MODULE - 1

ENVIRONMENT
The term environment has been derived from a French word “Environia” means to surround. It
refers to both abiotic (physical or non-living) and biotic (living) environment. The word
environment means surroundings, in which organisms live. Environment and the organisms are
two dynamic and complex component of nature. Environment regulates the life of the organisms
including human beings. Human beings interact with the environment more vigorously than
other living beings. Ordinarily environment refers to the materialsand forces that surrounds the
living organism.

Environment is the sum total of conditions that surrounds us at a given point of time and space. It
is comprised of the interacting systems of physical, biological and cultural elements which are
interlinked both individually and collectively. Environment is the sum total of conditions in
which an organism has to survive or maintain its life process. It influences the growth and
development of living forms.

In other words environment refers to those surroundings that surrounds living beings from all
sides and affect their lives in toto. It consists of atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and
biosphere. It’s chief components are soil, water, air, organisms and solar energy. It has provided
us all the resources for leading a comfortable life.

 According to P. Gisbert “Environment is anything immediately surrounding an object and

exerting a direct influence on it.”

 According to E. J. Ross “Environment is an external force which influences us.”

Thus, environment refers to anything that is immediately surrounding an object and exerting a
direct influence on it. Our environment refers to those thing or agencies which though distinct
from us, affect our life or activity. The environment by which man is surrounded and affected by
factors which may be natural, artificial, social, biological and psychological.
 Atmosphere
PHYSICAL COMPONENTS
Hydrosphere

Lithosphere

Abiotic

ENVIRONMENT BIOLOGICAL COMPONENTS

Biotic Pr
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Co
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Society De
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CULTURAL m
Economy po
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Politics

ECOLOGY
All organisms, no matter their size, their species, or where they live, need to interact with other
organisms in their 'neighborhood' and with their environment in order to survive. Ecology is the
scientific study of the interactions between organisms and their environment. The term comes
from the Greek 'study of house', or the study of the place we live in. Every organism experiences
complex relationships with other organisms of its species, and organisms of different species.
These complex interactions lead to different selective pressures on organisms. The pressures
together lead to natural selection, which causes populations of species to evolve. Ecology is the
study of these forces, what produces them, and the complex relationships between organisms and
each other, and organisms and their non-living environment.

The scope of ecology is huge, and it encompasses all organisms living on Earth and their
physical and chemical surroundings. For this reason, the field is usually divided into different
levels of study including: organismal ecology, population ecology, community ecology and
ecosystem ecology.

ORGANISMAL ECOLOGY- the study of individual organisms' behavior, physiology,

morphology, etc. in response to environmental challenges.

POPULATION ECOLOGY- the study of factors that affect and change the size and genetic
composition of populations of organisms.

COMMUNITY ECOLOGY- the study of how community structure and organization are
changed by interactions among living organisms

ECOSYSTEM ECOLOGY- the study of entire ecosystems, including the responses and
changes in the community in response to the abiotic components of the ecosystem.This field is
concerned with such large-scale topics as energy and nutrient cycling.

FOREST
A forest is a piece of land with many trees. Many animals need forests to live and survive.
Forests are very important and grow in many places around the world. They are an ecosystem
which includes many plants and animals.

Temperature and rainfall are the two most important things for forests. Many places are too cold
or too dry for them. Forests can exist from the equator to near the polar regions, but different
climates have different kinds of forests. In cold climates conifers dominate, but in temperate and
tropical climates forests are mainly made up of flowering plants. Different rainfall also makes
different kinds of forest. No forests exist in deserts, just a few trees in places where their roots
can get at some underground water.

Forests are essential for life on earth. Three hundred million people worldwide live in forests and
1.6 billion depend on them for their livelihoods. Forests also provide habitat for a vast array of
plants and animals, many of which are still undiscovered. They protect our watersheds. They
inspire wonder and provide places for recreation. They supply the oxygen we need to survive.
They provide the timber for products we use every day.

Forests are so much more than a collection of trees. Forests are home to 80% of the world’s
terrestrial biodiversity. These ecosystems are complex webs of organisms that include plants,
animals, fungi and bacteria. Forests take many forms, depending on their latitude, local soil,
rainfall and prevailing temperatures. Coniferous forests are dominated by cone-bearing trees, like
pines and firs that can thrive in northern latitudes where these forests are often found. Many
temperate forests house both coniferous and broad-leafed trees, such as oaks and elms, which can
turn beautiful shades of orange, yellow and red in the fall.

The most biologically diverse and complex forests on earth are tropical rainforests, where
rainfall is abundant and temperatures are always warm. Forests also play a critical role in
mitigating climate change because they act as a carbon sink—soaking up carbon dioxide and
other greenhouse gases that would otherwise be free in the atmosphere and contribute to ongoing
changes in climate patterns.

But forests are being destroyed and degraded at alarming rates. Deforestation comes in many
forms, including fires, clear-cutting for agriculture, ranching and development, unsustainable
logging for timber, and degradation due to climate change. This impacts people’s livelihoods and
threatens a wide range of plant and animal species. Forests are disappearing at an alarming rate
—18.7 million acres of forests are lost annually, equivalent to 27 soccer fields every minute.

Wildlife
Wildlife traditionally refers to undomesticated animal species, but has come to include all
organisms that grow or live wild in an area without being introduced by humans.[1] Wildlife can
be found in all ecosystems. Deserts, forests, rainforests, plains, grasslands, and other areas,
including the most developed urban areas, all have distinct forms of wildlife. While the term in
popular culture usually refers to animals that are untouched by human factors, most scientists
agree that much wildlife is affected by human activities.[2]

Humans have historically tended to separate civilization from wildlife in a number of ways,
including the legal, social, and moral senses. Some animals, however, have adapted to suburban
environments. This includes such animals as domesticated cats, dogs, mice, and gerbils. Some
religions declare certain animals to be sacred, and in modern times, concern for the natural
environment has provoked activists to protest against the exploitation of wildlife for human
benefit or entertainment.
 Biotic Components of Ecosystem
The living components of an ecosystem are called the biotic components. Some of these factors

include plants, animals, as well as fungi and bacteria. These biotic components can be

further classified, based on the energy requirement source. Producers, consumers, and
decomposers are the three broad categories of biotic components.

 Producers are the plants in the ecosystem, which can generate their own energy
requirement through photosynthesis, in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll. All
other living beings are dependent on plants for their energy requirement of food as well
as oxygen.

 Consumers include herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores. The herbivores are the living

organisms that feed on plants. Carnivores eat other living organisms. Omnivores are
animals that can eat both plant and animal tissue.

 Decomposers are the fungi and bacteria, which are the saprophytes. They feed on the
decaying organic matter and convert this matter into nitrogen and carbon dioxide. The
saprophytes play a vital role in recycling the nutrients so that the producers i.e. plants can
use them once again.

(Source: Encyclopedia-Britannica)
 Abiotic Components of Ecosystem
Abiotic components are the physical and/or the chemical factors that act on the living organisms
at any part of their life. These are also called as the ecological factors. The physical and chemical
factors are characteristic of the environment.  Light, air, soil, and nutrients, etc. form the abiotic
components of an ecosystem.

The abiotic factors vary from ecosystem to ecosystem. In an aquatic ecosystem, the abiotic
factors may include water pH, sunlight, turbidity, water depth, salinity, available nutrients and
dissolved oxygen. Similarly, abiotic factors in terrestrial ecosystems can include soil, soil
types, temperature, rain, altitude, wind, nutrients, sunlight etc.

Here, the sun is the energy source. Producers/plants use this energy to synthesize food in the
presence of carbon dioxide and chlorophyll. The energy from the sun, through several chemical
reactions, turns into chemical energy.

The herbivores are dependent on plants for the energy requirements. The carnivores, in turn, feed
on the herbivores and other carnivores. At any level, microbes then decompose any dead and
decaying organic matter. These decomposers, after various chemical reactions, release molecules
back to the environment in the form of chemicals. The chemicals are again used by the
producers, and the cycle starts again.

In conclusion, ecosystems have a complex set of interactions that happen between the biotic and
abiotic components. The components of an ecosystem are linked to each other through the
energy flows and nutrient cycles. Even though ecosystems do not have clear boundaries, these
interactions get affected, even if one factor is changed or removed. This ultimately has the
capacity to affect the entire ecosystem.

Agriculture
Agriculture, also called farming or husbandry, is the cultivation of animals, plants, fungi, and
other life forms for food, fiber, biofuel, drugs and other products used to sustain and enhance
human life. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization,
whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured the development
of civilization. The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science. The history of
agriculture dates back thousands of years, and its development has been driven and defined by
greatly different climates, cultures, and technologies. However, all farming generally relies on
techniques to expand and maintain the lands that are suitable for raising domesticated species.
For plants, this usually requires some form of irrigation, although there are methods of dryland
farming; pastoral herding on rangeland is still the most common means of raising livestock. In
the developed world, industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture has become the
dominant system of modern farming, although there is growing support for sustainable
agriculture. Until the Industrial Revolution, the vast majority of the human population labored in
agriculture. Pre-industrial agriculture was typically subsistence agriculture in which farmers
raised most of their crops for their own consumption instead of for trade. A remarkable shift in
agricultural practices has occurred over the past century in response to new technologies, and the
development of world markets. This also led to technological improvements in agricultural
techniques, such as the Haber-Bosch method for synthesizing ammonium nitrate which made the
traditional practice of recycling nutrients with crop rotation and animal manure less necessary.
Biogeochemical Cycles: Water, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus all take paths from
the nonliving environment to living organisms, such as trees, and then back to the nonliving
environment. These paths form cycles, known as biogeochemical cycles. In these cycles, a
pathway is formed when a substance enters living organisms, stays for a long time, then returns
to the nonliving environment. Such substances are referred to as cycling within an ecosystem
between an organism that lives in the ecosystem and a nonliving reservoir. 

The Water Cycle:

-Water has the greatest influence on the ecosystem's inhabitants. Water vapor in the atmosphere,
in the nonliving portion of the water cycle, condenses and falls to the Earth's surface as rain,
sleet, or snow. The water that seeps into the soil becomes part of the ground water, which is
retained beneath the Earth's surface. Most of the water the falls to Earth reenters the atmosphere
by evaporation. In the living portion of the water cycle,  a large majority of the water is taken up
by plant roots. After it passes through the plant, the water moves into the the atmosphere by
evaporating from the leaves, in a process called transpiration. This is a sun-driven process
Earth's atmosphere is heated by the sun, which creates wind currents that draw moisture from the
small openings in the leaves of plants. 
The Carbon Cycle: 
-Carbon cycles between
the nonlivin g environment
and living organisms, as
well. Carbon dioxide in the air
or dissolved in water is used
by
photosynthesizing plants, algae, and bacteria as a raw material to build organic molecules.
Carbon atoms may return to the pool of Carbon dioxide in the are and water in three ways... 

1. Respiration- Nearly all living organisms engage in cellular respiration. They use oxygen to
oxidize organic molecules during cellular respiration, and carbon dioxide is a byproduct of this
reaction.

2. Combustion- The carbon contained in wood may stay there for years, returning to the
atmosphere only when the wood is burned. Carbon can sometimes be locked away under the
Earth for thousands or even millions of years. The remains of the organisms buried in sediments
may be gradually changed by heat and pressure into fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas.
The carbon is released when the fossil fuels are burned. 

3.Erosion- Marine organisms use CO 2 dissolved in sea water to make calcium carbonate shells.
Over millions of years, the shells from the sediments, which form limestone. As the limestone
erodes and becomes exposed, the carbon becomes available to other organisms. 

The Phosphorus and Nitrogen Cycles:

 - Nitrogen and phosphorus are needed by organisms to build proteins and nucleic acids.
Phosphorus is usually present in soil and rock as calcium phosphate, which dissolves `in water to
form phosphate ions. This phosphate is absorbed by the roots of plants and used to build organic
molecules. Animals that eat the plants reuse the organic phosphate. The process of combining
nitrogen with hydrogen to form ammonia is called nitrogen fixation. 

Eco Friendly farming

Organic farming is a form of agriculture that depends on various techniques such as
vermicomposting, crop rotation, green manure, Animal Husbandry, Bio fertilizers and biological
pest control. Organic farming is the form of doing crop/plant cultivation by using organic
manures which are ecofriendly manures that supports the life of soil and other useful organisms
in the soil. Organic farming is an adapted practice in developing countries, where farmers use
animals for tilling the land and manures prepared by dung and other waste material of animals.
Organic farming supports the crop yield and quality of production [1]. Most of the developed
countries use synthetic chemicals to protect from insects, pests and other plant diseases. The use
of synthetic chemicals may give high yield for some time and protects the plants but the
continuous use of chemical in farming, useful organisms in soil become inactive and the insects
or pests and other diseases gain resistance to the chemicals and later the chemicals may not show
its effect on the pests, insects and other harmful organisms to the crops. Organic farming system
in some developing countries like India is not new and is being followed from ancient days. Bio
fertilizers are prepared with beneficial microbes which release nutrients to soil and support the
crop growth and product yield without any environmental pollution [2].

The population of world is increasing time to time and there would be requirement of the food
production to feed the world but to meet the requirement in a sustainable manner. Every country
need to practice organic farming and should avoid the use of synthetic chemicals, but the ‘Green
Revolution’ had brought a vast change in food production and now it requires organic form of
‘Green Revolution’ by meeting the food requirement and to protect the soil life and the
Ecosystem [3]. Fertility of the soil is decreasing with use of synthetic chemical and the harmful
organisms are gaining resistances towards synthetic chemicals and these chemicals are harmful
to the animals and the ecosystem. Many countries import and export different food products like
fruits, crops, seeds etc. from these some of the food products are banned to import due to high
chemical content which would harm the health by consuming it [4].

The aim of the organic farming is to produce chemical free food and to maintain the fertility of
the soil for long time [5]. This also provides employment to the agriculture labors in various
forms like nonchemical weeding, composting and strip farming etc.

Methods of Organic Farming

Organic farming involves various techniques which are ecofriendly and by practicing it the
fertility of soil is conserved for long time [6]. There various methods in organic farming some of
them are Crop rotation, use of green manures, biological pest control and composting, these also
provide employment to agriculture labors.

Employment to agriculture labors

In present day machinery are replacing man power and making them unemployed but with
organic farming it provides employment because many techniques are used, from preparation of
manure to cop harvesting [7].

Crop rotation

It is a technique of growing different crops in same area according to the seasons and it is
practiced to avoid agriculture pests, and to maintain soil fertility [8].

Green manures

Green manures are the plant leaves and waste material of plant which cover the soil and stuffed
in to soil and become as nutrient to the soil and increase the soil fertility [9].

Vermicomposting

It is a process of composting using different worms like white worms, earth worms and red
wrigglers for preparation of compost with mix of kitchen waste and other vegetable waste [10].
This is rich in nutrients and used as fertilizers in the agriculture fields.

What is Lithosphere ?
The lithosphere is the outer solid shell of the Earth. As the cooling surface layer of the Earth’s
convective system, the lithosphere thickens over time. It is fragmented into relatively strong
pieces or plates, which move independently relative to one another. These lithospheric
movements are described as plate tectonics. The lithosphere includes the crust and, below, the
uppermost layer of the mantle; it floats on the weaker asthenosphere. There are two types of
lithosphere:

 Oceanic lithosphere, which is associated with Oceanic crust

 Continental lithosphere, which is associated with Continental crust

Oceanic lithosphere is typically about 50-100 km thick (but beneath the mid-ocean ridges is no
thicker than the crust), while continental lithosphere is about 150 km thick, consisting 50 km of
crust and 100km or more of uppermost mantle. Oceanic lithosphere consists mainly of mafic
crust and ultramafic mantle and is denser than continental lithosphere, for which the mantle is
associated with crust made of felsic rocks. The crust is distinguished from the upper mantle by
the change in chemical composition that takes place at the Moho discontinuity.

The lithosphere is another sphere of the earth’s climate systems.

Atmosphere
Atmosphere, the gas and aerosol envelope that extends from the ocean, land, and ice-covered
surface of a planet outward into space. The density of the atmosphere decreases outward,
because the gravitational attraction of the planet, which pulls the gases and aerosols
(microscopic suspended particles of dust, soot, smoke, or chemicals) inward, is greatest close to
the surface. Atmospheres of some planetary bodies, such as Mercury, are almost nonexistent, as
the primordial atmosphere has escaped the relatively low gravitational attraction of the planet
and has been released into space. Other planets, such as Venus, Earth, Mars, and the giant outer
planets of the solar system, have retained an atmosphere. In addition, Earth’s atmosphere has
been able to contain water in each of its three phases (solid, liquid, and gas), which has been
essential for the development of life on the planet.

The evolution of Earth’s current atmosphere is not completely understood. It is thought that the
current atmosphere resulted from a gradual release of gases both from the planet’s interior and
from the metabolic activities of life-forms—as opposed to the primordial atmosphere, which
developed by outgassing (venting) during the original formation of the planet. Current volcanic
gaseous emissions include water vapour (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2),
hydrogen sulfide (H2S), carbon monoxide (CO), chlorine (Cl), fluorine (F), and diatomic
nitrogen (N2; consisting of two atoms in a single molecule), as well as traces of other substances.
Approximately 85 percent of volcanic emissions are in the form of water vapour. In contrast,
carbon dioxide is about 10 percent of the effluent.

Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere, including all the waters on the Earth’s surface, is interconnected with the other
‘spheres’ in the Earth system, that is the geosphere (lithosphere and atmosphere), the biosphere,
and the human-related anthroposphere. Water, the most widespread substance in the
environment of our planet, is available, in liquid, solid, and vapor states, everywhere on Earth,
albeit its abundance largely differs in space and time. Quantitative estimates of availability of
water (and in particular, freshwater) in different Earth’s water stores (reservoirs) are given. The
abundance of liquid water on Earth clearly distinguishes our unique planet from other planets in
the solar system, where no liquid water can be found. Water is a basic element of the life support
system of the planet, being essential for self-reproducing life. It is a universal solvent and carrier
of substances. Water has unique properties and behaves in an anomalous way. This plays a
crucial role in many fundamental processes in the geosphere and biosphere. Climate and water
on Earth are closely linked. Water influences the climate and is influenced by the climate.
Discussion of observed and projected impacts of climate changes on the hydrosphere is offered,
as well as a review of human interactions with the hydrosphere.

Hydrosphere, discontinuous layer of water at or near Earth’s surface. It includes all liquid and
frozen surface waters, groundwater held in soil and rock, and atmospheric water vapour.Water is
the most abundant substance at the surface of Earth. About 1.4 billion cubic km (326 million
cubic miles) of water in liquid and frozen form make up the oceans, lakes, streams, glaciers, and
groundwaters found there. It is this enormous volume of water, in its various manifestations, that
forms the discontinuous layer, enclosing much of the terrestrial surface, known as the
hydrosphere.Central to any discussion of the hydrosphere is the concept of the water cycle (or
hydrologic cycle). This cycle consists of a group of reservoirs containing water, the processes by
which water is transferred from one reservoir to another (or transformed from one state to
another), and the rates of transfer associated with such processes. These transfer paths penetrate
the entire hydrosphere, extending upward to about 15 km (9 miles) in Earth’s atmosphere and
downward to depths on the order of 5 km (3 miles) in its crust.

The Stratosphere - overview

The stratosphere is a layer of Earth's atmosphere. It is the second layer of the atmosphere as you
go upward. The troposphere, the lowest layer, is right below the stratosphere. The next higher
layer above the stratosphere is the mesosphere.

The bottom of the stratosphere is around 10 km (6.2 miles or about 33,000 feet) above the
ground at middle latitudes. The top of the stratosphere occurs at an altitude of 50 km (31 miles).
The height of the bottom of the stratosphere varies with latitude and with the seasons. The lower
boundary of the stratosphere can be as high as 20 km (12 miles or 65,000 feet) near the equator
and as low as 7 km (4 miles or 23,000 feet) at the poles in winter. The lower boundary of the
stratosphere is called the tropopause; the upper boundary is called the stratopause.

Ozone, an unusual type of oxygen molecule that is relatively abundant in the stratosphere, heats
this layer as it absorbs energy from incoming ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. Temperatures
rise as one moves upward through the stratosphere. This is exactly the opposite of the behavior
in the troposphere in which we live, where temperatures drop with increasing altitude. Because
of this temperature stratification, there is little convection and mixing in the stratosphere, so the
layers of air there are quite stable. Commercial jet aircraft fly in the lower stratosphere to avoid
the turbulence which is common in the troposphere below.

The stratosphere is very dry; air there contains little water vapor. Because of this, few clouds are
found in this layer; almost all clouds occur in the lower, more humid troposphere. Polar
stratospheric clouds (PSCs) are the exception. PSCs appear in the lower stratosphere near the
poles in winter. They are found at altitudes of 15 to 25 km (9.3 to 15.5 miles) and form only
when temperatures at those heights dip below -78° C. They appear to help cause the formation of
the infamous holes in the ozone layer by "encouraging" certain chemical reactions that destroy
ozone. PSCs are also called nacreous clouds.

Air is roughly a thousand times thinner at the top of the stratosphere than it is at sea level.
Because of this, jet aircraft and weather balloons reach their maximum operational altitudes
within the stratosphere.

Due to the lack of vertical convection in the stratosphere, materials that get into the stratosphere
can stay there for long times. Such is the case for the ozone-destroying chemicals called CFCs
(chlorofluorocarbons). Large volcanic eruptions and major meteorite impacts can fling aerosol
particles up into the stratosphere where they may linger for months or years, sometimes altering
Earth's global climate. Rocket launches inject exhaust gases into the stratosphere, producing
uncertain consequences

Food chain
Food chain, in ecology, the sequence of transfers of matter and energy in the form of food from
organism to organism. Food chains intertwine locally into a food web because most organisms
consume more than one type of animal or plant. Plants, which convert solar energy to food by
photosynthesis, are the primary food source. In a predator chain, a plant-eating animal is eaten
by a flesh-eating animal. In a parasite chain, a smaller organism consumes part of a larger host
and may itself be parasitized by even smaller organisms. In a saprophytic chain, microorganisms
live on dead organic matter.

A food chain shows how each living thing gets its food. Some animals eat plants and some
animals eat other animals. For example, a simple food chain links the trees and shrubs, the
giraffes (that eat trees and shrubs), and the lions (that eat the giraffes). Each link in this chain is
food for the next link. All food chains start with energy from the sun. This energy is captured by
plants. Thus the living part of a food chain always starts with plant life and ends with an animal.

Plants are called producers because they are able to use light energy from the sun to produce
food (sugar) from carbon dioxide and water. Animals cannot make their own food so they must
eat plants and/or other animals. They are called consumers. There are three groups of
consumers. Animals that eat only plants are called herbivores (or primary consumers). Animals
that eat other animals are called carnivores. Carnivores that eat herbivores are called secondary
consumers, and carnivores that eat other carnivores are called tertiary consumers. Animals and
people who eat both animals and plants are called omnivores. Then there are decomposers
(bacteria, fungi, and even some worms), which feed on decaying matter. These decomposers
speed up the decaying process that releases mineral salts back into the food chain for absorption
by plants as nutrients.

In a food chain, energy is passed from one link to another. When a herbivore eats, only a fraction
of the energy (that it gets from the plant food) becomes new body mass; the rest of the energy is
lost as waste or used up by the herbivore to carry out its life processes (e.g., movement,
digestion, reproduction). Therefore, when the herbivore is eaten by a carnivore, it passes only a
small amount of total energy (that it has received) to the carnivore. Of the energy transferred
from the herbivore to the carnivore, some energy will be “wasted” or “used up” by the carnivore.
The carnivore then has to eat many herbivores to get enough energy to grow. Because of the
large amount of energy that is lost at each link, the amount of energy that is transferred decreases
each time. The further along the food chain you go, the less food (and hence energy) remains
available.

What is a Carbon Credit?

A carbon credit is a tradable permit or certificate that provides the holder of the credit the right
to emit one ton of carbon dioxide or an equivalent of another greenhouse gas. The main goal for
the creation of carbon credits is the reduction of emissions of carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gases from industrial activities to reduce the effects of global warming

Carbon credits are market mechanisms of the minimization of greenhouse gases emission.
Governments or some types of regulatory authorities set the caps on greenhouse gas emissions.
For some companies, the immediate reduction of the emission is not economically viable.
Therefore, they can purchase additional carbon credits to comply with the emission cap from
companies that can reduce the emissions immediately. Companies that achieve the carbon
offsets (reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases) are usually rewarded with additional carbon
credits. The sale of the credits’ surplus may be used to subsidize future projects for the reduction
of the emissions.

The introduction of carbon credit was ratified in the Kyoto Protocol. The Paris Agreement
validates the application of carbon credits to reduce emissions of the greenhouse gases and sets
the provisions for the further facilitation of the carbon credits markets.

Types of Carbon Credits

There are two types of the carbon credits:

 Voluntary emissions reduction (VER):  A carbon offset that is exchanged in the over-the-
counter or voluntary market for credits.
 Certified emissions reduction (CER): Emission units (or Carbon credits) created through a
regulatory framework with the purpose of offsetting a project’s emission. The main difference
between the two is that there is a third party certifying body that regulates the CER as opposed
to the VER.

Trading of Carbon Credits

Carbon credits can be traded on both private and public markets. Current rules of trading allow
the international transfer of carbon credits.

The prices of carbon credits are primarily driven by the levels of supply and demand in the
markets. Due to the differences in the supply and demand in different countries, the prices of the
carbon credits fluctuate.

Although carbon credits are beneficial to the society, it is not easy for an average investor to start
using them as investment vehicles. The certified emissions reductions (CERs) are the only
product that can be used as investments in carbon credits. However, CERs are sold by special
carbon funds established by large financial institutions. The carbon funds set up the minimum
investment amounts of millions of dollars, which provide small investors with the opportunity to
enter the market.

There are special exchanges that specialize in the trading of the carbon credits, including
European Climate Exchange, NASDAQ OMX Commodities Europe, and European Energy
Exchange.
 MODULE – 2
What Is Environmental Degradation?
The environment is just the natural world that surrounds us. Our environment provides us with
everything we need: air, food, water, and all the natural resources needed to build our
civilization and keep it running. Because human beings are entirely dependent on the
environment for our continued survival, it’s important that we keep it clean and utilize it in a
sustainable way.

Simply put, environmental degradation is a decline in the quality of our environment. This can
be a result of pollutants that spoil the air, water or food supply, the over-extraction of resources
so that little remains for future use, or the destruction of habitats so that the resources they once
contained are no longer available. While natural disasters can cause environmental degradation,
more often it is the result of human activities.

Environmental degradation is the deterioration (causing degenerative harm) of the environment

through exhaustion of natural assets such as water, soil, and air including the ecosystem, habitat
intrusion, wildlife extermination, and environmental pollution. It is an apparent change in the
environment deemed undesirable or pernicious. Environmental degradation has captured the
attention of the globe and necessary actions and policies have been established to control the
state of affairs. An increase in population over the years has led to rapid economic growth
through utilization of resource-depleting activities and pollution technology. The general efforts
applied to counteract this menace is environmental management and protection.

Causes of Environmental Degradation

There are multiple ways in which environmental degradation takes place. Pollution is
unquestionably one of the primary reasons. There are four leading causes; water, air, land, and
noise. Water pollution contaminates drinking water, air pollution pollutes the air we breathe and
poses a health risk, while land pollution degrades the earth's surface. Noise pollution causes
damage to the ears and impairs hearing.

Overpopulation is most definitely a cause of environmental degradation. Improved healthcare

systems have increased the lifespan of human beings hence resulting in overcrowding. An
increase in population means a parallel rise in basic needs. That means more land for settlement
and farming which results in deforestation, which is a factor leading to environmental
degradation. Reduced forest cover results in an elevated level of carbon in the atmosphere and
causes global warming.

Land disturbance or damage is another cause since sprouting and spreading of weedy plant
species eliminates the typical greenery. Landfills are disposal points for solid waste, especially
in urban areas. They pollute the environment and deteriorate the surroundings. Other natural
calamities such as earthquakes, storms, tidal waves, and wildfires also play a role in
environmental degradation.
Global Climate Change
This phenomenon is a result of the unintended consequences of burning fossil fuels and
releasing staggering amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Mega-droughts have
already left cities like Cape Town in South Africa without water and have led to massive die-
offs in the Amazon rainforests of Brazil.

Industrialization
The industrial revolution increased human life expectancy and gave us the affordable luxuries of
the modern world. It has also led to air, water and soil pollution that has direct affects on human
and animal health. China’s explosive industrialization since the 1980s has led to some of the
worst air pollution in the world. Industrialized agriculture in the American heartland sends so
much fertilizer down the Mississippi River each summer that it causes an annual “dead zone”
roughly the size of Connecticut in the Gulf of Mexico.

Overconsumption
As countries become wealthier, they consume more resources per capita. The United Sates, for
example, has less than five percent of the world’s population, but is responsible for consuming
about 25 percent of resources. One American consumes the same amount of resources as 35
people living in India.

Overfishing
Improvements in fishing techniques allowed humans to fully exploit or deplete over 90 percent
of the fish in the ocean. While fishing companies made excellent profits for years, those same
companies have collapsed as fish stocks have disappeared.

Deforestation
Another case of humans becoming too successful in their ability to harvest resources,
deforestation has destroyed various habitats, erasing those resources from the world forever.

War
Armed conflict does irreparable damage to the environment in addition to its costs on human
life. The Iraqi food supply, for example, is still contaminated with depleted uranium from a
nuclear reactor bombed in 1991
 Population growth and Environmental degradation
Population is an important source of development, yet it is a major source of environmental
degradation when it exceeds the threshold limits of the support systems. Unless the relationship
between the multiplying population and the life support system can be stabilized, development
programs, howsoever, innovative are not likely to yield desired results. Population impacts on
the environment primarily through the use of natural resources and production of wastes and is
associated with environmental stresses like loss of biodiversity, air and water pollution and
increased pressure on arable land. Human population issues are extremely important when it
comes to our way of life and our future on this planet.

Poverty is said to be both cause and effect of environmental degradation. The circular link
between poverty and environment is an extremely complex phenomenon. Inequality may foster
unsustainability because the poor, who rely on natural resources more than the rich, deplete
natural resources faster as they have no real prospects of gaining access to other types of
resources. Moreover, degraded environment can accelerate the process of impoverishment, again
because the poor depend directly on natural assets.

Lack of opportunities for gainful employment in villages and the ecological stresses is leading to
an ever-increasing movement of poor families to towns. Mega cities are emerging and urban
slums are expanding. Such rapid and unplanned expansion of cities has resulted in degradation
of urban environment. It has widened the gap between demand and supply of infrastructural
services such as energy, housing, transport, communication, education, water supply and
sewerage and recreational amenities, thus depleting the precious environmental resource base of
the cities. The result is the growing trend in deterioration of air and water quality, generation of
wastes, the proliferation of slums and undesirable land use changes, all of which contribute to
urban poverty.

Direct impacts of agricultural development on the environment arise from farming activities
which contribute to soil erosion, land salination and loss of nutrients. The spread of green
revolution has been accompanied by over exploitation of land and water resources, and use of
fertilizers and pesticides have increased many fold. Shifting cultivation has also been an
important cause of land degradation. Leaching from extensive use of pesticides and fertilizers is
an important source of contamination of water bodies. Intensive agriculture and irrigation
contribute to land degradation particularly salination, alkalization and water logging.

Environmental degradation is a result of the dynamic inter-play of socio-economic, institutional

and technological activities. Environmental changes may be driven by manyfactors including
economic growth, population growth, urbanization, intensification of agriculture, rising energy
use and transportation. Poverty, still remains a problem at the root of several environmental
problems.

It would not be exaggerated if stated that the major international wars to be fought in the future
will continue to be over natural resources. Power conflicts and self-interest will perhaps mean
that, there will be gross violation of basic rights and death or misery for millions of innocent
people. Throughout history, most wars have had trade and resources at their core, fueled by
imperialistic motives. In future as well, perhaps this pattern is likely to continue, as resources get
depleted, distributed unequally and wasted in these wars (hot and cold), additional conflicts and
contention will arise through access to even more limited resources. We see numerous causes of
poverty, and many are found in unfair economic and trade agreements from wealthier nations
and institutions. While it might be an over-simplification to say the poor are victims, a lot of
poverty, if not the majority is caused by factors which the poor themselves often have no control
or choice over.

Human population issues are extremely important. Elements affecting population have been
identified, and now it is up to the governments of developing countries to guide their people
through the demographic transition as quickly and painlessly as possible. It is crucial that we
assist and monitor these countries in order to further educate ourselves and preserve both us and
our planet. Religion, women’s rights, male pride, societal status, and birth control are some of
the major social variables that affect human populations, especially in developing countries.

As stated above, a growing population poses some serious environmental threats. More people
means less forest, water, soil, and other natural resources, but more waste, pollution, and
greenhouse gases. This suggests that climate change may be sped up by population growth if we
don’t do something soon. Alternative resources, conservation, improved environmental
technology, and better education about global warming can ease our impact on the earth and
serve as a new frontier for our future generations. We now know so much about human
population that it seems as if we can easily control it. In the end, though, the prospect of the
human race is up to the people, not the government. We will decide how far we are willing to go
to preserve our earth for its future inhabitants. If we make population a priority, and assist
countries in need of help, than we should be able to guide ourselves toward a stable level of
development and growth.

Developing countries have been experiencing a serious problem of rapidly growing

population which results in accelerating environmental degradation. High popu-lation
growth rate with low per-capita income has worsened environmental condition during
the past four decades that seem to erode the economic and social progress of SAARC
(South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) countries specifically. A com-
plex and dynamic relationship is observed between population and environment. They
are closely inter-twined with each other. The relationship between population and
environment is mediated by a number of socio-economic, cultural, political, and
devel-opmental variables which relative significance varies considerably from one
context to another. Over the past three to four decades, economists, biologists, and
environmentalists have been debating the role of population in environmental
degradation (Hummel et al., 2009). Research proves that population is considered an
im-portant source of development, yet it is also a major source of environmental
degradation when it exceeds the threshold limits of the support system. Population
growth has an impact on the environment primarily through the consumption of
natural resources and pro-duction of wastes. It is also associated with environ-mental
stresses like loss of biodiversity, air and water pollution and increased pressure on
arable land (UNRISD, 1994). Main factors causing degradation to air quality are: (a)
rapidly growing energy demand; and (b) swiftly growing transport sector. In cities,
ex-tensive usage of low quality fuel, combined with the dramatic expansion in the
number of vehicles on roads, has led to significant air pollution problems.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Industrialization to achieve economic development has resulted in global environmental
degradation. While the impacts of industrial activity on the natural environment are a major
concern in developed countries, much less is known about these impacts in developing countries.
This source book identifies and quantifies the environmental consequences of industrial growth,
and provides policy advice, including the use of clean technologies and environmentally sound
production techniques, with special reference to the developing world.

The developing world is often seen as having a high percentage of heavily polluting activities
within its industrial sector. This, combined with a substantial agricultural sector, which
contributes to deforestation, the erosion of the top soil and desertification, has lead to extreme
pressures on the environment and impoverishes the population by destroying its natural resource
base. This crisis suggests that sound industrialization policies are of paramount importance in a
developing countries’ economic development, and calls for the management of natural resources
and the adoption of low-waste or environmentally clean technologies.

In an economy, the production uses energy, labor, capital, and raw materials to produce goods
and services. The environment plays an important role in the economy. In the production of
goods and services, raw materials, such as metals, minerals, water, tree, etc. are extracted from
the environment. Energy resources –coal, oil, natural gas–are also extracted from the
environment required to transform raw materials into goods and services –intermediate as well
as final consumption goods. In addition, the environment acts to provide many ecosystem
services, such asfiltering air pollution, sequestering carbon,and protect against flood risk. It also
provides us with recreational activities and improves our health. Economic growth isan
important driver of the economy. It stimulates consumption and advances production. It makes
improvementsin health, education,and life quality possible. It is also vital for the wellbeing of
the economy and its citizens in both developed and developing world.

According to the first law of thermodynamics, matter can never be destroyed or created:
thematerials and energy that do not go into the final product are returnedto the environment as
wastes.The wastes can also come from consumption. When people drive cars, the exhaust from
the cars adds to the stock of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Theenvironment thus acts as a
supplier of resources and a receptor of waste products.

With the development of society and economic growth, the attendant environment pollution has
become a serious issue.There are those who argue that Industrialization3and urbanization
eventually leads to environmentaldegradation (Peng, 2006), while others contend that economic
growth and environment quality interact with each other and will be promoting each other
mutually (Beckerman, 1992). No clear-cut conclusion has emerged from the debate, and the
issue still needs to be studied further.

There is no denying that economic growth brings many benefits. However,the ever-increasing
scale of productionalso degrades ecosystemsand depletes natural resources. The debate is
whether or not it is possible to achieve sustainable economic growth without the degradation of
the ecosystemsand the depletion of the natural resources.As a result of human activities, thelevel
of carbon dioxide(𝐶𝑂2)in the atmosphere has being rising dramatically, and the world is facing
the great challenge ofkeeping the rise in the global temperature below two degrees. Researchers
have found that 15 out of 24 ecosystems were used unsustainably,and the consumption of natural
resources such as metals and minerals was rising at an increasing rate(Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment, 2003). Some take the view that the cost of inaction would be far greater than the
cost of action now,and using environmental resources sustainably is consistent with the
economic growth. Others think that thestocks ofnatural resources are finite, and this places a
limit on the extent to which the economy could expand.

Environment Pollution
Environment pollution is worldwide issue and it has adverse impact on the health of human
populations (Fereidoun et al, 2007). Universal environmental pollution, including greenhouse
gas emissions and acid deposition, as well as water pollution and waste management is
deliberated as global public health problems, which should be examined from manifold
perspectives such as social, economic, legislation, and environmental engineering systems, as
well as lifestyle habits helping health promotion and reinforcing environmental systems to repel
adulteration (Loux, 2011). It is observed that the problems of environmental pollution is intense
in the developing world, where traditional sources of pollution such as industrial emissions, poor
sanitation, insufficient waste management, polluted water supplies and exposures to indoor air
pollution from biomass fuels affect humans (Samet, 2001). Recently, modern pollutants have
emerged which are associated with traffic congestion and the use of modern chemicals in the
home, in food, for water treatment and for pest control.

Air Pollution has emerged as growing global issue among environmentalists and researchers
especially in developed countries since the decade of 1960 (Kan, 2009). It affects human and
animal lives, natural ecosystems and the man-made environment. The main pollutants found in
the air people breathe include, particulate matter, PAHs, lead, ground-level ozone, heavy metals,
sulphur dioxide, benzene, carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide (European Public Health
Alliance, 2009). Air pollution in urban areas has numerous health impact such as a shorter
lifespan for city inhabitants (Progressive Insurance, 2005).

Air pollution is also responsible for climate change due to the enhanced greenhouse effect, acid
rain, and the depletion of the ozone layer that constitute important global environmental
problems. Mishra stated that fast growth in urban population, increasing industrialization, and
rising demands for energy and motor vehicles are the deteriorating air pollution levels (2003).
He further said that other factors, such as poor environmental ruling, less efficient technology of
production, jammed roads, and age and poor maintenance of automobiles also increase pollution
level. It is established that air pollution is caused of ill health and death by natural and man-made
sources. Major man-made sources of ambient air pollution include tobacco smoke, combustion
of solid fuels for cooking, heating, home cleaning agents, insecticides industries, automobiles,
power generation, poor environmental regulation, less efficient technology of production,
congested roads, and age and poor maintenance of cars and other automobiles. The natural
sources include furnaces and waste disposals, forest and agricultural fires (European Public
Health Alliance, 2009). Air pollution occurs both outdoors and indoors and is caused by human
activities and natural mechanisms. Outdoor air pollution is described as the discharge of
numerous air pollutants in to the atmosphere, in concentrations that threaten the health of living
organisms or upset the function of the environment as a system leading to human health
damages in various ways. Indoor air pollution is defined as the amount of chemical, biological
and physical contaminants in the air inside a building. Indoor air pollution is more dangerous as
compared to outdoor air pollution. Some of indoor air pollutant sources in houses including
building materials, pressed wood products and furniture, central heating and cooling systems,
several personal care or household cleaning products, painting colours, solvents, heating or
cooking appliances (stoves, wood and gas burning fireplaces, gas heaters), tobacco smoke, office
machines and other products used in daily activities (EPA, 2007).

POLLUTION CONTROL
The environmental consequences of rapid industrialization have resulted in countless incidents
of land, air and water resources sites being contaminated with toxic materials and other
pollutants, threatening humans and ecosystems with serious health risks. More extensive and
intensive use of materials and energy has created cumulative pressures on the quality of local,
regional and global ecosystems.

Before there was a concerted effort to restrict the impact of pollution, environmental
management extended little beyond laissez-faire tolerance, tempered by disposal of wastes to
avoid disruptive local nuisance conceived of in a short-term perspective. The need for
remediation was recognized, by exception, in instances where damage was determined to be
unacceptable. As the pace of industrial activity intensified and the understanding of cumulative
effects grew, a pollution control paradigm became the dominant approach to environmental
management.

The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) of India is a statutory organisation under the
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (Mo.E.F.C). It was established in 1974
under the Water (Prevention and Control of pollution) Act, 1974. The CPCB is also entrusted
with the powers and functions under the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981. It
serves as a field formation and also provides technical services to the Ministry of Environment
and Forests under the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. It Co-ordinates the
activities of the State Pollution Control Boards by providing technical assistance and guidance
and also resolves disputes among them. It is the apex organisation in country in the field of
pollution control,[3] as a technical wing of MoEFC.[4][5] The board is led by its Chairperson,
who is generally a career civil servant from the Indian Administrative Service appointed by the
Appointments Committee of the Cabinet of the Government of India.

CPCB has its head office in New Delhi, with seven zonal offices and 5 laboratories. The board
conducts environmental assessments and research. It is responsible for maintaining national
standards under a variety of environmental laws, in consultation with zonal offices, tribal, and
local governments. It has responsibilities to conduct monitoring of water and air quality,[8] and
maintains monitoring data. The agency also works with industries and all levels of government
in a wide variety of voluntary pollution prevention programs and energy conservation efforts. It
advises the central government to prevent and control water and air pollution. It also advises the
Governments of Union Territories on industrial and other sources of water and air pollution.
CPCB along with its counterparts the State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) are responsible
for implementation of legislation relating to prevention and control of environmental pollution

The Kerala State Pollution Control Board is a body of the Department of Health and Family
Welfare, Government of the State of Kerala, India. The board is charged with enforcing laws
related to environmental protection. The Pollution Control Board has been established as a
regulatory authority for implementing various pollution control laws. The board is committed to
provide pollution free environment to the people of state. The Board has undertaken various
studies of underground water, solid and air to take remedial steps to control pollution.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
"Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs". This is a definition
offered by the famous World Commission on Environment and Development in its report Our
Common Future. Economists have also provided a definition of sustainable development as
being an economic process in which the quantity and quality of our stocks of natural resources
(like forests) and the integrity of biogeochemical cycles (like climate) are sustained and passed
on to the future generations unimpaired. In other words, there is no depreciation in the world's
"natural capital", to borrow a concept from financial accounting.
The concept of sustainable development can be interpreted in many different ways, but at its
core is an approach to development that looks to balance different, and often competing, needs
against an awareness of the environmental, social and economic limitations we face as a society.

All too often, development is driven by one particular need, without fully considering the wider
or future impacts. We are already seeing the damage this kind of approach can cause, from large-
scale financial crises caused by irresponsible banking, to changes in global climate resulting
from our dependence on fossil fuel-based energy sources. The longer we pursue unsustainable
development, the more frequent and severe its consequences are likely to become, which is why
we need to take action now.  

So is it all just about the environment?

Living within our environmental limits is one of the central principles of sustainable
development. One implication of not doing so is climate change.

But the focus of sustainable development is far broader than just the environment. It's also about
ensuring a strong, healthy and just society. This means meeting the diverse needs of all people in
existing and future communities, promoting personal wellbeing, social cohesion and inclusion,
and creating equal opportunity.

If sustainable development focuses on the future, does that mean we lose out now?
Not necessarily. Sustainable development is about finding better ways of doing things, both for
the future and the present. We might need to change the way we work and live now, but this
doesn't mean our quality of life will be reduced.

A sustainable development approach can bring many benefits in the short to medium term, for
example:

Health & Transport - Instead of driving, switching to walking or cycling for short journeys will
save you money, improve your health and is often just as quick and convenient.

What is a Hazardous Waste?

Simply defined, a hazardous waste is a waste with properties that make it dangerous or capable
of having a harmful effect on human health or the environment. Hazardous waste is generated
from many sources, ranging from industrial manufacturing process wastes to batteries and may
come in many forms, including liquids, solids gases, and sludges.

Characteristic Hazardous Wastes

Wastes may be hazardous wastes if they exhibit any of the four characteristics of a hazardous
waste (ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, and toxicity) as defined in Article 3 of hapter 11 of the
hazardous waste regulations (sections 66261.21 to 66261.24). C These four characteristics are:

Ignitability – Ignitable wastes can create fires under certain conditions, undergo spontaneous
combustion, or have a flash point less than 60°C (140°F). Examples include waste oil and used
solvents. The characteristic of ignitability is defined in section 66261.21 of the hazardous waste
regulations. Test methods that may be used to determine if a waste exhibits the characteristic of
ignitability include the Pensky-Martens Closed-Cup Method for Determining Ignitability, the
Setaflash Closed-Cup Method for Determining Ignitability, and the Ignitability of Solids

Corrosivity- Corrosive wastes are materials, including solids, that are acids or bases, or
that produce acidic or alkaline solutions. Aqueous wastes with a pH less than or equal to 2.0 or
greater than or equal to 12.5 are corrosive. A liquid waste may also be corrosive if it is able to
corrode metal containers, such as storage tanks, drums, and barrels. Spent battery acid is an
example. The characteristic of corrosivity is defined in section 66261.22 of the hazardous waste
regulations. Testmethods that may be used to determine if a waste exhibits the characteristic of
corrosivity are pH Electronic Measurement and Corrosivity Towards Steel

Reactivity-Reactive wastes are unstable under normal conditions. They can cause
explosions or release toxic fumes, gases, or vapors when heated, compressed, or mixed with
water. Examples include lithium-sulfur batteries and unused explosives. The characteristic of
reactivity is defined in section 66261.23 of the hazardous waste regulations. There are currently
no test methods available for reactivity. Instead wastes are evaluated for reactivity using the
narrative criteria set forth in the hazardous waste regulations.

TOXICITY-Toxic wastes are harmful or fatal when ingested or absorbed (e.g., wastes
containing mercury, lead, DDT, PCBs, etc.). When toxic wastes are disposed, the toxic
constituents may leach from the waste and pollute ground water. The characteristic of toxicity is
defined in section 66261.24 of the hazardous waste regulations. It contains eight subsections, as
described below. A waste is a toxic hazardous waste if it is identified as being toxic by any one
(or more) of the eight subsections of this characteristic.

Renewable Energy Resources

Energy is often defined vaguely as “the capacity to do work”, which shifts the semantic problem
over to the word “work” (which is at least as diversely defined as “energy” in the human lexicon
at large, but is easier to define in physics).

When you exert a force on an object and move it in the same direction as you are pushing, you
do positive work on that object equal to the force times the distance through which you exert it.

Renewable energy systems use resources that are constantly replaced and are usually less
polluting. Examples include hydropower, solar, wind, and geothermal (energy from the heat
inside the earth). We also get renewable energy from burning trees and even garbage as fuel and
processing other plants into bio-fuels.

Wind Energy
The moving air or wind has huge amounts of kinetic energy, and it can be transferred into
electrical energy using wind turbines. The wind moves the blades, which spins a shaft, which is
further connected to a generator, which generates electricity. An average wind speed of 14 miles
per hour is needed to convert wind energy into electricity. Windgenerated electricity met nearly
4% of global electricity demand in 2015, with nearly 63 GW of new wind power capacity
installed.

Solar Energy
Solar energy is the light and heat procured from the sun. It is harnessed using an everevolving
technologies. In 2014, global solar generation was 186 terawatt-hours, slightly less than 1% of
the world’s total grid electricity. Italy has the largest proportion of solar electricity in the world.
In the opinion of International Energy Agency, the development of affordable, inexhaustible,
and clean solar energy technologies will have longer-term benefits.

Biomass Energy
When a log is burned we are using biomass energy. As plants and trees depend on sunlight to
grow, biomass energy is a form of stored solar energy. Although wood is the largest source of
biomass energy, agricultural waste, sugarcane wastes, and other farm byproducts are also used to
produce energy.

Hydropower
Energy produced from water is called hydropower. Hydroelectric power stations both big and
small are set up to produce electricity in many parts of the world. Hydropower is produced in
150 countries, with the Asia-Pacific region generating 32 percent of global hydropower in 2010.
In 2015, hydropower generated 16.6% of the world’s total electricity and 70% of all renewable
electricity.

Tidal and Wave Power

The earth’s surface is 70% water. By warming the water, the sun creates ocean currents and the
wind that produces waves. It is estimated that the solar energy absorbed by the tropical oceans in
a week could equal the entire oil reserves of the world – 1 trillion barrels of oil.

Geothermal Energy
It is the energy stored within the earth (“geo” for earth and “thermal” for heat). Geothermal
energy starts with hot, molten rock (called magma) deep inside the earth which surfaces at some
parts of the earth’s crust. The heat rising from the magma warms the underground pools of water
known as geothermal reservoirs. If there is an opening, hot underground water comes to the
surface and forms hot springs, or it may boil to form geysers. With modern technology, wells are
drilled deep down the surface of the earth to tap into geothermal reservoirs. This is called direct
use of geothermal energy, and it provides a steady stream of hot water that is pumped to the
earth’s surface.

Cycling of Materials in Ecosystems