Rana Asif

Prepared By
Rana Asif
tech.uol.edu.pk
LAB MANUAL
MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 2

LAB MANUAL
Mission statement
The mechanical technology department at the university of Lahore offers a diverse range of challenges and
opportunities which recognize the requirement of the 21st century the department is committed to preparing
graduates who can work cooperatively and professionally with other scientist and engineers to develop
innovative solutions complex problem in the field of engineering and technology.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL TECHNOLOGY 3

LAB MANUAL
LIST OF APPARATUSES
1) Hooks Law Apparatus

2) Tensile And Hardness Testing Apparatus
3) Rubber Block Apparatus
4) Spring Extension Apparatus
5) Spring Compression Apparatus
6) Universal Testing Machine
7) Model Column Of Different End Condition
8) Beam Deflection Apparatus
9) Torsion Apparatus
10) Curve Bar Apparatus
11) Impact Test Machine
12) Charpy’s Impact Machine
13) Fatigue Testing Machine

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LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1) To verify Hooke’s Law by measuring the elongation of the spring caused by the load
on the spring and determining the spring constant.
2) To determine the tensile strength of a given material
3) To determine the hardness of the given specimens by Brinall Hardness test.
4) To investigate the relationship between shear stress and shear strain for rubber and to
determine the modulus of rigidity of the material.
5) To study the characteristics of a tension type helical spring, by determining the spring
displacement, spring constant and the modulus of rigidity of the spring material.
6) To determine the characteristics of a compression helical spring determine the spring

7) To determine the Tensile strength, strain &Modulus of Elasticity of a plain Mild steel
bar
8) To perform compression test parallel to fibers on wooden cubes when load is applied
9) To perform compression test Perpendicular to fibers on wooden cubes when load is

applied
10) To perform bending test on a test specimen of a given material having a particular
cross section.
11) To determine the deflection and the elastic critical buckling loads for column with
both ends fixed.
12) To determine the deflection and the elastic critical buckling loads for column with
both ends pinned.

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13) To determine the deflection and the elastic critical buckling loads for column with one
end fixed and other end pinned.
14) To determine the deflection and the elastic critical buckling loads for column with one
end fixed and other end free.
15) To observe the deflection of a simple supported beam with variable loads.
16) To compare the theoretical and experimental deflections of simply supported beam at
the mid span when a concentrated load is applied at the mid span
17) To compare the theoretical and experimental deflections of simply supported beam at
any point in terms of xacross the beam span when a concentrated load is applied at the
mid span.
18) To determine the central deflection of a fixed ended beam loaded at mid span by point
load and to compare with theoretical value.
19) To compare the theoretical and experimental deflections of fixed beam at any point
across the beam span when a concentrated load is applied at the mid span
20) To determine the maximum deflection of a cantilever beam loaded at the free end by
point load and to compare with theoretical value.
21) To determine the central deflection of a cantilever beam loaded at the free end by point
22) To compare the maximum values of theoretical and experimental deflections of

overhanging beam for the portion between supports behind the overhanging section.
23) To determine the shear modulus and shear stress for a given shaft using torsion
apparatus.
24) To determine the diameter vertical deflection of a circular curved bar

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25) To Perform Impact Test on Izod Impact Testing Machine and determine the modulus
of toughness of a test specimen of given material
26) To perform Charpy’s Impact test on steel samples in Tension
27) To investigate the parts and fatigue strength of materials through Fatigue Testing
Machine
28) To determine the modulus of elasticity and the modulus of rupture of a wooden beam

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MATERIAL TESTING GENERAL ASPECTS
CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS
The engineering materials may be classified as follows:
 Metals (e.g. Iron, aluminum, copper, zinc, Chromium, Nickel, etc.)
 Non- metals (Leather, rubber, asbestos, plastics, carbon, Sulphur, phosphorus, timber,
concrete, etc.)
i. METALS ARE FURTHER SUBDIVIDED AS

 Ferrous metals
(e.g. cast iron, wrought iron and steel) and alloys (silicon steel, high speed steel, spring
steel, etc.)
 Non- ferrous metals

(copper, aluminum, zinc, Chromium, Nickel etc.) and alloys (brass bronze, duralumin, etc.)
The iron group which includes all iron and steels are called ferrous metals whilst others are
specified as non- ferrous.
ii. NON-METALS
They are used for bushing, steering wheels; tubes for oil and water, automobile tires, etc.
plastic are divided roughly into two classes, called thermoplastic and thermosetting plastics.
Materials in the former group become soft and pliable when heated to moderate
temperatures and then hardened when cooled. They will soften every time when heat is
applied and reworked as often as desired. Thermosetting plastics soften the first time they
are heated, hardened when cooled and cannot be softened by reheating. Plastics can be
molded, cast, folded into sheets and extruded.
STUDY OF STEEL SAMPLES

There are two types of steel.
 Hot rolled steel.
 Cold worked steel.

LAB MANUAL
i. HOT ROLLED STEEL

Hot rolled steel has two types
 Plain steel.
 Deformed steel.
a) This steel gives warning before failure.

b) This steel is ductile.
ii. COLD WORK STEEL

Cold work steel is also called Tor steel.
a) It gives no warning before failure.

b) It is high carbon steel

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TESTING OF MATERIALS
INTRODUCTION
Materials are tested for one or more of the following purpose:
i. To asses numerically the fundamental mechanical properties of ductility, malleability,
toughness, etc.
ii. To check chemical composition.
iii. To determine suitability of a material for a particular application.
iv. To determine data, i.e. force deformation (or stress) values to draw up sets of
specifications upon which the engineer can base design.
v. To determine the surface or surface defects in raw materials or processed parts.
CLASSIFICATION OF TESTS
Tests on materials may be classified as
 Non-destructive tests.
 Destructive tests.
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTS
Test may be defined as those which in a specific context would not damage the material being
examined to an extent such that it is rendered useless for future for which it was originally
meant.
The various methods used for non-destructive testing are as follows:
i. X- ray radiography
ii. Gamma radiography
iii. Magnetic particle inspection
iv. Ultrasonic testing
v. Electrical methods
vi. Damping test.
DESTRUCTIVE TESTS
The component or specimen, after being destructively tested, either breaks or remain no longer
useful for further use. Examples of destructive or mechanical tests are: tensile test, impact test,
torsion test, bend test, fatigue test, etc.

LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMENT 1
OBJECTIVE
To verify Hooke’s Law by measuring the elongation of the spring caused by the load on the
spring and determining the spring constant.
APPARATUS
Hooks Law apparatus including a spring, Hanger, Pointer & Weights
Hook’s Law Apparatus
THEORY
Hooke’s law can be used for determine the spring constant of a spring. Automobile
suspensions, playground toys and even retractable ball-point pens employ springs. Most
springs have an easily predicted behavior when a force is applied. Consequently, the force that
a spring applies to a body, as the spring is extended or compressed, can be mathematically
determine.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL TEHNOLOGY 11

LAB MANUAL
PROCEDURE
1) Suspend a spring specimen and hang the pan and set pointer on the scale.
2) Note the initial reading on the scale.
3) Then gradually add load W in the pan and note the corresponding forward scale reading
on each load.
4) Now decrease the load in the same increments and take corresponding backward scale
reading .
5) Calculate forward and backward elongations and , and then find the average
elongation .
6) Comment on the graph/results. Repeat the experiment with a new spring specimen.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
TABLE
Mass Load Reading on scale Elongation Spring

Obs Constant
. Forward Backward Forward Backward Average
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ⁄ )
Plot a graph between and

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COMMENTS

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EXPERIMENT 2
OBJECTIVE
To determine the tensile strength of a given material
APPARATUS
Tensile and Hardness Testing apparatus, Vernier Caliper, dial gauge and metal test
specimens.
Tensile Apparatus
PURPOSES
 To study the Stress - Strain behavior of mild steel.
 To determine the different Mechanical properties of steel.
 For example Yield Strength, Tensile strength, Modulus of Elasticity, Ductility etc.
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THEORY
Tensile testing is a way of determining how something will react when it pulled apart or when
force is applied on it on tension. The tensile test is most applied one, of all mechanical tests. In
a uniaxial tension test a material is slowly loaded to failure. If the applied load is small enough,
the deformation of any solid body is entirely elastic. An elastically deformed solid will
return to it so original position as soon as load is removed. However, if the load is too large,
the material can be deformed permanently.
To understand how the material behaves under the application of different loads, data from the
tension test is plotted resulting in a stress-strain diagram.
Stress – Strain Diagram
STRENGTH
The strength of material is its ability to withstand various forces to which it is subjected during
a test or in service. It is usually as tensile strength, compressive strength, and proof stress, shear
strength, etc. Strength of materials is a general expression for the measure of capacity of
resistance possessed by solid masses or pieces of various kind of any cause tending to produce
in them a permanent and disable change of form or positive fracture.
ELASTICITY
A material is said to be perfectly elastic if the whole strain produced by a load disappears
completely on the removal of the load. The modulus of elasticity or young’s modulus (E) is
LAB MANUAL
the proportionality constant between stress and strain for elastic materials. Young’s modulus
is indicative of the property called stiffness; small values of (E) indicate flexible materials and
large values of E reflect stiffness and rigidity. The property of spring back is a function of
modulus of elasticity and refers to the extent to which metal spring back, when an elastic
deformation is removed.
DUCTILITY
It is ability of a metal to withstand elongation or bending. Due to this property; wires are made
by drawing out through a hole. The material shows a considerable amount of plasticity during
the ductile extension. This is a valuable property in chains; rope, etc. because they do not snap
off, while in service, without giving sufficient warning by elongation.
BRITTLENESS
Lack of ductility is brittleness. When a body breaks easily when subjected to shock it said to
be brittle.
BENEFITS OF TESTING
The data produced after testing can be used in many ways like.
 To determine batch quality.

 To aid in the design process.
 To achieve manufacturing goals.
 Plastic and rubber industry.

LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMENTALPROCEDURE
1) Install the dial gauge on the apparatus and before starting the test ensure that the dial
gauge is located at a position, where it cannot be damaged by the vertical movement of
the apparatus, maximum pointer position of the gauge is set to zero and, the jack valve
is closed.
2) Now measure the initial diameter of the test specimen and the initial length between the
punch marks on the test specimen and record.
3) Then mount the test specimen in the apparatus jaws and, start pumping the jack.
4) Read the applied pressure from the pressure gauge of the apparatus for elongation
intervals of 0.1mm or 0.2 mm on the dial gauge and record.
5) Continue applying pressure and taking reading until the test specimen suddenly breaks.
6) Now take out the two pieces of test specimens and placing them together, measure the
final diameter and the final length between the punch marks.
7) Determine the tensile strength of the test specimen.

LAB MANUAL
TABLE
Obs. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ )

COMMENTS

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EXPERIMENT 3
OBJECTIVE
To determine the hardness of the given specimens by Brinall Hardness test.
APPARATUS
Tensile and Hardness Testing apparatus, including indenting tool with ball magnifying glass
and Test specimens of different materials.
Hardness Testing Apparatus
THEORY
Hardness is usually defined as resistance of a material to penetration. Hard materials resist
scratches or being worn out by friction with another body. Hardness is primarily a function of
the elastic limit (i.e. yield strength) of the material and to lesser extent a function of the work
hardening coefficient. The modulus of elasticity also exerts a slight effect on hardness.
The converse of hardness is known as “softness”

LAB MANUAL
PROCEDURE
1) Place the test specimen in the apparatus, Move downward the indenting tool fixed in the
apparatus to position the ball on the surface of the test specimen.
2) Load to be applied for hardness test should be selected according to the expected
hardness of the material.
3) Apply the load o f to for a minimum of Sec (Non-Ferrous
Materials) to Sec (Ferrous Materials).
4) Remove the test piece and measure the diameter of indentation produced in its surface.
5) Repeat the experiments “2” times and calculate the mean indentation diameter.
6) Calculate Brinall hardness number for the given material.
7) Repeat the whole experiment with test specimens of other materials.
( √ )

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TABLE
( )
Materials ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Aluminum
Copper
Silver
COMMENTS

LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMET 4
OBJECTIVE
To investigate the relationship between shear stress and shear strain for rubber and to
determine the modulus of rigidity of the material.
APPARATUS
Rubber block apparatus, dial gauge, hanger, weights and steel rule.
Rubber Block Apparatus
THEORY
The force which tends to cut off or parts off one portion of the component from the other is
called shear stress. Stresses produced on the area under shear, due to shearing forces, are called
shearing stresses.
A rubber block is bonded to two aluminum alloy plates. One plate is screwed
to a wall, whilst the other has a shear load applied by a loaded weight hanger. A dial gauge
measuring the deflection of the block.

LAB MANUAL
PROCEDURE
1) Measure the dimensions of the rubber block.
2) Set the dial gauge on the anvil brackets so that its initial reading is zero.
3) Now start loading the rubber block in fixed increments and for each load, note the reading
on the dial gauge.
4) Repeat the experiment by removing the load in the same increments and note the dial
gauge readings.
5) Tabulate the observations and make calculation for shear stress, shear strain and modulus
of rigidity.
6) Find the average value of shear modulus or modulus of rigidity.

LAB MANUAL
TABLE
Mass Load Displacement ( ) Shear Shear Shear

Obs Stress Strain Modulus
Forward Backward Mean ( )
( ) ( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ )
⁄
Plot a graph of shear stress against shear strain
Plot a graph of load against displacement
COMMENTS

LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMENT 5
OBJECTIVE
To study the characteristics of a tension type helical spring, by determining the spring
APPARATUS
Spring extension apparatus, including tension type spring specimen, hanger and weights or
Vernier calipers
Spring Extension Apparatus
PROCEDURE
1) With the help of Vernier calipers measure the outer radius of the spring coil and diameter
of the spring wire “d” to find the mean radius R of spring coil count the number of turns
of the spring coil and record
2) Mount the spring in the apparatus, attach hanger and note the initial reading.

LAB MANUAL
3) Gradually add load and note the extension for each load , take at least five readings.
4) Repeat step by gradually decreasing the load to measure the backward extension
for each load W.
5) Calculate mean extension X, stiffness and modulus of rigidity for the given spring.
TABLE
Mass Load Spring Displacement ( ) Stiffness Modulus of
Obs. Rigidity
( Forward Backward Mean ( )
) ( ) ( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ )
⁄
⁄
Plot a graph b/w load or spring displacement
COMMENTS

LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMENT 6
OBJECTIVE
To determine the characteristics of a compression helical spring determine the spring
APPARATUS
Spring compression apparatus including compression type spring specimen, hanger, weights
& Vernier Caliper
Spring Compression Apparatus

LAB MANUAL
THEORY
A compression spring is an open-coil helical spring that offers resistance to a compressive force
applied axially. Compression springs are usually coiled as a constant-diameter cylinder. Other
common forms of compression springs-such as conical, concave (barrel), convex (hourglass),
or various combinations of these-are used as required by the application. While square,
rectangular, or special-section wire may have to be specified, round wire is predominant in
compression springs because it is readily available and adaptable to standard coiler tooling.
DIFFERENT USES OF COMPRESSION SPRING

 Automotive Engines.
 Large different stamping presses.
 Lawn movers.
 Car shakes.
 Medical devices.
 Electronic sensitive instrumentation devices.
PROCEDURE
1) With the help of Vernier Caliper measure the radius of the outer spring coil and diameter
of the spring wire d to find the mean radius R of Spring Coil count the number of turns of
the spring coil n and record.
2) Mount the spring in the apparatus, attach hanger and note the initial reading.
3) Gradually add load and note the compression x1 for each load W. Take at least five
readings.
4) Reverse step 3 by gradually decreasing the load to measure the backward compression
for each Loads W.
5) Calculate mean compression X, stiffness and modulus of rigidity for the given spring.

LAB MANUAL
TABLE
Mass Load Spring Displacement ( ) Stiffness Modulus of
Obs. Rigidity
( Forward Backward Mean ( )
) ( ) ( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ )
⁄
⁄
Plot graph load and compression
COMMENTS

LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMENT 7
OBJECTIVE
To determine the Tensile strength, strain &Modulus of Elasticity of a plain Mild steel bar
APPARATUS
Universal Testing Machine, Test Specimen in M .S Bar, Vernier caliper or Steel rule
Universal Testing Machine

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INTRODUCTION
Computer control system & printer Control cabinet LoadFrame
Controller

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OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS
The diagram of the Max Test shown below:
LOAD AND ELONGATION DISPLAY BOARD
DISPLACEMENT DISPLAY BOARD

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CONTROL MODE SWITCH CARD
TESTING CONTROL MODE
: To control the start of the testing;
: To control the stop of the testing;
MOVE CONTROL MODES
: To control the piston or the beam moves up;
: To control the piston or the beam moves down;
: To stop the movement of the piston or the beam;

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GENERAL MACHINE INTRODUCTION

Universal testing machines determine the strength of different Material. The machine is mainly
used to carry on various kinds of tension, compression and bending and tests for metallic and
non-metallic materials. The tester adopts load frame with hydraulic oil cylinder at the bottom,
electro-hydraulic servo oil source, and imported oil pump. It is ideal testing equipment for
production or research.
It is widely used in the fields of Building Materials, metallurgy, research & Institute. It is also
used at colleges & universities, quality inspection center & commodities Inspection
Department.
TECHNICAL ASPECTS
1) This machine has ability to give push and pull force of 500 KN.
2) Load and deformation enlargement multiple: 1, 2, 5, 10 (4 grades).
3) Deformation measuring mode: Extensometer.
4) Compression plate diameter: Ø 100mm.
TEST CURVES’ MODE

Load – deformation, Load – time, Load-Displacement, Stress-Strain, Time-Stress, Time-
Strain, Deformation-Time, Displacement-Time, etc
PROCEDURE
1) Measure the specimen and punch marks 50 mm up two end points in test specimen.
2) Measure the initial length between the punch marks on the test specimen and measure the
initial diameter of the test specimen and record.
3) Select the mode tensile test in machine software.
4) After break stop the machine from software.
5) Find the Mid-Point specimen by measure its Length.
6) Mark two points on specimen by punch, such that one is 50 mm above the Mid-Points or
other 50 mm below Mid-Point. In this way, distance b/w these two points will be 100 mm,
which is the gauge length of specimen.

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7) Turn on the computer & come into operation of software state.

8) Select tensile test mode in the software.
9) Find the related tensile test information from M/c Software.
10) Press “Power On” on the top of control console & press the button “Pump On” .at once.
11) Starting hydraulic oil pump power set.
12) In tensile test, the specimen should be clamped from both ends such that both punch
marks are free from jaws.
13) Adjust the test load zero & re-set peak value.
14) Start the test and note the load &elongation.
15) Keep on increase load or note the increasing elongation until the test specimen suddenly
breaks.
16) At breaking stop the machine by software.
17) Now take out the two pieces of test specimen.
18) Measure the final diameter and the final length between the punch marks.
19) Draw the graphs between, Load-deformation, Load-time, Load-Displacement, Stress-
Strain, Time-Stress, Time-Strain, Deformation-Time, and Displacement-Time.

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TABLE
Obs.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ )
⁄
⁄
COMMENTS

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EXPERIMENT 8
OBJECTIVE
To perform compression test parallel to fibers on wooden cubes when load is applied
APPARATUS
Universal Testing Machine, Vernier caliper, wood specimen in cube shape
Universal Testing Machine Compression Mode Parallel to Fiber
PURPOSE
 To determine compressive strength of wood.
 To determine modulus of elasticity and modulus of stiffness.
 To study the anisotropic behavior of wood.

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THEORY
1) COMPRESSIVE STREGTH
Maximum compressive stress that can be developed in any member is termed as
compressive strength.
2) MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
It is the ratio b/w the unit stress to unit strain. And it is determined as the slope of the
straight line from zero to proportional limit.
3) MODULUS OF STIFFNESS
The stiffness of a component means how much it deflects under the given load.
Modulus of stiffness can be defined as the force required producing unit deformation.
.
, Where, Is Modulus of Stiffness
4) ISOTROPIC MATREIAL
Materials showing same properties in different directions are called isotropic materials. E.g.
Steel.
5) ANISTROPIC MATERIAL
Materials showing different properties in different directions are termed as anisotropic
materials. E.g. wood.
6) FAILURE PARRALEL TO FIBERS
When the load is applied parallel to grains, the wooden sample will take more load to fail, the
ability of wood to take more load parallel to grains before failure is because each fiber act as
column to the applied load and even after the failure of the single fiber the rest of the fibers
will keep on taking the load.

LAB MANUAL
PROCEDURE
1) Install upper compression plate on the bottom of lower crosshead.
5) Measure All The Dimensions Of Cube. I.e. Length, Width, Height with the help of
Vernier caliper.
6) End of the specimen should be plane.
7) Adjust the wooden cube specimen Parallel to fiber of lower cross heading (UTM).
8) Lower compression plate and spherical seat are fixed with plug.
9) Centerline of specimen must coincide.
10) Fill some related specimen information of machine software.
11) Select the mode compression test in software.
12) Adjust the test load to zero & re-set the peak value.
13) Gradually keep on increasing the load.
14) Apply the load until the specimen fails.
15) After test stop the machine from software.
16) Prepare a graph for it.
17) Repeat the procedure for load applied in perpendicular case.
18) Draw the graph between, Load-deformation, Load- time, Load-Displacement, Stress-

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TABLE
Obs.
( ) ( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ )
⁄
⁄
⁄
Draw the graph between, Load-deformation, Load- time, Load-Displacement, Stress-

Strain, Time-Stress, Time-Strain, Deformation-Time, and Displacement-Time
COMMENTS

LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMENT 9
OBJECTIVE
To perform compression test Perpendicular to fibers on wooden cubes when load is applied
APPARATUS
Universal Testing Machine, Vernier caliper, wood specimen in cube shape.
Universal testing Machine Compression Mode Perpendicular to Fiber

PURPOSE
 To determine compressive strength of wood.
 To determine modulus of elasticity and modulus of stiffness.
 To study the anisotropic behavior of wood.

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THEORY
FAILURE PERPENDICULAR TOFIBER

When the load is applied perpendicular to the grains, the wooden sample takes comparatively
less load. This is because the failure of the single fiber will lead to the failure of the whole
sample. The strength of the wooden sample when the load is applied parallel to the grains is
about ten times more as compare to when the load is applied perpendicular to grains.
PROCEDURE
1) Install upper compression plate on the bottom of lower crosshead.
5) Measure All The Dimensions Of Cube. I.e. Length, Width, Height with the help of
Vernier caliper.
6) End of the specimen should be plane.

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7) Adjust the wooden cube specimen Perpendicular to fiber of lower crosshead in (UTM).
8) Lower compression plate and spherical seat are fixed with plug.
9) Centerline of specimen must coincide.
11) Select the mode compression test in machine software.
13) Gradually keep on increasing the load.
14) Load is applying until the specimen fails.
15) After test stop the machine from software.
16) Prepare a graph for it.

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TABLE
Obs.
( ) ( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ )
⁄
⁄
⁄
Draw the graph between, Load-deformation, Load- time, Load-Displacement, Stress-

Strain, Time-Stress, Time-Strain, Deformation-Time, and Displacement-Time
COMMENTS

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EXPERIMENT 10
OBJECTIVE
To perform bending test on a test specimen of a given material having a particular cross
section.
APPARATUS
Universal Testing Machine, Vernier caliper or Test specimen
Universal Testing Machine in Bending Mode
PURPOSE
 To determine bending strength of the given test specimen.
 To determine modulus of elasticity.

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THEORY
Bend testing determines the ductility or the strength of a materialby bending the material over
a given radius. Following the bend, the sample is inspected for cracks on the outer surface.
Bend testing provides insight into the modulus of elasticity and the bending strength or a
material. Metallurgical offers three and four point bend setups with interchangeable rollers for
a variety of test configurations.
Bend tests are conducted to determine the ductility or strength of a material. Bend tests are
divided into two categories: ductility tests and strength tests. Bending ductility tests determine
the smallest radius around which a specimen can be bent without cracks forming on the outer
surface. These tests are often used to test the ductility of welds. Bending strength tests offer a
means of determining the modulus of elasticity in bending and the bending strength of flat
metallic samples in the form of strip, sheet, or plate.
HOW BEND TESTING IS PERFORMED

Bend testing involves placing a metal specimen on a support span with two rollers. A force is
then applied either centrally (three–point bend test), or at a defined distance on either side of
the center (four–point bend test). By modifying the diameter of the rollers, the height of the
support base and the distance of the support span can alter the severity of the bend.
General three and four–point bend fixtures are available with adjustable support spans and
interchangeable rollers to meet a variety of bend testing applications. In addition, specialized
bend fixtures are available to conform to reinforcement bar and weld bend testing standards.
There are cold bend fixtures designed for bend testing reinforcing bars up to a full 180–deg
bend in accordance with ASTM A615 and ASTM A99. Guided weld bend test fixtures are also
available that are designed to evaluate the ductility of plate specimens as well as welded ferrous
and non–ferrous materials, in accordance with ASTM A370 and ASTM E190.
WHY BEND TESTING IS IMPORTANT

Once the material's resistance to bending and ductility is quantified via the testing curve,
physical examination, and related calculations, the results are compared to applicable
material standards and the expected material behavior. Unacceptable results can indicate that
a change is necessary in the manufacturing process or that improper welding techniques were
used.
Brittle Materials, including ceramics, are tested by Flexure Test (Transverse Beam Test,
Bending Test).
LAB MANUAL
There are two standard Flexure Test methods:

 3-point Flexure Test
 4-point Flexure Test
 Flexural strength calculation
3-POINT FLEXURE TEST

In this test a specimen with round, rectangular or flat cross-section is placed on two parallel
supporting pins. The loading force is applied in the middle by means loading pin.
The supporting and loading pins are mounted in a way, allowing their free rotation about:
 Axis parallel to the pin axis
 Axis parallel to the specimen axis
This configuration provides uniform loading of the specimen and prevents friction between
the specimen and the supporting pins.
4-POINT FLEXURE TEST

In this test the loading force is applied by means of two loading pins with a distance between
them equal to a half of the distance between the supporting pins.

LAB MANUAL
PROCEDURE
1) Measure All the Dimensions Of the test specimen. i.e. length, width, height with the help
of Vernier Caliper if the test specimen is flat, and length and diameter if the test specimen
is cylindrical.
2) Install upper bending plate on the bottom of lower crosshead.
3) Adjust the test specimen in the lower crosshead of UTM.
4) Lower seat is fixed with plug.
6) Select the bending test mode in the software.
7) Find the related bending test information from m/c software.
10) Adjust the test load to zero & re-set the peak value.
11) Start the test or note the load & bending deformation.
12) Gradually keep the increasing the load or note the increasing bending deformation initial
the failing of specimen.
13) At failing of specimen by software or remove the failed specimen.
15) Repeat the experiment for various test specimens having different dimensions.

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TABLE
Flat Test Specimen ( )

Obs.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ )
Cylindrical Test Specimen ( )
Obs. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ )
⁄
⁄
COMMENTS

LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMENT 11
OBJECTIVE
To determine the deflection and the elastic critical buckling loads for column with both ends
fixed.
APPARATUS
Model column of different end condition, Screw gauge, Loads & steel rule
Column buckling Apparatus
PURPOSE
To study the effects of end conditions, column length, and material properties on compressive
behavior and buckling in columns

LAB MANUAL
THEORY
Buckling is characterized by a sudden failure of a structural member subjected to high
compressive stress, where the actual compressive stress at the point of failure is less than the
ultimate compressive stresses that the material is capable of withstanding. Mathematical
analysis of buckling often makes use of an axial load eccentricity that introduces a secondary
bending moment, which is not a part of the primary applied forces to which the member is
subjected. As an applied load is increased on a member, such as column, it will ultimately
become large enough to cause the member to become unstable and is said to have buckled.
Further load will cause significant and somewhat unpredictable deformations, possibly leading
to complete loss of the member's load-carrying capacity.
Under compression above a critical load a column may experience a sudden change in its
configuration. This phenomenon is called column buckling.
In one way, Euler formula equation gives the expressions determine this critical load.
EULERFORMULA
Where; L = Total length of the beam

Le = Effective length of the beam

LAB MANUAL
Since the radius of gyration is defined as the square root of the ratio of the column's cross
section to its area, the above formula may be rearranged as follows. Using the Euler formula
for hinged ends, and substituting A·r2 for I, the following formula results.
where is the allowable stress of the column, and is the slenderness ratio.
This can be expressed in terms of critical allowable stress as;
( )
The ratio of the effective length of a column to the least radius of gyration of its cross section
is called the slenderness ratio (sometimes expressed with the Greek letter lambda, λ). This ratio
affords a means of classifying columns. Slenderness ratio is important for design
considerations.
Buckling of columns with pinned ends is often called the fundamental case of buckling.
However, many other conditions such as fixed ends, elastic supports, and free ends are
encountered in practice. The critical forces for buckling for each of these end conditions can
are determined by applying the appropriate boundary conditions and solving the differential
equations. These solutions lead to the concept of an "effective length appropriate for each end
condition which is a multiple of the actual length L of the column.
The value of effective length depends on the end conditions of columns.
Derive the relation for buckling in column with both ends fixed with diagram
PROCEDURE
1) Set the column buckling apparatus.
2) Measure the diameter of different end condition specimen with the help of screw gauge.
3) And also measuring the lengths of each specimen.
4) After measuring the lateral & longitudinal dimension placed the four columns in different
condition.
5) Apply loads slowly. Each load is applied in .
6) For each column, apply load very slowly to buckling failure.
7) Record the critical load and failure mode.
8) Then all procedure repeated with different end condition.
9) Draw the column buckling profile on a paper and determine .

LAB MANUAL
OBSERVATION & CALCULATIONS
For columns with both ends fixed;
where; I = Second moment of inertia, A = Cross sectional area
( )
TABLE
( ( ( (
Obs. ) ( ) ( ) ) ) ( ⁄ )
)
COMMENTS

LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMENT 12
OBJECTIVE
To determine the deflection and the elastic critical buckling loads for column with both ends
pinned.
APPARATUS
Model column of different end condition, Screw gauge Loads & Steel rule
PURPOSE

LAB MANUAL
THEORY
EULERFORMULA


LAB MANUAL
( )
considerations.
Derive the relation for buckling in column with both ends pinned with diagram
PROCEDURE
condition.

LAB MANUAL
For columns with both ends pinned;
( )
TABLE
( ( ( (
Obs. ) ( ) ( ) ) ) ( ⁄ )
)
COMMENTS

LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMENT 13
OBJECTIVE
To determine the deflection and the elastic critical buckling loads for column with one end
fixed and other end pinned.
APPARATUS
Model column of different end condition, Screw gauge, Loads & Steel rule
PURPOSE
To study the effects of end conditions, column length, and material properties on
compressive behavior and buckling in columns

LAB MANUAL
THEORY
EULERFORMULA


LAB MANUAL
( )
considerations.
Derive the relation for buckling in column with one end pinned & one end fixed with
diagram
PROCEDURE
condition.

LAB MANUAL
For columns with one end pinned & one end fixed;
( )
TABLE
( ( ( (
Obs. ) ( ) ( ) ) ) ( ⁄ )
)
COMMENTS

LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMENT 14
OBJECTIVE
To determine the deflection and the elastic critical buckling loads for column with one end
fixed and other end free.
APPARATUS
Model column of different end condition, Screw gauge, Loads & Steel rule
PURPOSE

LAB MANUAL
THEORY
EULERFORMULA


LAB MANUAL
( )
considerations.
Derive the relation for buckling in column with one end fixed & other end free with
diagram
PROCEDURE
condition.

LAB MANUAL
For columns with one end fixed & other end free;
( )
TABLE
( ( ( (
Obs. ) ( ) ( ) ) ) ( ⁄ )
)
COMMENTS

LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMENT 15
OBJECTIVE
To observe the deflection of a simple supported beam with variable loads.
APPARATUS
Beam deflection apparatus, dial gauge with magnetic stand, hangers, weights and specimen.
Deflection of beam apparatus

THEORY
INTRODUCTION
A beam is a length of material supported at its two ends, in such a way so as to bear loads. The
load perpendicular to its longitudinal axis will result in bending and, in most cases, transverse
shearing. In the simplest of situations, the beam is taken to have a rectangular cross-section and
the loads and supporting reactions act in the vertical plane containing the longitudinal axis. The
loads and the reactions at the supports are considered external forces and they must be in
equilibrium for the entire beam to be in equilibrium. To study the strength of the beam, it is
necessary to know how these external forces affect it.
In this experiment, we will examine the deflection of a simply beam subjected to an increasing
point load. We will also vary the beam length by changing the distance between the supports.
This means we can find out the relationship between the deflection and the length of the beam.
Consider a simply supported beam of length, l. The cross section is rectangular, with width, b,
and depth, d.

LAB MANUAL
 Concentrated load, W, is applied to the center of the simply supported beam.
 The beam will bend downward as a result of the load w.
 The deflection (Δ) is the vertical displacement of the of the beam as a result of the
load w.
Derive the relation for theoretical deflection.

LAB MANUAL
PROCEDURE
1) Level the apparatus, measure the breadth and depth of the given beam cross-section and
place the beam on the supports so that the length between the supports is .
2) Now set the dial gauge tip at the mid span of the beam and set the scale to zero reading,
neglecting the weight of the beam and that of the hanger.
3) Add load and read the deflection from the dial gauge scale.
4) Increase the load in fixed increments and for each load record the deflection.
5) Calculate the theoretical deflection for the used loads and compare with experimental
values.
6) Repeat the experiment for a span for the same beam specimen.
7) You can also repeat the entire experiment for another beam specimen.
( ) ⁄
TABLE
Beam( )
Mass (g) Actual Actual Actual Theoretical
deflection deflection deflection deflection (mm)
(mm) (mm) (mm)
1 2 Average
Plot graphs of Deflection on y-axis versus Applied Mass on x-axis for a simply supported
beam and show the results on the same graph.

LAB MANUAL
COMMENTS

LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMENT 16
OBJECTIVE
To compare the theoretical and experimental deflections of simply supported beam at the mid
span when a concentrated load is applied at the mid span
APPARATUS
Beam deflection Apparatus
THEORY
Beams are structural members supporting loads applied at various points along the member. A
beam undergoes bending by the loads applied perpendicular to their axis of the structure.beam
is supported in structures via different configurations.
Simply supported beam, Continues beam, cantilever beam, end supported beam, End –
supported cantilever beam, combination beam, fixed beam

LAB MANUAL
PROCEDURE
values.
8) Plot graphs of load against theoretical and experimental deflections and and
show the results on the same graph.

LAB MANUAL
( ) ⁄
TABLE
Beam( )
Obs.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Plot graphs of load against theoretical and experimental deflections and
COMMENTS

LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMENT 17
OBJECTIVE
To compare the theoretical and experimental deflections of simply supported beam at any
point in terms of xacross the beam span when a concentrated load is applied at the mid span.
APPARATUS
Beam deflection diagram

LAB MANUAL
THEORY
Beams are structural members supporting loads applied at various points along the member. A
beam undergoes bending by the loads applied perpendicular to their axis of the structure.Beams
are supported in structures via different configurations.
Simply supported beam, Continues beam, cantilever beam, end supported beam, End –
supported cantilever beam, combination beam, fixed beam
Consider a simply supported beam of length, l. The cross section is rectangular, with width, b,
and depth, d.
Considering a load w only at a distance x from one end the deflection at the load
will be:
( )
Derive the relation for deflections of simply supported beam at any point in terms of x
across the beam span when a concentrated load is applied at the mid span
PROCEDURE
1) Level the apparatus, measure the breadth and depth of the given beam cross-section
and place the beam on the supports so that the length between the supports is
.
2) Now set the dial gauge tip at the mid span of the beam and set the scale to zero
reading, neglecting the weight of the beam and that of the hanger.
values.
8) Plot graphs of load against theoretical and experimental deflections and
and show the results on the same graph.

LAB MANUAL
( ) ⁄
( )
Where; x= Variable distance from left end till mid span

l= Total span length of beam
TABLE
Beam( )
Obs.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
COMMENTS

LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMENT 18
OBJECTIVE
To determine the central deflection of a fixed ended beam loaded at mid span by point load and
to compare with theoretical value.
APPARATUS
Fixed Beam deflection apparatus with clamps, hanger, weights, dial gauge & Vernier caliper
Fixed Beam deflection apparatus
THEORY
A fixed beam is support by fixed supports at both ends. The slop of the beam is thus zero at
each end, and a couple will have to be applied at each end and to make the slop there have this
value. The applied couples will be opposite sign to that of bending moment, due to loading.
A fixed or a build in beam has both of its ends rigidly fixed so that the slope at the endsremains
zero. Such a beam is also called as the enchanter beam. The fixed ends give rise to fixing
moments there in addition to the reactions. If perfect end fixing can be achieved, build in beams
carry smaller maximum bending moments and have smaller deflections that the corresponding
simply supported beams with the same loads applied. Therefore theyare strongerand stiffer.

LAB MANUAL
Derive the relation for deflection in fixed ended beam
PROCEDURE
1) Set the Deflection of Beam apparatus on a horizontal surface.
2) Measure the breadth and depth of the given beam cross-section.
3) Set the beam on the fixed supports at both ends so that the length between the supports
is .
5) Add load and read the deflection from the dial gage.
values.
8) Repeat the experiment for a for the same beam specimen.
10) Plot graphs of load against theoretical and experimental deflections and

LAB MANUAL
( ) ⁄
TABLE
Beam( )
Obs.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
COMMENTS

LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMENT 19
OBJECTIVE
To compare the theoretical and experimental deflections of fixed beam at any point across the
beam span when a concentrated load is applied at the mid span
APPARATUS
Beam deflection apparatus
THEORY
A fixed beam is support by fixed supports at both ends. The slop of the beam is thus zero at
each end, and a couple will have to be applied at each end and to make the slop there have this
value. The applied couples will be opposite sign to that of bending moment, due to loading.
Beam deflection diagram

Where;
x = variable distance between load and fixed end

l = total span length of beam

LAB MANUAL
Derive the relation for deflections at any point across the beam span with load is applied at
the mid span
PROCEDURE
3) Set the beam on the fixed supports at both ends so that the length between the supports
is .
5) Add load and read the deflection from the dial gage.
values.

LAB MANUAL
( ) ⁄
( )
Where; x = variable distance between load and fixed end

l = total span length of beam
TABLE
Beam( )
Obs.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
COMMENTS

LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMENT 20
OBJECTIVE
To determine the maximum deflection of a cantilever beam loaded at the free end by point
APPARATUS
Fixed Beam deflection apparatus with clamps, hanger, weights, dial gauge & Vernier caliper
Fixed Beam deflection apparatus
THEORY
A cantilever is a beam anchored at only one end. The beam carries the load to the support where
it is forced against by a moment and shear stress. Cantilever construction allows for
overhanging structures without external bracing. Cantilevers can also be constructed with
trusses or slabs.

LAB MANUAL
Where; x = variable distance between loaded end and fixed end

l = total span length of beam from fixed end to free end
Derive the relation for maximum deflection of a cantilever beam loaded at the free end
PROCEDURE
3) Set the beam on the fixed support at one end so that the span of the beamis .
5) Add load at the free end and read the deflection from the dial gage.
values.
10)Plot graphs of load against theoretical and experimental deflections and

LAB MANUAL
( ) ⁄
TABLE
Beam( )
Obs.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
COMMENTS

LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMENT 21
OBJECTIVE
To determine the central deflection of a cantilever beam loaded at the free end by point load
and to compare with theoretical value.
APPARATUS
THEORY
A cantilever is a beam anchored at only one end. The beam carries the load to the support where
it is forced against by a moment and shear stress. Cantilever construction allows for
overhanging structures without external bracing. Cantilevers can also be constructed with
trusses or slabs.

LAB MANUAL
Where; x = for central deflection of cantilever beam loaded at free end
Derive the relation for central deflection of a cantilever beam loaded at the free end
PROCEDURE
3) Set the beam on the fixed support at oneend so that the span of the beamis .
5) Add load at the free end and read the deflection from the dial gage.
values.

LAB MANUAL
( ) ⁄
[ ]
Where; x = for central deflection of cantilever beam loaded at free end
TABLE
Beam( )
Obs.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
COMMENTS

LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMENT 22
OBJECTIVE
To compare the maximum values of theoretical and experimental deflections of overhanging
beam for the portion between supports behind the overhanging section.
APPARATUS
Where; u = variable distance between loading point to the nearest support (left)
x = variable distance between supports
c, d = distance between extreme ends of overhanging portion to their nearest
Supports

LAB MANUAL
PROCEDURE
2) Set the beam apparatus in such a way that it becomes overhanging and both the supports
are placed at points and respectively.
3) Place hanger at the free end (i.e. on overhanging portion) of the beam.
4) Neglecting the weight of the beam and that of the hanger.
values.
( ) ⁄
( )
While is for the deflection between loaded end and nearest support
u = variable distance between loading point to the nearest support (left)
x = variable distance between supports
c, d = distance between extreme ends of overhanging portion to their nearest supports

LAB MANUAL
TABLE
Beam ( )
Obs.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
* Reference:http://www.engineersedge.com/beam_bending/beam_bending6.htm
COMMENTS

LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMENT 23
OBJECTIVE
To determine the shear modulus and shear stress for a given shaft using torsion apparatus.
APPARATUS
Torsion apparatus, dial gauge, lever, L-key, Weights & test shaft.
Torsion apparatus
THEORY
Torsion is the engineering word used to describe the process of twisting a member about its
longitudinal axis. A torsion test is quite instrumental in determining the value of modulus of
rigidity (ratio of shear stress to shear strain) of a metallic specimen.
Member in torsion are encountered in many engineering applications. The most common
application is provided by transmission shafts, which are used to transmit power from one point
to another. For example, the shaft used to transmit power from the engine to the rear wheels of
an automobile. These shafts can be either solid or hollow.

LAB MANUAL
Considering a cylindrical bar with one end being twisted, the twisting torque T is resisted by
the shear stress τ existing across the specimen section. This shear stress is zero at the center of
the bar, increases linearly with its radius and finally reaches its maximum value at the
peripheral of the bar. If the cylindrical bar with a length of L, the twisting moment can be
related to the shear stress as follow:
( )
Where; J is the polar moment of inertia, mm2

G is the shear modulus, N/mm2
φ is degree of rotation, radian
is the radius of the cylindrical bar, mm or in
l is the length of the cylindrical bar, mm or in
τ is the shear stress, N/mm2
Within the elastic range of deformation, the shear stress can be calculated according to
equation:
For a solid cylindrical specimen, the polar moment J= , we can therefore determine the
shear stress.
( )
Using equation 1:
Putting the value from equation 2 and J for circular shaft we will get:
As; 3.14rad = 180° then 1rad = 57.3°
So

LAB MANUAL
PROCEDURE
1) Set the clamping distance of the supports at and clamp the test shaft at both
ends.
2) Position the lever and set the dial gauge tip on the lever groove in compressed form.
3) Set the gauge scale to Zero.
4) Note that reading of the dial gauge measures angle of twist.
5) Now put the load in suitable increments and for each load record the angle of twist.
6) Calculate the corresponding values of shear modulus and shear stress.
7) Repeat the experiment with a new span of of the same shaft.
8) You can also repeat the entire experiment with new test shaft specimen.

LAB MANUAL
TABLE
Shaft ( )
Obs.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) () ( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ )
COMMENTS

LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMENT 24
OBJECTIVE
To determine the diameter vertical deflection of a circular curved bar
APPARATUS
Curve bar apparatus, dial gauge with attachment, hangers & weights
Curved bar apparatus
THEORY
The theoretical deflections of curved shapes are most easily found by applying strain energy
ideas, such as Castiglione’s first theorem. The shapes chosen provide a relatively easy
introduction to the use of such techniques, which students often seem to find difficult to grasp.
A bench mounted base supports a curved bar formed into a ring, semi-circle or quadrant/davit.
Loads are applied by specially designed weight hangers so that the specimen bends. Horizontal
and vertical deflections are measured by dial gauges rigidly attached to the base. The bars can
be readily changed and the position of the dial gauges relocated to measure the deflections of
the new configuration. Bars, weight hangers and a set of weights are supplied.

LAB MANUAL
PROCEDURE
1) Level the apparatus and place the dial gauge inside the ring, in the dial gauge fixing
attachment.
2) Attach the hanger to the loading point then apply the load in suitable increments and note
the dial gauge reading for each load.
3) Remove the load in the same increment and read the dial gauge for each load.
4) Calculate the mean experimental deflection.
5) Calculatethe theoretical deflection by the following formula:
[ ]
6) Compare the mean experimental deflection with the theoretical deflection.

7) Plot a graph of load against deflection.
Derive the relation for vertical deflection of a circular curved bar

LAB MANUAL
( ) ⁄
[ ]
TABLE
Obs. ( )
( ) ( ) Forward Backward Mean ( ) ( )
Plot a graph of load against deflection
COMMENTS

LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMENT 25
OBJECTIVE
To Perform Impact Test on Izod Impact Testing Machine and determine the modulus of
toughness of a test specimen of given material
APPARATUS
Impact test Machine, Vernier caliper & specimen
Izod Impact Testing Machine

LAB MANUAL
THEORY
Izod impact testing is an ASTM standard method of determining the impact resistance of
materials. An arm held at a specific height (constant potential energy) is released. The arm
hits the sample and breaks it. From the energy absorbed by the sample, its impact energy is
determined. A notched sample is generally used to determine impact energy and notch
sensitivity.
The test is similar to the Charpy impact test but uses a different arrangement of the specimen
under test. The Izod impact test differs from the Charpy impact test in that the sample is held
in a cantilevered beam configuration as opposed to a three-point bending configuration.
In an impact test a specially prepared notched specimen is fractured by a single blow from a
heavy hammer and energy required being a measure of resistance to impact.
Impact load is produced by as winging of an impact weight W (hammer) from a height
.Release of the weight from the height swings the weight through hear of a circle, which
strikes the specimen to fracture the notch.
TOUGHNESS
Toughness is the resistance of a substance against a sudden impact of load.
OR
Toughness is the ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically deform without
fracture.
There are following types of loadModulus of toughness is defined as energy absorbed per
unit volume by the specimen when it is loaded from zero to failure. Mathematically
Modulus of toughness =
Its unit is N/m2

 Ability of material to resist external forces
OR
 Amount of energy absorbed in plastic range
P.E = m.g.h.

LAB MANUAL
BENEFITS OF TESTING
The data produced after testing can be used in many ways like.
1. Manufacturing of locomotive wheels.
2. Coins.
3. Connected Rod.
PROCEDURE
1) Set the apparatus.
2) Measure the dimensions of the sample.
3) Lift the hammer to an appropriate knife edge
4) Position and note the energy stored in the hammer as . Hammer energy store should
be as per calibration of the Izod apparatus.
5) Locate the specimen in Machine supports.
6) Release the hammer. The hammer will break the piece and shoot other side of the
specimen.
7) Note the residual energy indicated on the scale by the hammer as . Impact strength of
the specimen is the difference of the initial energy stored in the hammer and residual
energy.
8) Compute the modulus of toughness by using the following relation

LAB MANUAL
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCUALTIONS
TABLE
Obs. Initial Energy Residual Energy Impact Strength Modulus of Toughness
() () () ( ⁄ )
COMMENTS

LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMENT 26
OBJECTIVE
To perform Charpy’s Impact test on steel samples in Tension
APPARATUS
Charpy’s impact machine, Vernier caliper, Steel specimen
Charpy’s Impact Machine
THOERY
The Charpy impact test, also known as the Charpy V-notch test, is a standardized high strain-
rate test which determines the amount of energy absorbed by a material during fracture. This
absorbed energy is a measure of a given material's notch toughness and acts as a tool to study
temperature-dependent ductile-brittle transition. It is widely applied in industry, since it is easy
to prepare and conduct and results can be obtained quickly and cheaply. A disadvantage is that
some results are only comparative.
The apparatus consists of a pendulum of known mass and length that is dropped from a known
height to impact a notched specimen of material. The energy transferred to the material can be
inferred by comparing the difference in the height of the hammer before and after the fracture
(energy absorbed by the fracture event).

LAB MANUAL
Schematic diagram of charpy’s impact test
The notch in the sample affects the results of the impact test, thus it is necessary for the notch
to be of regular dimensions and geometry. The size of the sample can also affect results, since
the dimensions determine whether or not the material is in plane strain. This difference can
greatly affect conclusions made.
TYPES OF LOADS
 Dead load/Static load
 Dynamic load/Live load
 Impact load

LAB MANUAL
DEAD LOAD/STATIC LOAD

The load which does not change its magnitude, direction and position is termed as static load.
Self-weight of a structures or permanent features of building is called dead weight.
LIVE LOAD/DYNAMIC LOAD

The load which changes its magnitude, direction and position, or, one of these is called
dynamic load. E.g. moving vehicles on the bridge
IMPACT LOAD
Sudden application of large magnitude of force in short interval of time e.g.: Earthquake load,
blast load.
IMPORTANT FACTORS
The toughness of a material include: low temperatures, high strain rates (by impact or
pressurization), and stress concentrators such as notches cracks and voids.
PROCEDURE
1) Set the apparatus for tension test in the machine.
2) Measure the specimen Length and Dia. With the help of Vernier caliper.
3) Set the tension test arrangement.
4) Machine scale needle must be zero before lifting the hammer freely.
5) Lift the hammer up to the maximum height, then leave it freely and note the angle. It
is .
6) Take the sample and set it into the machine and drop the hammer from its maximum
height.
7) The hammer will break the sample and then measure the angle as .

LAB MANUAL
LABBELED DIAGRAM

LAB MANUAL
OBSERVATIONS& CALCULATIONS
( )
( )
( )
[ ( ) ( )]
( )
TABLE
Obs. Test Specimen Angle Energy ( )
( ⁄ )
COMMENTS

LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMENT 27
OBJETIVE
To investigate the parts and fatigue strength of materials through Fatigue Testing Machine
APPARATUS
Fatigue Testing Machine, Test Specimen, Hanger, weights & Vernier caliper
Fatigue Testing Machine

LAB MANUAL
THEORY
Fatigue Testing Machine is used to determine the relationship between the Stress range and the
number of counts it can be applied before causing failure. Testing machines are used by
applying cyclic varying stresses and cover tensions, compressions, Torsion and bending for a
combination of the stresses. This kind of machine is suitable to test the fatigue strength of
metals or other materials under bending and rotating. The Fatigue testing machine is usually
used to test the bending fatigue limit of metals under the action of rapidly alternating bending
force.
PROCEDURE
1) Cover the guide-plate with the cover sheet to avoid any scratch on the surface by the
spanner.
2) Insert the right and left pads between the clamps and the body frame, which is to make
the main spindle at the horizontal level.
3) Take off the spindle inside the main shaft core and change it with the elastic clamp whose
diameter should be accordance with that of the tested specimen.
4) Insert the specimen into the elastic clamps and tighten it.
5) Check the distance between the left and the right clamps and make sure it is
6) Check jumping of the specimen and assure that jumping should not over .
7) In order to check jumping of the specimen, put a micrometer on the surface of the body
frame, then inspect at three points (two ends and the center of the specimen)
8) Put the weights on the pulling rod, take off the pads, then start the motor.
9) Turn the hand wheel to apply the load on the specimen. Meanwhile, record the original
numbers on the counter.
10) After the specimen broken, write down the final numbers on the counter and then subtract
the original value, and then multiply to get the fatigue circles value .

LAB MANUAL
DETERMINATION OF FATIGUE STRESS

To determine the fatigue stress of a certain metal, to specimens are required.
1) First of all, select a certain load for the first piece of specimen according to the above-
mentioned method.
2) Start the test under this selected load and record broken circles .
3) From the second piece of specimen, make the bending stress ⁄ less than
that of the last piece.
4) Similarly, record the circles at specimen broken.
5) Provided the pieces of specimen were not broken under bending stress after
reaching the stipulated basic circles (generally, for non-ferrous metals, this value is
and for ferrous metals is ), to get an accurate bending fatigue stress, another or
pieces of specimen are needed to test.
6) The stress value of the piece of specimen should be the average stress value
of the last two pieces.
If the piece of the specimen is not broken under bending stress after reaching the
stipulated circles, at the same time, the difference between and is not larger than
⁄ , then select the final bending stress as the limit fatigue stress.

LAB MANUAL
( )
( )
TABLE
Obs.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ ) ( )
COMMENTS

LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMENT 28
OBJECTIVE
To determine the modulus of elasticity and the modulus of rupture of a wooden beam
APPARATUS
Universal Testing Machine, Vernier caliper & Measuring tape.
Universal Testing Machine

THEORY
STRESS_STRAIN DIAGRAM
According to Hook’s Law stress is directly proportional to the strain, but in concrete it
follows up to some extend

LAB MANUAL
Stress Strain Diagram
a) PROPORTIONAL LIMIT
Stress has linear combination with strain. Hook’s law is not valid after proportional limit.
Numerical values of elastic and proportionality limit are usually identical.
b) ELASTIC LIMIT
The maximum stress that can be applied to a metal without producing permanent
deformation. If the stresses are not too great the material will return to its original shape and
dimension when the external stress is removed.
c) YIELD POINT
It is point after which there is an increase in strain of the material without any significant
increase of stress.at this point there is redistribution of particles of material.
d) STRAIN HARDENING ZONE

If the ductile material can be stress considerably beyond the yeild point without failure, the
material s said to be strain hardened. It is the zone after yielding when the particles of
material rearrange themselves and start taking load again.
e) ULTIMATE STRENGTH
Maximum or highest ordinate on the stress-strain curve is called ultimate strength. It is
maximum strength of the sample.

LAB MANUAL
f) NECKING
At about the ultimate stress point, the cross sectional area of the specimen begins to decrease
in a localized region. This phenomenon is called necking.
g) APPARENT/ NORMAL RUPTURE STRENGTH

Rupture strength is the stress at failure. It is always less than the ultimate strength. For the
brittle material the ultimate and rupture strength are almost same. Normal/ Apparent rupture
strength is obtained by dividing stress by nominal area of the bar
h) ACTUAL RUPTURE STRENGTH

Actual rupture strength is obtained by dividing stress at rupture by actual are of the bar at
rupture.
BENDING MOMENT
Algebraic sum of all the moments located between a cross section and one end of the structural
member. Bending moment that bends beam convex downward is positive and one that bends
beam convex upward is negative
ELASTIC CURVE
The deflected shape of longitudinal axis of beam is called elastic curve.
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
It is the ratio of unit stress to unit strain and it is determined as the slope of the straight line
from zero to proportional limit from stress strain diagram. Modulus of elasticity is given by
following relation:

LAB MANUAL
MODULUS OF RUPTURE
Maximum tensile bending stress that can be developed in a beam before failure or it is the
energy absorbed per unit volume when the specimen is loaded from zero to failure load.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MODULUS OF TOUGHNESS (M.O.T) AND MODULUS

OF RUPTURE
Modulus of toughness can be determined by tension or compression test however modulus of
rupture is only determined for members subjected to bending.
FLEXURAL FORMULA
The relationship between flexural stress and bending moment is expressed by flexural
formula and is given as
( )
Where
FLEXURAL EQUATION
As
And equation can be written as
So flexural equation is

LAB MANUAL
TYPES OF FAILURE
a) SHEAR FAILURE:
These failures generate at support and cause diagonal cracks.
b) FLEXURAL FAILURE:
These failures generate at the center and cause vertical cracks.
c) FLEXURAL SHEAR FAILURE:
These failures generate between support and center and cause the cracks which are vertical
from the bottom and diagonal from the top.
Formulas for MOR and MOE are given as;
Derive the formulas or relations for M.O.R and M.O.E

LAB MANUAL
PROCEDURE
1) First turn on the computer & come into operation of software state.
2) Measure length, width and depth of beam.
3) Press “Power On” on the top of control console & start the button “Pump On” at once.
4) Mark the points on the beam showing position of support and point loads.
5) Start oil pump power set.
6) Install upper two point bending plates on the bottom of lower crosshead.
7) Set specimen in the machine according to two points loading.
9) Select the mode compression test in machine software.
11) Apply load gradually with care.
12) Apply load until the specimen fails.
13) After test stop the machine from software when specimen fails.
14) Plot a graph of load against deflection and find the slop.

LAB MANUAL
where; P = Breaking load for modulus of rupture M.O.R
where; P = Applied load within elastic limit for E
TABLE
Obs.
( ) ( ) ( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ )
 Draw graph between Load and Deflection and get [P/ ] value from the graph that
is the slope of the straight line for E
 Draw graph between Load and Deflection showing rupture
 Draw graph between stress and strain (stress-strain curve) & discuss every plot of
stress-strain curve
COMMENTS

LAB MANUAL

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Prepared By

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 2

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL TECHNOLOGY 3

1) Hooks Law Apparatus

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL TECHNOLOGY 4

2) To determine the tensile strength of a given material

3) To determine the hardness of the given specimens by Brinall Hardness test.

6) To determine the characteristics of a compression helical spring determine the spring

9) To perform compression test Perpendicular to fibers on wooden cubes when load is

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL TECHNOLOGY 5

22) To compare the maximum values of theoretical and experimental deflections of

24) To determine the diameter vertical deflection of a circular curved bar

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL TECHNOLOGY 6

26) To perform Charpy’s Impact test on steel samples in Tension

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL TECHNOLOGY 7

MATERIAL TESTING GENERAL ASPECTS

i. METALS ARE FURTHER SUBDIVIDED AS

 Non- ferrous metals

STUDY OF STEEL SAMPLES

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL TECHNOLOGY 8

i. HOT ROLLED STEEL

a) This steel gives warning before failure.

ii. COLD WORK STEEL

a) It gives no warning before failure.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL TECHNOLOGY 9

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 10

Hook’s Law Apparatus

a spring applies to a body, as the spring is extended or compressed, can be mathematically

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL TEHNOLOGY 11

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Mass Load Reading on scale Elongation Spring

Plot a graph between and

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL TEHNOLOGY 12

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL TEHNOLOGY 13

To determine the tensile strength of a given material

Stress – Strain Diagram

 To determine batch quality.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL TEHNOLOGY 16

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL TEHNOLOGY 17

Plot a graph between and

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL TEHNOLOGY 18

Hardness Testing Apparatus

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL TEHNOLOGY 19

apparatus to position the ball on the surface of the test specimen.

hardness of the material.

3) Apply the load o f to for a minimum of Sec (Non-Ferrous

Materials) to Sec (Ferrous Materials).

6) Calculate Brinall hardness number for the given material.

7) Repeat the whole experiment with test specimens of other materials.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL TEHNOLOGY 20

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL TEHNOLOGY 21

Rubber Block Apparatus

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL TEHNOLOGY 22

on the dial gauge.

6) Find the average value of shear modulus or modulus of rigidity.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL TEHNOLOGY 23

Mass Load Displacement ( ) Shear Shear Shear

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL TEHNOLOGY 24

Spring Extension Apparatus

of the spring coil and record