) and catchemnt
runoff is presumably insignificant, and the Litani river flows only through basal
recharge from aquifers, which is the scenario of dry season (Korfali and Davies,
1999). Volume reduction is mainly through water withdrawal for irrigation (MOE,
2001), evaporation and maintenance procedures at the dam. Solute content will rise
due to pollutant discharges and volume reduction. Per se, this is the most probable
 EVALUATION OF WATER QUALITY OF THE QARAAOUN RESERVOIR, LEBANON 19

explanation to the high coefficient of variation (%CV) of phosphate, ammonia and

the very high levels of variation for iron, arsenic and zinc (Table III). In contrast,
the variation of nitrite is indicative of the chemical instability, which is directly
affected by oxidation of ammonia through water aeration. Whereas the high %CV
of magnesium may be due to the dolomite geological formation of the basin and
the dissolution and precipitation of dolomite that was indicated previously in the
correlation between Mg and hardness.

4.2. S UITABLE ZONE FOR WATER EXTRACTION

Based on the presented analytical characteristic of the Qaraaoun Reservoir water

quality, an attempt to identify an optimal zone for water extraction and utilization is
herby presented. This attempt is based on identifying a zone, of optimal self purific-
ation and minimal water quality fluctuation. As such, three zones can characterize
the Qaraaoun Reservoir. These are: (A) zone (I) or receiving zone (S1–S6). This
zone is characterized by maximal fluctuation in water quality induced by factors
such as the river inflow, evaporation rate, and pooling of contamination load, B)
zone (II) or central zone (S7–S12). This zone is characterized by 20–30 m average
in reservoir depth, high turbulence that enhances chemical and biochemical ox-
idation and, therefore the self-purification capacity, and C) zone (III) or dam zone
(S13–S18). The dam itself induces sediment deposition and reduces turbulence that
may cause anaerobic bed sediments and consequent fluctuations in water quality.
The variation of the physicochemical parameters that are related, primarily, to
the self-purification capacity of a water body (DO, BOD, SO2− 3−
4 , PO4 , NH3 , and
NO3 ) and that of Fe and Zn confirms the proposed zoning characterization (Fig-
ure 2). Zone II, or central zone exhibited minimal water quality fluctuations and
appears to be categorized by a high self-purification capacity. This conclusion is
derived primarily from the highest dissolved oxygen levels of this zone and lowest
percentage of variation within the zone (Mean value = 7.5 mg L−1 , %CV = 4.2%)
as well as the statistical insignificant difference of the t-test (t = 0.165, df = 5, p =
0.867), whereby a significant difference was observed for zone I (t = –3.356, df = 5,
p < 0.05). Moreover, Figure 2, shows that zone II has the lowest %CV of the prime
studied fluctuating water parameters. To support the optimal water extraction from
zone II (central zone), the statistical paired t-test analysis was conducted for the
water parameters that exhibited high %CV through out the reservoir (Table III).
The paired t-test analysis (Table V) reconfirms the significance of the central zone
in its statistical significant difference in water quality from the other zones. It is a
zone that showed a significant statistical difference with either zone I and/or III.
Supplementary, to this is the fluctuating water quality of zones I and III. Zone I, is
the zone of contaminant pooling. On the other hand, the higher levels of Zn, Al, Cu
and As at site 18 (near dam) may be attributed to the anoxic conditions of this site
that may increase the solubility of these metals. An alternative explanation might
be that the higher metal content is due to the small diameter colloidal particles that
 TABLE III
20

Quality of the water of the Qaraaoun Reservoir (Dry season, 1995) in mg L−1 (except as specified) compared to International guidelines

Parameter Qaraaoun Reservoir Guidelines for drinking water Suitability for irrigation
SD %CV Min Max Mean t-Value P level WHO EEC USEPA No restriction
directives regulations (Ayers and Wescot)

Temperature (◦ C) 1.45 4.4 24.6 28.7 25.9 0.058 0.955 – – – –

pH 0.24 8.42 7.06 8.01 7.43 0.068 0.946 6.5–8.5 6.5–8.5 6.50–8.5 –
TDS 9.87 5.46 160 197 180 –0.119 0.907 1000 – 500 <450 mg L−1
Conductivity (µS cm−1 ) 15.96 9.87 337 388 362 0.015 0.988 – 400 – <0.7 dS m−1a
DO 0.66 9.35 5.7 7.8 6.52 0.165 0.871 – – – –
BOD 0.31 28.63 0.7 1.8 1.09 – 0.117 –0.909 – – –
HCO3 14.22 9.3 134 176 153 –0.068 0.946 – – – –
T. Hardness 9.74 6.37 140 170 153 – – 500 – – –
Ca 3.43 9.02 32 44 38 2.574 0.020 – – – –
Mg 3.68 26.59 9.6 19 13.9 0.036 0.972 – – – –
Na 0.43 4.83 8.1 9.7 8.98 0.000 1.000 – – – <3 me L−1b
Ammonia-N 0.05 38.08 0.05 0.25 0.13 –0.005 0.996 1.5 0.05–0.5 – –
M. JURDI ET AL.

NO2 -N 0.009 16.81 0.04 0.08 0.052 0.243 0.811 – 0.1 – –

NO3 -N 0.30 14.95 1.6 2.4 2.02 0.106 0.917 10 5.00–10 10 <5 mg L−1
SO4 3.96 15.21 23 37 26 –0.002 0.999 250 25.00–250 250 –
Cl 3.62 12.05 23 38 30.1 0.065 0.949 250 25 250 <3 me L−1
PO4 0.32 92.61 0.09 1.57 0.34 0.052 0.959 – 0.4 – –
Fe 0.24 304.58 0 1.03 0.08 0.004 0.997 0.3 0.05–0.20 0.3 5.0 mg L−1
Al 0.024 40.93 0 0.10 0.06 0.166 0.870 0.2 0.05–0.20 0.05–0.20 5.0 mg L−1
Zn 0.17 160 0 0.67 0.11 0.002 0.999 3 0.10–5 5 2.0 mg L−1
Cr 0.006 38.55 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.193 0.849 0.05 0.05 0.10 0.1 mg L−1
Cu 0.006 48.96 0.004 0.028 0.013 0.209 0.837 1.00 0.10–3 1.00 0.2 mg L−1
As 0.008 157 0 0.025 0.005 0.195 0.847 0.01 0.05 0.05 0.1 mg L−1
FC count 100 mL−1 110 83 0 300 134 – – 0 – 0 –
SAR value 0.012 83 0.29 0.33 0.32 – – – – – <3

a 1 dS m−1 = 1000 µS cm−1 . b me L−1 = mg L−1 /Equivalent Weigh.

 TABLE IV
Correlation coefficient values of physical and chemical parameters of water samples of Qaraaoun Reservior

pH Cond HCO3 TH Ca Mg NH3 NO3 PO4 SO4 DO Cl Na Al Fe Cr Zn Cu As

pH 1.000 –0.567 –0.604 –0.623 0.532 –0.691 –0.195 0.279 0.041 –0.045 0.379 –0.318 –0.526 0.296 0.063 0.281 –0.145 0.379 0.050
Cond 1.000 0.582 0.754 –0.490 0.753 0.057 –0.011 –0.195 –0.507 0.002 0.462 0.460 –0.14 –0.412 –0.589 0.259 –0.423 –0.421
HCO3 1.000 0.386 –0.417 0.481 0.348 –0.338 0.248 –0.206 –0.399 0.365 0.421 –0.011 0.122 –0.154 0.471 –0.320 0.038
TH 1.000 –0.405 0.860 0.289 0.104 –0.180 –0.445 0.271 0.521 0.605 –0.121 –0.350 –0.540 0.135 –0.482 –0.294
Ca 1.000 –0.814 –0.154 0.262 0.036 0.185 0.090 0.057 –0.348 0.205 0.110 0.200 –0.158 0.164 –0.204
Mg 1.000 0.269 –0.082 –0.133 –0.385 0.121 0.301 0.582 –0.175 –0.284 –0.457 0.189 –0.401 –0.167
NH3 1.000 0.218 –0.695 –0.334 0.049 0.543 0.214 0.125 0.599 0.388 0.001 0.122 0.393
NO3 1.000 –0.327 –0.494 0.718 0.058 –0.248 0.281 –0.358 –0.080 –0.220 –0.412 –0.456
PO4 1.000 0.020 –0.199 0.091 –0.142 0.163 0.941 0.509 0.110 0.463 0.673
SO4 1.000 –0.431 –0.495 –0.137 –0.162 0.214 0.208 0.038 0.373 0.392
DO 1.000 0.050 –0.265 0.273 –0.307 0.011 –0.164 –0.238 –0.311
Cl 1.000 0.582 0.156 –0.038 –0.016 0.034 –0.274 –0.156
Na 1.000 –0.054 –0.179 –0.219 0.349 –0.265 0.072
Al 1.000 0.134 0.155 0.424 –0.168 0.193
Fe 1.000 0.658 –0.022 0.554 0.711
Cr 1.000 –0.219 0.535 0.398
Zn 1.000 –0.090 0.443
Cu 1.000 0.581
As 1.000
EVALUATION OF WATER QUALITY OF THE QARAAOUN RESERVOIR, LEBANON
21
22 M. JURDI ET AL.

TABLE V
Statistical analysis (two paired sample t-test) of water quality parameters in the three
selected zones of Qaraaoun Reservoir

Parameter Zones I and II Zones II and III Zones I and III

t-Value P t-Value P t-Value P

DO (mg L−1 ) –3.94 0.011 3.164 0.015 –0.275 0.794

BOD (mg L−1 ) 1.575 0.049 –1.345 0.236 0.813 0.443
NO3 (mg L−1 ) –2.598 0.048 9.333 0.0001 0.826 0.447
NH3 –0.5231 0.003 –0.894 0.421 –0.5124 0.004
PO3−
4 0.779 0.471 –0.2192 0.040 0.314 0.767
SO2−
4 1.337 0.233 0.360 0.734 1.420 0.215
Al –0.1322 0.243 0.805 0.457 –0.170 0.872
Fe 1.192 0.287 –0.1697 0.515 0.956 0.381
Zn 4.174 0.009 –1.591 0.172 –0.1169 0.295
Cr 0.765 0.479 2.191 0.040 1.9234 0.122
Cu 3.221 0.023 0.355 0.737 2.213 0.078
As 1.174 0.239 –0.838 0.440 0.408 0.700

passed through the cellulose filter paper (Gaboury and Rozan, 1998). In conclusion
zone II (central zone) constitutes the optimal choice for water extraction and usage.

4.3. S UITABILITY OF Q ARAAOUN WATER FOR MULTI PURPOSE USAGE

Based on the identified characterization of the Qaraaoun Reservoir water, the ob-
jective of the following presentation is to screen water quality versus various types
of water usage such as: drinking and general domestic use, irrigation and livestock,
fisheries, recreational activities and industrial use.
This assessment is of major importance in delineating suitability as a pre-step
for the development of a master plan for multi-purpose usage. Development of such
a plan should take into consideration major limiting factors such as: environmental
constraints, methodological and data base constraints, and institutional, legal and
financial constraints (Jurdi et al., 2001). In addition, it should reflect the present
and projected development profile of the area (MOE, 2001).

4.3.1. Suitability for Drinking Water and General Domestic Use

The suitability of the Qaraaoun Reservoir for human consumption was evaluated
using EPA national primary and secondary drinking water regulations (USEPA,
1999), WHO guidelines (1996) and EEC standards (1980). The levels of the meas-
ured parameters (Table I) for all sites were lower than the standard values (Table III)
except at site 1 (S1) for phosphate (1.57 mg L−1 ) and Fe (1.03 mg L−1 ). Site 1 lies
 EVALUATION OF WATER QUALITY OF THE QARAAOUN RESERVOIR, LEBANON 23

Figure 2. Variation of Parameters within the three specified Zones of Qaraaoun Reservior Zone I
(S1–S6) Zone II (S7–S12), Zone III (S13–S18).
24 M. JURDI ET AL.

in the previously identified Zone I where the river Litani enters the reservoir car-
rying with it water-borne pollutants. Additionally, WHO guidelines (WHO, 1996)
require that all water intended for drinking must be free from faecal coliform bac-
teria (CF) or E. coli. These must not be detectable in any 100 mL sample. Table III
shows a mean count of 134 and a maximum of 300 FC/100 mL sample and the
only sites that showed E.Cloi were in zone I (5–15 E. coli/100 mL. However, there
are two considerations that would in reality make the reservoir water acceptable
for drinking purposes. First, water for human consumption is subject to filtration
or disinfection in order to destroy pathogens and, second, most water would be
withdrawn from the pathogen-free zone II.

4.3.2. Suitability for Irrigation and Livestock

The suitability of the Qaraaoun Reservoir for supplying irrigation water was eval-
uated using criteria reported by Ayers and Wescot (1985). Excessive solutes in
irrigation water are a common problem in semiarid areas and could potentially
arise in the Lebanese dry season when water loss through evaporation is maximal.
Salinity problems encountered in irrigated agriculture are most likely to arise where
drainage is poor which allows the water table to rise close to the rooting zone
of plants causing the accumulation of sodium salts in the soil solution through
capillary rise following surface evaporation of water. In Lebanon the amount of
the land currently suffering from drainage problems is small, about 5000 ha in the
South Bekaa and 4000 ha in Boquaia in Akkar. However, poor drainage can be
induced where irrigation water is high in sodium salts since these causes a break
down of the soil structure and a consequent deterioration in the infiltration rate (to
less than 3 mm hr−1 ). The sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) can predict potential
infiltration problems.
√
SAR = Na/ (Ca + Na)/2

Values for cations are in millequivalents per liter. The calculated mean SAR = 0.32
which implies no restriction on water use for irrigation. Similarly, the values for
conductivity (<0.7 dS m−1 ), total dissolved solids (<450 mg L−1 ), low Na and
Cl contents and low mean concentrations of trace metals (Table III) lead to the
same conclusion. Additional, the Bekaa Plain soils do not yet suffer from a high
salt content. Salinity problems for the crops normally cultivated within the area
of interest (beans, corn, cabbage, carrot, cucumber, lettuce, onion, pepper, tomato
and, mainly, potato and grapes) are never observed (Zurayk, 2000). Moreover, dur-
ing the dry season (July–October) difficulties arising from the decrease in water
volume due to consumption at times of little recharge were not observed and the
salinity value change was insignificant (362–320 µS cm−1 ). These considerations
lead to the conclusion that the reservoir water is fully suitable for irrigation use.
Irrigation canals may serve as water supplies for livestock. The data in Ayers
and Wescot (1985) and Shuval et al., (1986) indicate that water salinity < 1.5 dS
 EVALUATION OF WATER QUALITY OF THE QARAAOUN RESERVOIR, LEBANON 25

m−1 and Mg < 250 mg L−1 is suitable for drinking by most livestock and Qaraaoun
Reservoir water meets these standards.
The water quality data imply that best possible management of the water in the
Qarraoun Reservoir can help alleviate Lebanon’s current water shortage. Addition-
ally, winter discharge for the river Litani is high and since it flows entirely within
the country questions of riparian rights by neighbouring countries do not arise.

4.3.3. Suitability for Fisheries

The suitability of Qaraaoun Reservoir water for fish breeding was evaluated as
a solution to fish availability in Bekaa valley. Lebanon consumes 25 000 tons
of fish per year of which only 2500 to 3500 tons come from coastal Lebanese
fisheries despite the long Lebanese coastline, which extends over 220 km along
the Mediterranean Sea. The low yield of Lebanon marine fish supply arises from
primitive fishing methods, waste disposal in the sea and use of dynamite for fishing
(Faour, 1992). Lebanon and Cyprus share this latter problem. In Cyprus the use of
dynamite for fishing reduced the fish population tremendously (Armata, 1998). The
problem of marine fish supply in Lebanon is part of a general Mediterranean coastal
fishing problem. The General Fisheries Council for the Mediterranean (GFCM),
which was created in 1949, has been largely ineffective until now. Coastal fisher-
ies are declining and fishing in international waters operates under a ‘free of all’
system virtually without control (WWF, 1997). Seafood is therefore an expens-
ive luxury. Supply of fresh water fish is limited mainly to trout in few streams.
Consequently, Lebanon must import its fish supplies from other countries such as
Turkey, Spain, Morocco and the United Arab Emirates.
The suitability of fish breeding in Qaraaoun Reservoir was evaluated using
stream, lake and pond fisheries guidelines (US EPA, 1986; Harvey, 1989; APH,
AWWA, WPCF, 1992). The dissolved oxygen content (5.7–7.8 mg L−1 ) is higher
than the minimum required value to maintain fish in healthy condition (5 mg L−1 at
20 ◦ C). The temperature range in the reservoir (24–29 ◦ C) is higher than a desirable
20 ◦ C and would lead to lower oxygen content, yet acceptable dissolved oxygen
content was maintained within the reservoir due to the existing turbulence condi-
tions. The mean pH 7.4 is also within the acceptable range (5.0–8.5). Ammonia
(0.05–0.25 mg NH3 -N/L) does not exceed the recommended value (1.0 mg L−1 )
at the specified temperature (25 ◦ C) and pH (7.75). Trace metals showed low con-
centration values which were below values for suitability for human consumption.
Though pesticide analyses are advisable whenever agricultural runoff exist (Pillay,
1992) the field investigators (Jurdi, 1992; Mansour, 1994; Jaafar, 1994; Abou-Ziad,
1995) did not include pesticides as an indicative quality parameter in this study.
Consequently, the water quality of Qaraaoun Reservoir is considered acceptable to
maintain a healthy fish population. However, focused research relevant to fisheries
studies is a must. This is of major importance to identify most favourable types of
fish breed and productivity within the Qaraaoun Reservoir water habitat, given the
26 M. JURDI ET AL.

present and projected types of water usage. This would contribute towards solving
problems of domestic fish demand (MOE, 2001)

4.3.4. Suitability for Recreational Activities

If the Qaraaoun Reservoir was suitable for recreational activities (swimming, water
skiing, fishing and boating) this might lead to it’s becoming a tourist centre and
summer resort. Amenity use developments would lead to an improved economy
through job creation. Suitability for recreational use was evaluated using guidelines
of WHO and AWWA. These specify for primary water contact (swimming, ski-
ing), less than 10% of water samples taken at any time should be lower than 400
FC (faecal coliform) count per 100 mL sample and for secondary water contact
(boating, fishing), less than 10% of water samples should be lower than 2000 FC
count per 100 mL (WHO, 1975). The turbidity level of water should be smaller
than 5 NTU (AWWA, 1990). The bacteriological profile of the Qarraoun water
complies with the recommended bacterial densities where the reported values of
all the sampling sites had a FC count (check Table III), which is lower than recom-
mended 400FC count. Different types of persisting bacteria, viruses, protozoa and
helminthes associated with various types of discharge wastes should be identified
for control and safety (Feachem et al., 1983). However, continuous monitoring of
the microbiological quality of the Qaraaoun water is necessary to ensure continued
compliance.

4.3.5. Suitability for Industrial Use

The utilization of Qaraaoun Reservoir water to meet the demand of local indus-
tries (electrical supplies, food, dyeing and tanning and paper products) within the
Qaraaoun area would reduce demand on ground water supplies, which are now
excessively used. Many aquifers have deteriorated in water quality and coastal
aquifers have become highly saline (Guillaume, 1999) through marine intrusions
following over pumping.
One useful parameter to assess water quality for industrial purposes is the satur-
ation index (SI) of minerals (Rhades and Bernstein, 1971). The saturation indices of
the reservoir sampling sites were all negative for dolomite (Mg (CO3 )2 , anhydrite
(CaSO4 ) and calcite (CaCO3 ) except for calcite at sites S4 and S5 (zone I). The
negative values of SI indicate that these minerals will dissolve into the water rather
than precipitate, they are under saturated and consequently, the water samples
would be safe for industrial purposes (electrical power stations, industrial boiler
houses). Furring of cold water pipes is not likely to be a significant problem in
the short term. In addition, according to guidelines reported in (Sherrard et al.,
1987), AWWA (1990) and Water Treatment Handbook (Degremont, 1991), the
water quality profile of the Qaraaoun Reservoir (Table I) demonstrates suitability
for usage in: (a) paper processing when the water should be free from iron and
manganese, suspended solids < 200 mg L−1 , color < 5 TCU and turbidity < 10
NTU. The mean values for Qaraaoun water respectively were 180 mg L−1 , 6NTU
 EVALUATION OF WATER QUALITY OF THE QARAAOUN RESERVOIR, LEBANON 27

and color 3TCU, however, minimal aeration and sedimentation would enhance wa-
ter quality of the reservoir with regard Fe and Mn; (b) textile and tanning industries
require suspended solids < 5 mg L−1 , hardness 20 mg L−1 , Fe < 0.2–0.5 mg L−1
and pH around 7. Industry can de-ionize water to meet these requirements (US
EPA, 1986) and hence the water of the Qaraaoun Reservoir can be successfully
used provided that the expenses for de-ionization are accounted for although small
textile industries probably cannot afford this. (c) Food industries, such as dairying,
brewing and carbonated beverage canning are required to comply with drinking
water standards and it has been noted that the reservoir water does meet these stand-
ards (Table III), except the microbiological factor. However, disinfection treatment
of water is necessary and preferable by ozone treatment for the quality of odour
and taste.

5. Conclusion

Water demand is high and increasing in Lebanon including the adjacent Bekaa
plain. Water quality in the Qaraaoun Reservoir is generally high enough to sustain
a variety of usage, from drinking water to water sports. The reservoir is considered
as having three water quality zones. Zone I represents the zone of influence of
river water inflow. Zone II is characterised by stability in water quality and the data
indicate an excellent self-purification capacity. Hence, this zone is deemed suitable
for multipurpose usage. Zone III is downstream, near the dam and this structure
promotes fluctuations in water quality. Water at the sampling sites where the ana-
lytical data indicate sub optimal quality would probably be remediated through
customary water treatment processes. Major future concerns include microbio-
logical quality and chemical pollution problems. For the immediate future, our
studies confirmed that once a data-base is established, continuous monitoring and
evaluation would be the key elements in maintaining sustainability of the Qaraaoun
Reservoir water usage. Although the volume of water in the reservoir is finite there
are anticipated plans for creating other impoundments in the river Litani valley.
The broad similarities of geology and hydrology elsewhere in the valley lead to the
supposition that future reservoirs would also supply high quality water.

Acknowledgement

The authors would like to acknowledge the joint research funding of the United Na-
tions International Children Emergency Funds (UNICEF), the Lebanese National
Council for Scientific Research (LNCSR) and the American University of Beirut
(AUB), through the National Water Research Unit’s activities.
Gratitude is extended to Mr Khalid Zouhairy for his excessive assistance in
fieldwork activities and the needed communications; Ms Shiraz Basma for her
28 M. JURDI ET AL.

efforts in Literature review and computer works and Mr Wissam Khadra for his
help in geological mapping and geological needed information of the work.

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