71st EAAE Seminar – The Food Consumer in the Early 21 st Century

Contributed Paper

FOOD CONSUMPTION IN THE EUROPEAN UNION: MAIN

DETERMINANTS AND COUNTRY DIFFERENCES

Gracia A.
Albisu L.M.
Unidad de Economía Agraria
Servicio de Investigación Agroalimentaria (DGA)
Apdo. 727, 50080 Zaragoza (Spain)
Phone: 34-976-716350; 34-976-716347
Fax: 34-976-716335
e-mail: agracia@aragob.es
e-mail: lmalbisu@aragob.es

Abstract

Consumers in the European Union are involved in integration processes which head
towards homo genization of food consumption patterns. Several factors are encouraging these
homogenization trends based on consumers’ similarities and corporate activities. In this paper a
review of the food consumption structure, across European Union countries, is undertaken.
Firstly, food consumption trends in different countries are described and, secondly, factors,
which determine consumer choices, are presented. Despite European consumers face more
homogeneous food market conditions, food consumption differences exist because preferences
and food habits are still different among European consumers, and the market is fragmented.
(EconLit: L660)

Key words: food, consumption, Europe.

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This paper is in press in the journal: Agribusiness: an international journal, Volume 17 (4),
Autumn, 2001

1. Introduction

The European Union (EU) is an area characterized by a high development status under
an internal integration process and, at the same time, external internationalization opening.
Any continuous integration process carries on a parallel convergence but still consumption
differences exist among countries and regions in Europe (Gil and Gracia, 1998). It is important to
shed light on the extent of those differences and the reasons behind them. Consumers are
becoming wealthier and they are affluent enough, so that they demand food not only for
nourishment reasons but also for enjoyment, preference, ethics, culture, safety, prestige,
impulse and other factors that have been revealed very important in building final food
choices. Economic, social and demographic characteristics as well as food consumers’ choice
and behavior should be considered for a better understanding of European food consumers.

In this paper, some quantitative comparisons and qualitative explanations are presented to
know better food consumption in the different countries of the European Union. The analysis is
based on previous works undertaken by several authors, at a European level, and our own
knowledge about the subject. There is a section dealing with general statistical trends and
country differences. Next section presents some explanations about why and how actual food
consumption patterns occur in Europe. Some concluding remarks are offered at the end.

2. Food consumption in the European Union: general statistical trends and country
differences

In the last fifteen years, the evolution of food consumption in European countries has
been analyzed by several authors (Blandford, 1984; Frank and Wheelock, 1988; Wheelock and
Frank, 1989; Ritson and Hutchins, 1991; Combris, 1991; Caiumi, 1992; Besch, 1993;
Meulenberg and Viane, 1993; and Gracia and Albisu, 1994) and some general conclusions can
be outlined from those works.

Food consumption in the European Union countries can be summarized in four major
trends: 1) a decrease in the proportion of expenditure allocated to food already reaching very low

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levels, 2) a maximum level in total food consumption, in quantity terms, 3) a shift in the food
consumption structure, and 4) an increase in the proportion of food consumed away from home.
The first trend is not surprising and it follows any macroeconomic growth as it has been the case
for all European. The second trend is the result of a situation that occurs in wealthy countries
where quantity is surpassed by quality concerns, people want to eat better as their daily intake
requirements diminish. The third trend is not so homogeneous and it differs from country to
country, according to many distinctive aspects, but also based on their cultural and historical
evolution. The last trend is also common for all countries but its intensity varies among countries
and labor circumstances.

Total food consumption in the EU has increased less than 2% in a five year period (from
1991 to 1996) and it is expected to increase in the same amount in the next five years (from 1996
to 2001) (Table 1). The food products which showed the highest increase were fish and seafood
(6%) and the processed and convenience foods (processed meat (4%), cheese (6%), yogurt and
desserts (9%), chocolate (8%) and snacks (15%)). In the near future, it is expected an increase in
the consumption of all food products but more moderate than in the previous period (except for
fresh meat, which consumption will increase once the BSE crisis has finished).

These general trends can be expanded by a more detailed analysis. It may happen that
while a group of food products could have an increasing or decreasing trend, there might be
specific food products, in each group, with a strong opposite reaction. Moreover, food
consumption evolution differs from country to country.

There are European Union countries where overall food consumption has slightly
increased (in the range from 1% to 5% from 1991 to 1996) (Table 2). In other countries there
is a decrease, such in Greece (-0.3%), Spain (-3%) and United Kingdom (-2%). It is surprising
to notice that in the latter group there two countries among the lowest income per capita of all
Europe.

Different trends can be observed for products in different countries. Figures on food
consumption by product and countries from 1991 to 1996 have been gathered from
AgraEurope (1997). Percentage changes correspond to the evolution in the whole period.
Table 3 shows per capita food consumption by product and countries in 1996 (the rest of the
information is available from the authors upon request).

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 Average EU fresh meat consumption has decreased by 2%, mainly due to the beef
disease, but processed meat consumption has increased by 4%, with particular emphasis in
Austria (12%), Belgium- Luxembourg (11%), Greece (7%) and Italy (4%). However, the
consumption of both types of meat has increased in Denmark (2% and 9%, for fresh and
processed meat, respectively), Germany (2% and 9%), Ireland (7% and 4%), the Netherlands
(11% and 5%), Portugal (4% and 20%) and Sweden (12% and 10%). Only in two countries,
Finland and Spain, total meat consumption has decreased, 3% and 8%, respectively for fresh
meat and, 6% and 2% for processed. The only clear outcome from those figures is that
European heterogeneity is the most remarkable characteristic. There are not clear relations
between the absolute level of meat consumption and consumption trends. However, the
proportion of processed meat on total meat consumption has increased in all countries except
Finland, Ireland, the Netherlands and Sweden, although this share varies among countries
with the highest values for the Netherlands (46%), United Kingdom (43%) and Germany
(41%) and the lowest for Greece (8%) and Portugal (15%). Each country is facing particular
circumstances and movements among different kinds of meats which are more important than
overall meat consumption. Thus, poultry and pork meat consumption have increased because
of the problems with meats and also because poultry meat is highly considered based on
health concerns.

Fish consumption in the EU has increased by 6% mainly due to the healthy attributes
stressed by food specialists and the reinforcement of consumers’ awareness. There are only
two countries, Finland and Sweden where fish consumption has decreased by 8% and 11%,
respectively. The increase in the rest of the countries is quite high, in the range from 8% to
19% except for France, Spain and United Kingdom where consumption has gone up by 3%,
2% and 6%, respectively. It seems that in some countries, with a high level of consumption,
has reached a peak like in the case of Sweden, Spain and France, while in others consumption
is still increasing, like in Denmark and Portugal, because of the positive consumption
benefits.

The evolution of dairy product consumption differs according to the type of product.
While EU milk consumption has help up, the consumption of cheese and, yogurt and desserts
has increased by 6.6% and 9.5%, respectively. The consumption of milk has even decreased
in Austria, Denmark, Finland, France, Sweden and United Kingdom but, in all countries, low

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fat consumption has increased. In general, a clear distinction can be undertaken between
drinking milk and dairy consumption products, which is expected to continue their increase
and to have more diverse supply because of the search for consumers’ convenience. The
expansion of well-known agri- food and distribution multinationals has made dairy products
accessible to a great part of the population.

Overall EU cereal and baked products consumption has slightly increased by 2%, and
the same trend can be observed for all the countries except for Ireland where consumption has
decreased (4.3%) and Denmark where the increase in consumption accounts for 11%. A more
thorough breakdown could give us some hints about these general trends. In general terms,
bread consumption has decreased in many countries while the greatest increases correspond to
breakfast cereals, cakes, pasta and rice. Cereals consumption may be enhanced by introducing
products which reinforce some healthy and nutritional attributes of the product such as high
fiber content, low calorie contents, etc. The last trend may be the leading forces behind the
change.

Confectionery products and snacks consumption have increased by 3% and 15%,

respectively. This increasing trend has been a general pattern in all countries with the highest
rates corresponding to Portugal (36%), Spain (30%), Denmark (17%), Greece (10%), Italy
(10%) and France (10%). This is a group of food products with a similar positive trend and, in
general, countries with the weakest agri- food industry have developed the most.

In general, consumption of soups and sauces in the EU has increased by 3%. It has
increased, in all the countries, with highest increases in Greece (20%), Portugal (23%) and
Spain (14%). In this case it is clear that the main expansion has occurred in the southern
Mediterranean countries as a result of moving from homemade to industrial products.

The consumption of oils in the EU is held up but a variety of tendencies can be

observed among countries. The consumption of oils has slightly decreased in Denmark,
France, Greece, Spain and United Kingdom. In the rest of countries, oils consumption is held
up or has increased slightly (except in Portugal with an increase of 9%). In this group occurs a
similar situation to meat consumption where the consumption change among oils is more
important than the overall consumption. A common trend has been the change from animal to

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vegetable oils and the introduction of new vegetable oils. For example, olive oil has taken the
part of the market share that was occupied by other oils because it is as being healthier.
The average consumption of eggs in the EU has decreased by 3.5% mainly because of
the cholesterol increasing concern, although consumption has increased in Ireland, Italy and
Portugal. It is remarkable the important decrease in the Spanish eggs consumption (14%). The
quantity of cholesterol free eggs consumed has risen and the expansion of multinationals in
the south is a recent movement.

The consumption of fruit, vegetables and pulses in the EU has increased except for
preserved fruit. However, while fresh fruit and vegetables consumption has increased by 2%
and 0.6%, respectively, frozen fruit and vegetables consumption has risen by 13%. This
increasing trend can be observed for all countries (except for United Kingdom) and in some
cases the increase in the consumption of frozen fruit and vegetables is more than 30%. Pulses
consumption has increased in all countries except in Austria, France and Sweden. Fresh fruit
and vegetables consumption has increased in all EU countries except in the case of vegetables
in Greece, Sweden and United Kingdom and, in Spain where the consumption of both, fruit
and vegetables, has decreased by 15% and 17%, respectively. The evolution of canned fruit
and vegetables varies greatly among countries but follows a decreasing trend. It seems that
Mediterranean countries, somehow, are moving away from the typical Mediterranean diet
whereas other countries are approaching towards those patterns by increasing the amount of
fruits and vegetables consumed.

As a summary, in general, the consumption of some food products has held up (milk
and oils) or slightly decreased (fresh meat and eggs) while the consumption of other products
has increased (cheese, yogurt, confectionery, snacks, soups, fruits and vegetables). Altogether,
food consumption in quantity terms is help up, although, the diet is cha nging. Consumers
cannot and are not willing to eat more, but their food demand is shifting among different
products. Nowadays, food consumption is a matter of choice and great efforts must be carried
out in order to attract consumer food choice. The situation of the agri- food industry and the
distribution channels in each country affect also consumption patterns and trends in Europe.

3. European food consumption determinants

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 Food consumption determinants are plenty and the importance of them in explaining
food consumption, over time and space, is changing very rapidly. Those factors come from
different levels in the food chain: consumers, food manufactures and retailers.
3.1. Consumers

Consumers are the final agents in the food choice process and their characteristics,
attitudes and behavior are very important food consumption determinants. Several issues related
to European food consumers can be outlined.

3.1.1. Heterogeneity versus homogeneity

A great debate has been opened concerning the “heterogeneity versus homogeneity” of
European food consumers. Since the pioneer work of Blandford (1984) who stated that European
diets were converging or, more precisely, were getting closer, an important number of analyses
have tried to demonstrate whether or not food consumption structures are getting similar.
Blandford concluded that despite differences in income and in relative prices, the composition of
diets showed considerable similarities, and differences in consumption patterns among countries
were diminishing over time. Gracia and Albisu (1994) stated that differences in food
consumption across European countries are becoming smaller and Reig (1992) reached the same
conclusions. Gil et al. (1995) and, Herrmann and Röder (1995) used different approaches to shed
some light on the convergence or approximation of food consumption structures among
countries. These research works studied just the evolution of food consumption structure for
aggregated food product categories among countries. Moreover, those data were not enough to
perform disintegrated analyses, which would give more clarifying results.

Askegaard and Madsen (1995) have moved one step ahead. They analyzed how
homogeneous or heterogeneous are Europeans with respect to food behavior and attitudes by
using questionnaires at a national level. Results indicate that the most homogenous countries are
Belgium, Portugal, Greece and Italy. Countries like Spain, Ireland, Norway and Austria stand out
as rather heterogeneous. However, heterogeneity is caused by different circumstances on
different countries. For example in Greece there are great differences in the product behavior
while in Portugal and Spain the main difference correspond to the food product style. The main
conclusion is that despite the globalization food process, Europe can not be definitely considered

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a homogeneous block with respect to food culture. National boundaries supplemented by
language boundaries are still the best predictors of differences in food-related behavior.

3.1.2. Economic and socio-demographic characteristics

From 1991 to 1996 food consumption, in quantity terms, has increased slightly but total
expenditure on food has risen by around 7% (AgraEurope, 1997). The reason of this different
evolution is that the increase in sales of prepared and convenience foods has occurred at a greater
rate (6.8%) than the sales of other food products. This increase has also been greater in Portugal,
Spain and Denmark. European consumers are increasingly turning to more convenient and
processed food and, therefore, to more added value products. The consumer’s wealth but also the
changing demographic and social characteristics of European consumers are reasons behind that
trend. Per capita food consumption, in quantity terms, has not changed much in the EU.
Although European consumers do not eat more they buy more added value.

European population growth is held up, with less potential consumers and more aged
people. The most important demographic factor is the rate of population growth, which was
0.3%, as average from 1991 to 1996. However, the forecast EU population growth is around
3.7% increase from the entire period 1995 to 2010. The most significant changes will occur in
the 20-29 age group, with a large decline in population of –18.2%, and in the 65 and over age
group with a large increase of 20.9%. However, individuals aged 30-44 years will appreciably
decline and the greatest increase will correspond to those aged 75 years and over (AgraEurope,
1997).

Older consumers have a tendency to reduce the energy value of their diets and are more
conservative and prefer the food products they used to eat in the past. They rarely try either new
food products or ready-to-eat meals and they infrequently eat away from home. Also, because of
their health concerns, they eat more fruit and vegetables and less fats. Their per capita income is
relatively high and they allocate an important part of their income to buy food products, although
they eat less quantity than younger people do.

The average household size in the EU is diminishing although the total number of
households is increasing. Therefore, the number of single-person households is increasing and it

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accounts for 11% in Spain up to as much as 41% in Sweden in 1995. Those households can be
split into two categories, pensioners who live alone or single young people. The latter usually eat
more often away from home or at workplace, and they buy more often ready-to-eat meals and try
new products.

The proportion of working women is increasing and it accounts for over 40% in most
countries, but Luxembourg, Greece, Ireland, Italy and Spain. Therefore, household income levels
have increased and the amount of time available for cooking has been reduced. The main
consequence is the increasing use of convenience food, ready-to-eat meals and the increasing
number of meals consumed away from home (at the workplace, children at school). Steenkamp
(1997) found a positive correlation between the percentage of working women and the
consumption of froze n foods. The same could apply to other timesaving food products. Despite
of the large number of women involved in professional activities, they are still largely
responsible for family nutrition and they are the main family meal planners

Previous changes in consumer characteristics (rising income, aging population, smaller

household, women labor participation, etc.) have caused European consumers to demand more
added value food products. In particular, they demand higher quality and more diversify
products. Consumers acting in this environment are facing important changes and challenges.
They are exposed to an increasing number and more diversified quality food products.

3.1.3. Consumers concerns and the demand for quality

There are many definitions of “quality” but we follow an approach, which

takes into account more aspects than the technical or objective quality parameters. In our case,
consumers’ quality evaluation is the result of their perceptions about the extent to which
products achieve their consumer’s needs. In this sense, there are many features which can
contribute to the quality of a food product and that satisfies different consumers’ needs. Many
of them might not be closely related to the product but they are also linked to the place where
it is sold or to the numerous services incorporated with the product. This final perception is
closely linked to the price paid by consumers as a good barometer of their acceptance.

Consumers build decisions depending on the different food attributes. The attributes
more often identified to influence consumption decisions are healthy and nutritive values,

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appearance, taste, convenience, packaging and safety (Jensen and Basiotis, 1993). On the other
hand, consumers are becoming more interested, more knowledgeable and, therefore, more
critical towards food (Wheelock, 1992). Moreover, they are increasingly concerned on the many
different aspects of food intake, but mainly on health problems associated with the diet and on
the safety of food products.

Quality is a market requirement and all participants in the agri-food chain state that
market demands quality products. But quality, at the same time, is a complex word that involves
many different aspects. We present quality attributes related to product development,
convenience, origin of production, health and safety concerns. All of them influence consumer’s
quality perception.

1) Improve quality through product development

Food products assemble many different components, which are constantly improved in
order to give consumers’ satisfaction. New food products with physical transformations (new
ingredients, different flavors, better smell, etc.) are introduced in the market in order to meet
consumer’s needs. For instance, consumers might want a light version of a product but with the
same original taste. The European market may not be so prone as the USA market to new
products but constantly introduces them, though many of them do not become successful. In
Europe, there is a tendency to incorporate food products from other cultures, because of the
many cross-cultural expositions, which are adapted to each particular country. Massive
movements of emigrants and tourists help to induce the introduction of new products based on
other cultural experiences. There is a new fusion recipe culture that incorporates ingredients and
ways of cooking from different ethnic groups.

Process innovation has been a greater source to create new products than proper product
innovation (Grunert et al., 1992). That means that suppliers industries and their technological
breakthroughs have been a determinant factor. These technological improvements are rapidly
acquired by big firms but also by small and medium firms, to the extent that they have the
necessary capital to incorporate technological novelties. Large multinationals spread their new
products all over Europe and product innovation is controlled by agri-food industries, however
the contribution of food distribution chains through their own brand is not very important.

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 Quality is also improved with a new or an improved package, as it is becoming an
important component of the product appreciation. For example, food products are modified, in
order to increase their quality, with a special packaging according to their final use, such as a
small package size for individual needs or re-usable containers taking into account
environmental concerns. It is also part of the attraction to buy a new product or an old product
but with a new message. Other aspects that add quality to the product are the freshness, which
has helped peri-urban agriculture in many European countries and it has made compulsory the
use of refrigerated transportation, and the use of traditional methods of production to provide the
idea of a safety outcome. This is the reason why organic products, integrated agriculture and
non-genetically modified organisms have a better acceptance in Europe than elsewhere. New
product developments gather all new ideas around products and consumers’ perceptions.

2) Improve quality through convenience

The growing value of time, mainly due to women participation in the labor market, has
induced the demand for more convenience food products. Therefore, the consumption of ready-
to-eat, highly prepared foods (bakery, yogurt and froze n food) has increased significantly. From
1991 to 1996, the consumption rate growth of more prepared or processed food grew four times
more than the total food consumption and it was expected to rise two times faster in the next five
years (AgraEurope, 1997).

The expenditure on processed food represents 43.5% of total food expenditure in the EU
and it was expected to rise by 7.4% (at constant exchange rate) from 1996 to 2001. The largest
consumption, in volume, corresponds to dairy products, followed by processed meats and
cereals. The highest increases have been predicted in the consumption of snacks (15%), frozen
vegetables (10.8%) and cereals (8%).

The highest consumption of processed foods corresponds to Germany, France, The

United Kingdom and Italy. However, the greatest increase of processed food consumption has
occurred in Portugal (14.8%), Denmark (9.8%), Greece (9.6%), Italy (9.6%), and Spain (8.7%),
from 1991 to 1996. It is also estimated that the greatest increase will be in Portugal (8.3%),
Ireland (7.2%), Spain (6.8%) and Greece (6.5%) by 2001.

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 This trend has noteworthy constraints, not only because of the disposable income of
consumers or culinary habits, but also because of the available space in the house to put in
equipment for frozen food or microwaves. Modern buildings incorporate all facilities but already
built apartments have more difficulties. It is important to realize that European apartments are
rather small and a great part of the population lives in urban areas and not in the city
surroundings. The distribution chains adapt their offer to their consumers’ facilities.

3) Improve quality trough origin of production

By nature, food products have a land-based, and therefore regional or geographic origin
(Kuznesof et al., 1997). Socio-cultural factors and availability of the products have shaped food
consumption habits. Although globalization, increasing trade and consumer exposure to new
products through travel and information, have eroded the relation between food and territory, the
interest in food with a place or region of origin has been renewed. Although it has to be admitted
that technical advances in agricultural food production have led to enormous benefits in Europe,
it is also true that there is a trend towards the disappearance of products associated with local
traditions and the fruit of a long process of selective evolution (Peri and Gaeta, 1999). However,
this interest has been maintained in the Mediterranean European countries, mainly in France,
Italy and Spain.

The European Union regulation allows the application of a Designation by means of a

Protected Denomination of Origin (PDO) or a Protected Geographical Indicator (PGI) to a food
product with a geographic origin. Since 1996, all the European Union countries, except Ireland,
obtained the EU Designation of Origin (EUDO) for different food products. France has the
highest number of EUDO food products (101) followed by Italy (99), Portugal (76), Greece (72)
and Spain (40). It is important to remark that the Denomination of Origin occurrence is closely
related to the Mediterranean countries. Other countries have less number of EUDO food
products: United Kingdom (23), Austria (11), The Netherlands (4), Belgium (3) and Denmark
(3), Finland (1) and Sweden (1) in 1998 (European Commission, 2000).

The aim of those products is to be perceived as high quality food produced in a specific area
with certified methods of production, which ensure quality and traceability. Although 30% of
European consumers, on average, tend to buy Designation of Origin products, the proportion
varies among countries. In France and Spain, 85% and 79% of consumers, respectively, buy such

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products, in contrast with Sweden with only 8%. On average 39% of European consumers
consider that typical products are also quality products. In some countries, the proportion of
consumers who think that typical products are associated with quality is greater than 50% (e.g.
58% in France and 62% in Italy). In a survey undertaken in 5 European countries Trognon et al.
(1999) found that consumers’ knowledge, perceptions and attitudes are as important in
explaining behavior patterns towards regional food products as the socio-demographic factors.

Recent food frauds have occurred in the last few years and they have reinforced consumers’
appreciation about total quality control from production to consumption. Producers who are able
to sell their products in the market are in a better position to communicate consumers about all
the process. Designation of Origin jointly with traceability is a great asset for producers of raw
materials who are able to transform products. European producers are aware of it and wines have
already taken advantage of the new situation but also many other typical products.

4) Improve quality through health

The increasing health-related food problem information has increased consumers’

concerns about the type of products they eat. Moreover, the major nutritional worry has
focussed on the relationship between diet and the major chronic diseases. Therefore,
consumers have very important reasons to follow an adequate and varied diet in order to
maintain good health and prevent diet-related disease. The characterization of most adequate
diets creates controversy and the comparison with existing traditional diets, considered to be
healthy, has been one approach.

Traditional Mediterranean and Asian diets are excellent models of healthy eating
(Trichopoulou and Lagiou, 1997). Both are associated with low rate of a number of diseases,
usually related to food intake, such as coronary diseases and some types of cancer. Both are
high in: cereals, vegetable and fruit content, and thus rich in antioxidants and fiber, and low
in: saturated fat and animal products. Roza (1997) considers a healthy diet as: “high in fresh
fruit and vegetable consumption, a balance between proteins and unsaturated fats, a high
consumption of fishery products and a low consumption of saturated fats, salt and sugar”.

In general, studies on the relation between health and diets have increased in Europe, but
there exist different views among them. However, the increasing awareness on the healthy

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characteristics of the diet is affecting consumer food choice. There is a clear linkage between
nutritional aspects, health awareness and pharmaceutical reinforcements added in food products.
As a consequence, there are different changes in food consumption: 1) shift in food consumption
structures (i.e. increasing consumption of fresh fruit and vegetables); 2) purchasing nutritionally
modified foods; and 3) buying foods that provide health benefits.

In the early 1960's, the diet in European Mediterranean countries (Greece, Italy, Portugal
and Spain) was considered healthy and representative of the Mediterranean diet. However, the
trend in food consumption in these countries has moved away from such a diet (Gracia and
Albisu, 1999). Public and private institutions in those countries are concerned about the changes
in preferences towards unhealthy diets and are making efforts to inform and educate consumers
about the healthy characteristics of the Mediterranean diet. Furthermore, some northern countries
are changing their food demand towards healthy characteristics. For example, meats do not
receive such a great consumers’ recognition as it used to be before and animal fats are not so
largely consumed.

European consumers demand a variety of healthier products such as organic, home-

produced, natural, low fat, fortified and functional food products. Organic food products
represent a small market share yet. Integrated agricultural products seem to have a more
prominent future but the lack of clear regulations prevents from a wide spreading. Distribution
chains are working hard to compensate for it and to improve market coverage with their own
distribution brands.

5) Improve quality through safety

Food safety issues constitute a growing concern in all EU countries, specially the relation
between food safety and health problems. This uneasiness has been latent but has been revealed
an important issue when some food safety incidents occur, such as BSE and dioxin. After such
accidents, there is an increase of information on food safety risks and consumers loose
confidence on food production and they become very worried on everything related to food. As a
related issue, environmental effects related to agricultural production and agro-food
transformation is also a high priority for consumers. Safety consumers’ appreciation depends on
their risk assessment and it requires a sound scientific evidence and interpretation of safety
standards, which are usually different among European countries (McCrea, 1998).

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 In recent years, public confidence in the safety of food products has been damaged by
numerous scares, such as the BSE epidemic, scrapie, salmonella and swine fever. As part of a
special battery of questions concerning this issue, a special study within the framework of a
Eurobarometer survey asked respondents to state how they feel about the safety of a number of
food products. Bread and bakery products are considered the safest (86% of respondents).
Confidence is also high when it comes to fruit and vegetables and dairy products. People are
somewhat less likely to believe that animal products such as fresh fish and fresh meat are safe
and a significant proportion of the population questions the safety of frozen and canned foods.
The most widespread concern is found for pre-cooked meals (39%) and other pre-packed foods
(42%) (European Commission, 1998). There are significant variations between the Member
States. On average, more than 8 every 10 people in Sweden, The Netherlands, the UK and
Finland consider food products to be safe. In Greece, Germany and Portugal, less than 6 every 10
people share this view.

Nowadays, European consumers have lost their confidence on food production and they are
mainly concern on two aspects of food safety: food contamination and the safety of new
technologies (Genetic Modified food products- GM). In the first case, the appearance of some
safety incidents such as the BSE induces a rapid change in food choice (beef consumption
decreased by around 30%, in all the European Union countries, in 1996). Moreover, those
incidents induced also consumers’ claims about information related to food production and
inspection with special emphasis on new technologies. In this case, biotechnology has been an
important issue for European consumers. Once they knew about products derived from
genetically modified organisms, the first reaction was to be against them. GM food products
have generated a great debate among European consumers.

There are several reasons behind this reaction. Some consumers closely relate those products
to big multinationals without a serious concern about consumers. Food control has not been
effectively undertaken in many European countries and in this occasion there is the risk of not
having performed enough scientific. This perception is quite different among countries, as the
northern countries are not prone to food certifications, just the opposite of what happens in the
south. Many consumers are extremely ignorant about the meaning of genetically modified
organisms but the media has spread a permissive view of this issue.

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 We live in the so-called information society. Consumers demand more information.
Food labeling has been an old interest of EU policy makers since Directive 79/112/EEC
devoted to the labeling of foodstuffs. Any single survey undertaken in the EU reveals that
consumers are eager to get more information. Nutritional labeling on the package is highly
valued but there is a lack of trust. According to Davies (1998) there is an increasing reliance
on labels because consumers’ eat more processed food, the ingredients are no longer what
consumers expect, shopping is done in a hurry, there is an increasing interest in health, claims
are more complex so marketing methods and more people ask for special diets. There are
many ways for the consumers to get information (telephone, e- mail, internet sites, in-store
touch screens, bar code scanners radio linked to in-store computers, etc.), however the product
label is still by far the most powerful means of informing consumers about the attributes of
products but it should not be over- loaded (Hunt, 1998).

Preferences, lifestyles and eating patterns

Preferences and attitudes have had a great effect on food consumption. They have built
differences on food behavior between countries and consumers segments. Cultural values,
learned preferences and lifestyles, each have a significant impact on food consumption. Attitudes
and preferences for food products are shaped during the process of habit formation and these
habits continue over time. Many international differences in dietary patterns are the consequence
of physical availability and local production in the past (Ritson and Hutching, 1991).

For instance, the Mediterranean cuisine includes olive oil whereas the Norwegian does not,
because the location of the geographical production of olive trees. Consumers develop a
preference for the food products, they are used to eat, and even if other products are available
they show persistence in their consumption. Olive oil is now widely available in northern
Europe, at prices similar to those in Mediterranean countries, but consumption levels have not
increased much because of different tastes and preferences. In 1995 in Spain, the price of olive
oil increased sharply, because of the harvest scarcity, but consumption only decreased slightly as
olive oil is a traditional ingredient in the Spanish cuisine.

Lifestyles, and how people live and spend their time and money, determine food
consumption patterns and identify consumer segments. Different schemes have been developed
to detect European consumer segments. Following the Euro-Sociostyles scheme

16
(AGB/Europanel) findings were reported about consumer responses in 15 European countries.
Five major lifestyle segments were identified: "fast fun lovers", "controlled elitists",
"neotraditionalists", "traditionalists" and "explorers" (Steenkamp, 1997). The “traditionalists”
are, on average, older and they prefer traditional foods. This segment, with the
“neotraditionalists” are likely to be most receptive to their own regional products. On the other
hand, the profile of “controlled elitists” suggests that this segment will be particularly open to
global products and brands, and high quality products. “Fast fun lovers” and “explorers” are
likely to be more open to new products. Grunert et al. (1993) developed an instrument to
measure lifestyles related to foods. This instrument has been applied to different European
countries and the following broad conclusions are drawn: French consumers are high-quality
conscious, whereas Germans are more concerned about health and the environment (Brunso et
al., 1996, Bredahl and Grunert, 1997).

Brunso et al., (1996) classified food consumers (French, German, British and Danish) into
five segments: "uninvolved", "careless", "rational", "conservative" and "adventurous".
“Uninvolved” shopping behavior is characterized by a low degree of stability, low brand loyalty
and high susceptibility to price. The “careless” consumers are very interested in new products,
which are easy to cook. They are not interested in new product characteristics such as
healthiness, taste or freshness. “Rational” consumers are more receptive to higher-quality food
products in terms of their characteristics, healthiness, freshness and naturalness/ecology. Quality
must also be linked to price. “Conservative” consumers like looking and shopping, but they are
against food habit changes and trying new products. “Adventurous” consumers are interested in
product characteristics and price, but they are specially inclined to consider self-fulfilment,
creativity and social events.

Eating patterns are changing in all the EU countries. Firstly, people consume more meals
away from home, especially youngsters, and secondly, eating patterns at home are also changing.
As a result of changing socio-demographic characteristics, the number of meals eaten at home is
decreasing and conversely increasing at restaurants, schools and workplaces. According to eating
patterns at home, European food consumers can be split into two groups: northern consumers,
whose meals consist of a single dish mainly meat accompanied with vegetables, and southern
European consumers, whose meals are largely composed of multiple small dishes (Askegaard
and Madsen, 1995). Although this distinction is still valid, in the 90's, eating patterns are
changing in some countries. For instance, in Great Britain, traditional breakfast is becoming

17
similar to continental breakfast and, during the weekend, the American "brunch" sometimes
replaces the traditional Sunday lunch ("roast-beef").

However, in Spain, Italy and France, eating patterns have not changed much. Spanish
families prefer to eat together and to have a main meal, at lunchtime, consisting of different
dishes (salad, meat and dessert). Italian breakfast is light, like the Spanish, and they eat a main
meal with different dishes (salad, pasta and meat). They are very traditional and "fast food" has
not penetrated much in the Italian culture. The majority of French consumers follow the
traditional way of eating (three meals: breakfast, lunch, dinner) with a very structured
composition of the two main meals (starter, main dish, cheese and dessert) (Yon and Bernaud,
1993). But the number in this group of people is decreasing, and a group, which does not follow
this way of eating, is growing. The latter group often misses a meal (81%), eat between meals
(84%) or consume "light products" (82%). German consumers are not very traditional and easily
adopt dishes from other countries. They eat many fruits and organic products because they are
very concerned about health.

The typical consumer does not exist anymore but there are consumers who behave in a
different fashion depending on their circumstances (Giannetto, 1998). Then, their attitude in a
normal shopping behavior might be totally different from the food bought in a convenience shop
or on weekends or on special occasions. It is important to determine the amount of money the
consumer spends in those different circumstances. Thus, petrol stations might have a profitable
return from their food sold at their premises. European processors and retailers try to
accommodate to a new consumer bred, living in wealthy countries and saturated markets.

3.2. Food manufacturing and retailing

Food manufactures and retailers structures and strategies in Europe have been
changing dramatically in the last few years. Both of them are becoming more concentrated
and must face an increasing competitiveness in saturated food markets. Moreover, their
activities are strongly interrelated but the power relationship between them is shifting from
manufacturers to retailers. One of the main reasons of this new balance of power is the growth
of own label products at the expense of the branded ones (Poole, 1997). The extreme
concentration that has occurred lately presents a new scenario where few and huge retailers
have only a very limited number of suppliers who are able to accommodate to their

18
requirements. This introduces a new situation where it is almost impossible to have bitter
confrontations but it is necessary to reach agreements and to plan together the future.

In Europe, the importance of the own label products varies greatly among countries
from 2.6% market share in Greece to 29.7% in United Kingdom in 1999 (Table 4). It has been
estimated that, on average, the price of own label food products in Europe is 25% lower than
brands. Although European consumers demand more added value food products, in particular,
higher quality, many of them are not willing to pay a high premium for this higher quality. In
this context, retailers are offering own label products with a perceived high quality at lower
prices. It is expected that the market share for own label food products will increase because
of their low prices and similar quality (Steenkamp, 1997). However, in the European market,
there are an increasing number of consumers segments demanding different types of food
products, in particular, some groups of consumers still assess and relate brands name with
higher quality and prestige. Therefore, the largest food manufactures in Europe can still invest
to reinforce the brand of the company and this is especially true for brand leaders.

Food and drink manufacturing sector is the largest in Europe, in terms of output value
and the second in terms of employment. However, more than 80% of food manufacturing
enterprises employ less than 10 workers and only 0.3% employ more than 500 (Traill, 1998).
Therefore, the majority of food companies are Small and Medium Enterprise (SME) (less than
250 employees according to the European Commission definition) but the largest firms
employ 29% of the workers and represent the 40% of turnover. Moreover, there are structural
differences between countries. The UK, Denmark and Sweden have high-concentration
industries (more than 50% of output from large enterprises), Germany and France have
medium levels of concentration (30-50% of output from large enterprises), and Italy, Portugal,
Belgium, Greece and Ireland have low levels (less that 30% of output from large enterprises)
(Traill, 1997).

The SME food group must focus their strategies on reaching the different European
consumers. Medium enterprises, in order to take advantage of economies of scales, can
produce own label products to retail companies but they can also sell their company brand
food product. In the last case, food manufactures must become consumer-oriented and
respond to consumers’ demands instead to induce consumers’ patterns. Small European

19
manufacturers must focus on producing a highly specific product for a particular consumer
segment (Gilpin and Traill,1999) .

Retailers increasing concentration is also an important reason for the rising retailing
power in the food market. The concentration index calculated for the three most important
retailers in the country shows that the food distribution sector is highly concentrated. In
Denmark, Belgium, Austria and France more than half of the sales correspond to the three
most important retailers (Table 4). Latest figures have even increase the concentration rates
because of the constant merging of retailers companies.

In the past, European consumers had to shop in a large number of small independent food
sellers (grocery, bakery and butcher, etc.). However, in the 1970's in northern countries (earlier
in some countries, such as Germany), and more recently in southern countries, the food retail
structure underwent great changes and the number of food shops decreased but the size of the
stores increased. This process has taken place in different stages and at different times across
Europe (Meulenberg, 1993 ).

In Germany, the transition towards self-service took place at the beginning of the 50's and
supermarkets emerged in the 60's (Besch, 1993). The retail concentration process in The
Netherlands and the UK happened in the middle 70's and in France in the early 80's (Dawson,
1995). In southern European countries, this process is on going as it started later. For instance, in
Spain in 1975 there were only 8 hypermarkets and 400 supermarkets; their importance increased
quickly and in 1999 there were 279 hypermarkets and 4310 supermarkets. The attractiveness of
such large shops is based on good prices, long opening hours, a great variety of food products
and shopping convenience (time saving).

Most retail outlets in Europe are located in five countries, Italy (25%), Germany (14%),
Spain (14%), France (12%) and Great Britain (11%), although, two-third of sales correspond to
German, French and British enterprises (Davada, 1997). The merging between the two biggest
French companies, Promodes and Carrefour, has created the second largest group in the world
and it has been a clear reaction against the entrance of Wall Mart. After the merging, the 10 TOP
food retailers in Europe are leaded by group Carrefour (Table 4). It can be observed that the 46%
of sales correspond to five German companies, 38% to three French and the remaining 16% to
the British. These last three countries have created different distribution systems, which have

20
been spread over the rest of Europe. Distribution channels in Europe are moving, in a
homogenous way, towards concentration, interna tionalization and modernization but the
distribution systems still differ among countries.
The first difference is the number of retail outlets per inhabitant (Table 4). The higher
number of retailers correspond to southern countries (Portugal, Italy, Spain and Greece) and
Ireland. The second difference is the importance of different retail outlets across European
Union countries. Thus, in Germany the “hard discount” is the outlet with a greater
implementation (Table 4). Those outlets minimize the amount of services they offer and sell a
limited number of food products at a low price. Hypermarkets or big supermarkets have
developed with a great strength in France (Table 5). They provide a great variety of food
products and shopping services but price is still the main attraction. Commercial malls quite
often have a hypermarket as their main attraction. In England supermarkets have a relatively
great impact, major supermarket chains pay great attention to services and retailers brand are
highly used. European buying centrals have an extraordinary power because of the great amount
of supermarkets and other sort of outlets, which are under their influence.

It has been considered that consumer food choice consist of the decision to select a specific
product, however, it seems more reasonable to think that consumers firstly decides the shopping
place and, once in the outlet, he chooses the food product to purchase among the available
products in the store (Albisu and Gracia, 1998). Consumers have a tendency to go to the store
because of proximity, convenience and services, but retailers try to attract consumers’ fidelity by
offering them personal cards but also specific quality products from the region and other
incentives. Social class and age are two basic variables to distinguish customers profiles among
distribution stores (Gentles, 1997).

Distribution systems vary across European countries, and consumers in different countries
seem to adapt to different stores and their supply. Therefore, consumers’ food cho ices depend on
retailers’ strategies. Probably it does not have much influence in their diets, as the variety of food
products is large all over Europe, but it has an impact on assortment, services and prices.

The new electronic commerce (e-commerce) that means, selling food products through
the Web, has not yet reached in Europe a remarkable impact. Andersen Consulting conducted in
1998 a survey to American and European firms managers about their opinions and attitudes
towards the e-commerce. Results indicated that 77% of Americans against 39% of European

21
managers say that the e-commerce is an important part of their business activities. However, in
Europe the e-commerce is mainly used as a way to advertise food products, although regional
and typical food products rely their expansion in this new outlet. The most important distribution
chains are also putting together services to please their customers. So far, business to business is
far more spread than business to consumers’ relationships. Those retailers who will supply the
home buying market will need to maintain parallel channels of traditional in-store shopping and
home delivery capability (Röhm, 1997). Typical products from remote rural areas rely their
expansion also in mail order business as they are unable to fully use the modern distribution
channels (Mai and Ness, 1997).

4. Concluding remarks

Markets in the European Union are highly saturated. Quantities consumed have reached,
in most countries, a peak and the agri- food system persistently searches for new products and
services, which will add value. In this competitive environment, consumers are the focus and
knowledge about their consumption patterns is of crucial significance.

Globalization has encouraged enterprise concentration of agri- food and distribution

firms. Multinationals dominate the present business scene and they try to spread their
experiences from country to country. They are eager to repeat their organization and products in
different countries. The European Union is an excellent area to expand their food premises but
they need a good knowledge about food consumption in different countries.

This paper shows the similarities and dissimilarities that exist in different countries.
Some of them are related to classical economic factors, others to actual lifestyles and many
others to socio-demographic characteristics just to mention some. Consumption patterns differ
among European countries although there are common trends and constitute a good example of
how to find a compromise between global and local trends.

Probably the distribution system incorporates the most powerful elements to homogenize
consumer’s reactions in front of a similar offer all over different European countries. Quality
consumer’s perception, in an intricate environment, will be crucial and country differences will
be almost impossible to avoid in the short run. As a result agri-food industries will accommodate
their production lines to a more common demand but also to specific country requirements.

22
Consumers will search for specialties and convenience through the new commercial electronic
means and other distribution novelties. Altogether, the European Union shows the complexity of
dealing with diverse and wealthy consumers.
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26
Table I. EU food consumption by main category (thousand tons).

1991 1996 2001* 1996/1991 2001/1996

% %
Fresh and other produce 91535 92007 92898 0.52 0.97
Fresh meat 19699 19349 20143 -1.78 4.10
Processed meat 9624 10020 10572 4.11 5.51
Fish and seafood 7485 7921 8133 5.82 2.68
Cereal products 61958 63237 63767 2.06 0.84
Drinking milk 28533 28850 29152 1.11 1.05
Milk powders 2571 2461 2522 -4.28 2.48
Yellow fats 4175 4142 4177 -0.79 0.85
Cheese 5575 5940 6096 6.55 2.63
Cream milk 2243 2293 2334 2.23 1.79
Yogurt and desserts 6320 6921 7158 9.51 3.42
Chocolate confectionery 1825 1976 2068 8.27 4.66
Sugar confectionery 1439 1378 1433 -4.24 3.99
Snacks 1091 1254 1335 14.94 6.46
Soups, sauces and oils 9032 9358 9570 3.61 2.27
Total food 253105 275107 261358 1.58 1.65
Source: AgraEurope (1997).
* forecast

Table II. EU food consumption by country (thousand tons).

1991 1996 2001* 1996/1999 2001/1996

% %
Austria 5472 5544 5572 1.32 0.51
Belgium-Luxemb. 7774 8168 8347 5.07 2.19
Denmark 4451 4644 4761 4.34 2.52
Finland 3547 3588 3664 1.16 2.12
France 39039 39492 40295 1.16 2.03
Germany 49598 51081 52359 2.99 2.50
Greece 8899 8871 8975 -.031 1.17
Ireland 3093 3138 3176 1.45 1.21
Italy 41244 43123 43610 4.56 1.13
The Netherlands 11498 11919 12243 3.66 2.72
Portugal 7451 7877 8056 5.72 2.27
Spain 30318 29490 29864 -2.73 1.27
Sweden 5803 5957 5998 2.65 0.69
United Kingdom 34918 34211 34438 -2.02 0.66
Source: AgraEurope (1997).
* forecast

27
Table III. Per capita food consumption in the EU by products and countries in 1996 (Kg).

Austria Bel.-Lux. Denmark Finland France Germany Greece Ireland Italy Netherlands Portugal Spain Sweden U. Kingdom
Carcass meats 91.23 104.71 119.77 65.29 65.99 45.65 79.71 79.17 47.04 28.85 74.34 41.07 36.74 34.70
Meat products 35.43 22.06 31.18 29.22 25.68 34.43 7.12 29.44 25.46 23.69 14.85 21.12 26.97 28.00
Fish and shellfish 10.62 17.94 87.83 18.82 21.76 13.69 12.69 23.33 18.69 17.83 30.40 43.48 33.37 14.01
Cereal products 95.43 178.04 138.78 117.06 144.10 137.18 157.21 140.56 265.59 142.29 163.13 243.20 122.02 133.01
Total milk 74.81 85.59 120.34 177.65 84.61 81.25 78.27 150.28 62.36 137.71 69.06 76.85 126.52 119.97
Cheese 9.01 17.16 15.59 12.75 22.78 18.58 21.54 6.67 21.44 15.61 5.56 6.70 16.40 8.62
Yogurt and desserts 15.31 13.73 22.05 24.90 29.40 23.17 11.92 13.61 8.51 39.62 9.60 15.33 21.80 10.53
Confectionery and 14.07 16.27 21.86 10.39 10.12 15.84 7.21 15.83 5.81 16.82 4.95 7.41 13.82 18.29
snack
Total oils 29.14 33.04 30.61 23.14 17.88 23.01 31.25 21.11 14.90 29.68 14.65 26.12 26.74 15.23
Soups, sauces and 10.12 21.86 10.84 8.43 12.27 12.22 2.98 13.61 23.15 33.57 5.45 7.03 10.22 20.65
pickles
Fresh fruit 91.23 80.59 54.94 46.27 58.70 63.08 98.08 50.56 119.96 103.63 102.02 89.09 57.87 32.14
Preserved fruit 5.31 6.47 4.18 5.29 3.89 6.77 11.06 8.06 2.21 4.71 1.52 7.92 4.83 5.50
Fresh vegetables 78.77 39.80 88.78 47.45 61.77 33.13 184.13 166.39 52.19 31.08 145.45 49.24 37.75 34.72
Canned vegetables 8.77 31.18 5.32 3.33 18.55 11.48 16.63 14.72 3.85 11.72 2.32 2.97 8.65 11.92
Frozen vegetables 3.21 5.39 7.22 4.71 7.37 4.41 2.50 7.22 4.99 3.06 2.22 5.51 4.38 7.66
and fruits
Total potatoes 60.49 61.76 68.82 62.35 37.53 53.33 79.52 86.67 27.53 66.05 95.35 57.34 65.96 47.66
Pulses and beans 0.99 4.22 0.76 1.57 1.11 1.43 5.10 4.17 3.63 2.55 6.87 5.56 1.24 2.31
Jams and preserves 1.36 1.96 2.47 3.33 2.05 2.74 1.15 2.22 1.05 1.46 1.21 1.07 5.28 1.39
Total sugar 35.56 44.31 37.64 35.69 33.79 29.82 32.88 26.94 34.73 39.17 38.48 29.11 38.76 28.96
Eggs 13.58 14.71 13.88 5.88 14.57 13.26 12.02 11.11 12.12 10.06 8.18 12.39 10.00 5.59
Total food 684.44 800.78 882.89 703.53 673.92 624.46 852.98 871.67 755.22 759.17 795.66 748.48 669.33 580.83
Baby food 0.62 1.67 1.71 1.57 2.13 1.31 0.87 2.22 1.42 1.59 0.81 0.81 1.35 1.60
Pet food 9.51 13.04 8.75 4.90 16.57 8.20 2.69 8.06 5.62 12.04 1.72 3.88 7.64 23.74
Beverages 364.20 366.57 348.67 184.90 253.55 417.52 184.33 288.33 271.70 233.50 198.79 261.27 187.64 288.35
Total food and 1058.77 1182.06 1242.02 894.90 946.18 1051.49 1040.87 1170.28 1033.96 1006.31 996.97 1014.44 865.96 894.52
beverages

28
Table IV. European retailers characteristics by country in 1998.

Hard Soft
Own label Three TOP TOP3 # outlets per discount discount
sales retailers Sales 1000 Sales sales
(%) (%) habitants (%) (%)
Austria 6.9 BML/SPAR/ADEG 56 0.9 11 5.5
Belgium 25.8 GIB/DELHAIZE/COLRUYT 62 1.2 11.5 13.2
Denmark 19.1 FOB/DANSKSUPER 63 0.7 4.5 15.5
/DAGROFA
Finland 6.7 KESKO/SOK/SUOMEN 80 0.8 - 11.5
SPAR
France 16.8 INTERMARCHE/LECLERC/ 44 0.7 7.4 -
AUCHAN
Germany 11.3 EDEKA/REWE/ALDI 53 0.9 20.3 9.2
Greece 2.6 MARINOPOULUS/ 25 1.6 1.6 -
VEROPOULUS/
SKLAVENITIS
Ireland 12.0 TESCO/DUNNES/SUPER 54 2.5 n.a. n.a.
VALUE
Italy 8.4 COOP/INTERMEDIA/EURO 38 2 2.7 7.7
MADIS
The 17.8 AHOLD/SUPERUNIE/ 80 0.4 7.6 4.9
VENDEX
Netherlands
Portugal 11.9 SONAE/JMR/AUCHAN 55 3.1 9.2 -
Spain 16.2 PROMODES/EROSKI/ 35 1.8 1.3 7.8
PRYCA
Sweden 9.7 ICA/KF/D GROUP 95 0.7 - 11
United 29.7 TESCO/SAINSBURY/ 52 0.6 3.4 8
ASDA
Kingdom
Source: AC Nielsen.
n.a.: not available.

Table V. Percentage of food sales by type of retail outlet in the EU countries in 1998.

Large Small
Hypermarket supermarkets supermarkets Self-service Traditional
(1) (2)
Austria 12 15 40 29 4
Belgium 15 43 30 8 5
Denmark 17 22 36 22 2
Finland 23 25 26 22 4
France 51 24 20 5 0
Germany 25 18 36 16 6
Greece 9 14 32 22 23
Ireland 11 32 10 41 6
Italy 14 18 21 24 22
The Netherlands 5 29 54 11 1
Portugal 41 18 11 11 19
Spain 34 11 15 19 21
Sweden 13 35 32 17 3
United Kingdom 45 29 13 8 5
Source: AC Nielsen, 1998.
(1) 1000 to 2500 m2 .
(2) 400 to 1000 m2 .