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1.Ê Transport of haemoglobin which carries oxygen from lungs to tissues.

2.Ê Contain carbonic anhydrase which is an enzyme used to catalyse reaction between carbon di
oxide and water to form carbonic acid. This helps blood to transport enormous quantities of
carbon di oxide from tissues to lungs for expulsion
3.Ê Haemoglobin in cell act as an excellent acid-base buffer RBC͛s are excellent buffers.

  


1.Ê Biconcave discs

2.Ê Mean diameter of about 7.8 micrometers
3.Ê Thickness of 2.5 micrometers at thickest point and 1 micrometer at the center .
4.Ê Average volume of RBC͛s is 90 to 95 cubic micrometers.

 



1.Ê 2n man it is 52million (+-3oo,oo)

2.Ê 2n women it is 47million(+-3oo,oo)

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1.Ê Maximum hemoglobin in cell fluid can be up to 34grams in each 100milliliters of cells. Cannot be
more then this because this is the metabolic limit of cell͛s haemoglobin forming mechanism
2.Ê 2f concentration of haemoglobin is decreased in the cell the volume of the cell is also decreased.
3.Ê Whole blood of man contains about 15gm of haemoglobin per 100 milliliters .
4.Ê 2n women its value is 14gm per 100 milliliters.
5.Ê Each gram of hemoglobin can combine with 1.34ml of oxygen.
6.Ê 2n man max of about 20 milliliters of oxygen can be carried with haemoglobin in each 100ml of
blood.
7.Ê 2n women this value is 19ml of oxygen per 100 ml of blood.




 Ê 2n early embryonic life primitive nucleated red blood cells are produced in the ë
 
2.Ê uring middle tri semester of gestation period l
mainly produces but 



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nodes also produce.
3.Ê uring last month of gestation and after birth red blood cells are produced exclusively in


 
4.Ê Bone marrow of all bones produce RBC͛S till age of 5.
 5.Ê Marrow of long bones except the proximal part of humeri, tibiae becomes quite fatty and
produces no more red blood cells after age 20.
6.Ê After 20 the membranous bones such as vertebrae sternum ribs and the ilia produces RBC͛s.




1.Ê The life of blood cells in bone marrow begins with one type of ©
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 from which all cells of circulating blood are derived.
2.Ê As they reproduce some portion of them remains exactly the same as their parent PHSC so as to
maintain their number in bone marrow. But still their number diminishes with age.
3.Ê 2ntermediate cells are much like the PHSC but they have already become committed to a
particular line of cells and are called    
4.Ê A committed cell that produces erythrocytes is called a colony forming unit erythrocyte and is
abbreviated as CFU-E
5.Ê Same is the case with committed cells of granulocytes CFU-GM and so forth.
6.Ê Growth and reproduction of differentiated stem cells is controlled by various proteins called
growth inducers.
7.Ê 2nterleukin-3 promotes growth of eventually all kind of committed stem cells other three induce
only specific kind of cells.
8.Ê Growth inducers promote growth not differentiation.
9.Ê Formation of inducers is controlled by factors outside of bone marrow like low quantity of
oxygen in enviorment will promote the production of more growth inducers and thus more
erythrocytes.
10.ÊSimilar example for the case of infections.!

  


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10.ÊReticulocyte is the stage when nucleus is fully disintegrated and disintegrated organells have
formed reticulum͙hemoglobin concentration is considerably increased.
11.Êuring reticulocytes stage the cells pass from bonemarrow into the blood capillaries by
©  (squeezing through the pores of the capillary membrane)
 12.ÊThese reticulocytes enter the blood stream and remain there for 2 days. uring this period the
remaining basophyllic material in the cell is disintegrated and then the cell is mature
erythrocytes.
13.ÊMature erythrocytes have biconcave shape and no organelles and is red due to high
concentration of hemoglobin.
14.ÊThe concentration of reticulocytes in blood is less than 1%.

  



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1.Ê Conditions that cause the decrease of oxygen quantity in body increase the RBC͛s production.
2.Ê So when the body becomes extremely anemic the bone marrow starts to produce more RBCs.
3.Ê Erythropoietin stimulates red blood cell production and its formation increases in response to
hypoxia.
4.Ê Principal stimulus of RBCs production is low level of oxygen.
6Ê ecrease tissue oxygenation
6Ê 2ncreased erythropoietin(reached max level in 24hourz)
6Ê Hematopoietic stem cell conversion into pro eryhtrocytes increases
6Ê Proerythrocytes production increased
6Ê 2ncrease in RBCs
6Ê 2ncrease in tissue oxygenation.
1.Ê About 90% of erythropoietin is produced in kidneys.
2.Ê 10% in liver.
3.Ê Thought that it is produced in between the region of cortex and medulla.
4.Ê Renal hypoxia leads to increased tissue level of
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transcription factor for a large number of hypoxia inducible genes including EPO gene.

There might be some non renal sensors for detection of hypoxia that sends signals to the kidneys to
produce EPO.

Both non epinephrine and epinephrine and other prostaglandins stimulate EPO production.

1.Ê estruction of kidneys lead to anemia due to above importance of kidneys in production of EPO.

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2.Ê Mitamin B12 and folic acid are important in the maturation of RBCs as both of them are essential
for the synthesis of  A
3.Ê As both of them are important for the formation of thymidine triphosphate.
4.Ê Lack of any of these vitamins could cause abnormal or diminished  A and failure of nuclear
matruration and cell division
 5.Ê The erythroblast cells that have failed to mature can grow to large sizez called macrocytes
irregular shaped large and oval instead of the usual.
6.Ê Their oxygen caring capacity is normal but due to their fragile membranes they have got short
life span.

  
  



1.Ê Mitamin C reduces ferric to ferrous and thus help iron re absorption
2.Ê Protein supply essential for the synthesis of gloubulins
3.Ê 2ntrinsic factor-----a glycoprotein produced by parietal cells of gastric glands. Helps in absorption
of vitamin B12
4.Ê 2ronͶneeded for heme synthesis
5.Ê Hormones like    

  
6.Ê Mit B12 required for  A synthesis.


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1.Ê 2ntrinsic factor( a glycoprotein secreated by gastric mucosa) binds with B12 to protect it from
digestion by G.2 secretions.
2.Ê 2ntrinsic factor binds to a specific receptor on the brush borders of mucosal cells in the ileum
3.Ê Mit B12 is then transported into the blood by process of pinocytosis.
4.Ê Mit B12 is stored in liver and is released as needed by the bone marrow to produce new RBCs.
5.Ê ormal amount of B12 required by the body daily is 1 to 3 micrograms.

 

1.Ê A mature RBC remains in the blood for 120 days

2.Ê Slowly its metabolic system becomes les active
3.Ê Cell become fragile
4.Ê 2t ruptures while passing through some tight spots such as spleen

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1.Ê Formation of hemoglobin starts in proerythroblast stage and continues till reticulocyte stage.
Reticulocytes continue to form minute quantities of hemoglobin for a day till they are mature
erythrocytes.
2.Ê 2 succinyl-CoA+2 glycine---------pyrrole
3.Ê 4 pyrrole----------protoporphyrin 2

4.Ê Protoporphyrin 2
+Fe++-----heme
5.Ê heme + polypeptide-------hemoglobin chain ( alpha or beta)
6.Ê 2 alpha + 2 beta chains-------------hemoglobin A
7.Ê On the basis of polypeptide chain the different chains are designated as alpha beta gama and
delta chains.
8.Ê Most common form of hemoglobin in human is hemoglobin A
 9.Ê Hemoglobin A=2 alpha and 2 beta chains
10.ÊHemoglobin F=2 alpha and 2 gama chain
11.ÊHemoglobin A2=2 alpha and 2 delta
12.ÊHemoglobin H= 4 beta chains
13.ÊHemoglobin bart=4 gama chains
14.ÊHemo H and Hemo bart are the pathological forms
15.Ê1 hemoglobin binds with 4 oxygen molecules

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abnormalpolypeptide globin chains are produced

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 : alpha chain is abnormal leading to polymerization of Hb in case of

hypoxia.

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chains are normal but decreased in amount.


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1.Ê 2t combines with oxygen loosely and reversibly

2.Ê 2t has very high affinity of oxygen when its partial pressure is high.
3.Ê Oxygen don͛t bind with two positive bonds of the iron instead it forms a loose co.ordination
bond with iron atom.
4.Ê Also the oxygen in carried as oxygen molecule not as ion and is released as such in the tissue
fluid.

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78 to 98 fl

1.Ê Aisocytosis is irregularity in size.

2.Ê Microcytosis is decrease in volume. Less than 76 fl.due to deficiency of iron. thalasemia
Ê
3.Ê Macrocytosis is increase in volume. More than 100 fl. Mit B12 /folic acid defeiciency and
alcoholism
4.Ê º 
ë - unusual shape due to deformed membrane.
5.Ê ‘  ë
crenated shrinked cells
as in hypertonic condition
6.Ê 
 ë
-dense cells with no area of central pallor
Spherocytosis
Swelling in hypotonic solution
7.Ê ‘

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-elliptical shape
Megaloblastic anemia
iron deficiency anemia
 8.Ê  ë
 : irregular surface spicules
Liver disease
9.Ê 
 ë
sickle shaped cells due to polymerization of globin part in hypoxia.
Sickle cell anemia
10.Ê|
 ë
: target cells
Hemoglobinopathies
Liver disease
11.Ê  ë
:cell fragments
2ndication of hemolysis.
12.ʄ 




ë 
: remnants of nuclear cromatin
13.Ê ë
 : tear drop cells
Marrow infiltration leading to extra medullary hematopoiesis

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cell membrane has collapsed on itself.

This is thought to be due to a lack of iron/hemoglobin

14.ÊSickle cell is sickle shaped cell.

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1.Ê 2ron is present in the body in many essential forms like hemoglobin myoglobin cytochromes,
cytochrom oxidase, peroxidase, catalase.
2.Ê Total quantity of iron is 4 to 5 gms in human body.
3.Ê 2n blood plasma it is rotating in the body in combination with protein transferrin
4.Ê Excess iron is stored in liver mainly in the form of ferritin.

   

ëÊ When iron is absorbed from small intestine it is combined with a protein in blood plasma called
apotrasferrin to form transferin.
ëÊ 2ron combines loosly with transferrin which is then transported in the plasma.
ëÊ 2n cell cytoplasm the iron combines with a protein called apoferritin to form ferritin.
ëÊ This iron stored in the cell is called storage iron.



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ëÊ Liver secrets apotransferrin into bile, which flows through bile duct into duodenum
ëÊ Here it combines with free iron and also with hemoglobin and myoglobin present in the meat
which we eat.
ëÊ This combination forms transferrin.
 ëÊ This is then attracted towards and binds with receptors present on the surface of intestinal
epithelial cells.
ëÊ Then is pinocytosed inside.
ëÊ And then released in the blood plasma in the form of plasma transferring.
ëÊ 2ron absorption from the intestines in extremely slow.
ëÊ 2t means that even if large quantities of iron are present in our food, only small amount is
absorbed.

 
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ëÊ When RBCs release hemoglobin it is phagocytosed by macrophages immediately in many part of

the body especially in liver and spleen and macrophages of bone marrow.
ëÊ These macrophages then release iron in the blood plasma after few hours to be carried by
transferrin to either bone marrow for reproduction of more RBCs or to the liver for storage in
form of ferritin.
ëÊ The porphyrin portion of hemoglobin molecule is converted by macrophages into bile pigment
bilirubin which 2s then released from the body in the form of feaces.
ëÊ