INTRODUCTION TO INSULATION

COORDINATION STUDY

A report submitted to the

BITS, PILANI DUBAI CAMPUS
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Practice Lecture Series I

PhD
in
Electical and Electronics Engineering

By

RAVIPUDI SUDHIR

(Register. No. 2019PHXP0901U)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

BIRLA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, PILANI,DUBAI CAMPUS
ACADEMIC CITY, DUBAI
UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

MAY 2020
Contents

List Of Figures ii

List Of Tables iii

1 INTRODUCTION 1

2 PROCEDURES AND GUIDE LINES 6

2.1 System Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2 Over Voltage Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.1 Temporary Over Voltages (TOV) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.2 Switching Over voltages (Statistical and Deterministic) . . . . . . . 8
2.2.3 Lightning over voltages (Fast-front over voltages (FFO) . . . . . . . 8
2.2.4 Very Fast Transient Overvoltages (VFTO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 Insulation Coordination Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4 Conclusion of the insulation coordination study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

3 FERRO RESONANCE ANALYSIS AND ITS MITIGATION 11

3.1 Ferro Resonance prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2 Conclusion of Ferro resonance Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

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List of Figures

1.1 Over Voltages as per IEC-60071 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.2 Double Concave shape lightning current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

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Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

The study aims at verifying the adequacy of the Sub-Station insulation to survive the
worst possible Over Voltages taking into consideration acceptable failure probability. Ma-
jor Over Voltages originating on Power Systems can be classified as temporary, slow, fast,
very fast front Over Voltages, each having its corresponding comparison criteria as appli-
cable.

1. Temporary Over Voltage (TOV): This can originate from faults, switching oper-
ations such as load rejection, resonance conditions, non-linearity (Ferro-resonance),
or by a combination of these. TOV should not exceed the fundamental frequency
withstand voltage for any equipment.

2. Slow-front Overvoltages (SOV): These can originate from the switching oper-
ations of the overhead lines. Switching includes energization and re-energization of
the overhead lines. 98 % out of the statistical switching for any switching operation
should not exceed 80% of the BSL (Switching Impulse Withstand limit).

3. Fast-Front Overvoltages (FFO): These can originate from the lightning strike
on the overhead transmission lines. This includes Direct stoke and Back flashover.
For both direct stroke and back flashover events, the maximum determined over
voltage at any equipment should not exceed 80% of the BIL of the equipment.

4. Very Fast Front Overvoltages (VFFO):These can originate from fault /switch-
ing operation of the dis-connector or circuit breaker in the Gas Insulated Switchgear
(GIS).

The simulation is a trial to best fit the measured results, where equipment modeling can be
different from one study to another study. Constructing proper model for the substation
under study is the key behind obtaining logic results. The resulting waves are compared
– roughly, the wave peak value – with the % of BIL /BSL as mentioned above.

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INSULATION COORDINATION STUDY

Figure 1.1: Over Voltages as per IEC-60071

According to IEC 60071, The system voltages exiting in a power system can
be summarized as follows: Generally, the following points shall be useful for under-
standing and performing the insulation coordination studies:-

1. The general criterion for the insulation study concept ever is: the maximum stress
equal to minimum strength.

2. The separation distance of the surge arrestors and protected equipment shall be as
short as possible.

3. Tower footing resistance shall be as lower as possible in order to dissipate the light-
ning surges.

4. Shielding failure rate / probability is dependent on lightning flashes per year as well
as the tower shielding angle.

5. Usually one surge arrestor is sufficient to protect the substation (mostly the outdoor
SA. However, in some cases with longer separation distance to critical equipment
usually Power Transformer another surge arrestor is required in front of equipment
to be protected.

6. The “lower” the SA Characteristics, the higher the energy dissipated.

7. The voltage waveforms mostly come in damped oscillatory response, representing

the successive reflections / refractions in the point of incidence, the first peak is
considered for BIL comparison – “this is a rough approach, further non-standard
wave shape evaluation techniques should be applied”.

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INSULATION COORDINATION STUDY

8. The lightning impulse withstand is dependent on the wave tail time (t2), while the
switching impulse withstand is dependent on the wave front time (t1), correction
factor may be applied.

9. Surge Arrestor parameters for proper insulation study should be taken into consid-
eration where applicable as follows:

• MCOV: Maximum Continuous Operating Voltage: is the arrestor’s maximum

voltage (rms) that it can sustain without damage (it shall be equal to maximum
peak voltage during phase faults / system abnormalities e.g. emergency load-
ing. . . .etc. it is dependent on the system earth fault factor (neutral earthing
method).
• Energy Capability: kJ/kV, is the limit of energy that can be dissipated
in the SA in terms of its rated voltage, the energy dissipation capability is
dependent on the SA construction.
• V-I Characteristics: representing the SA voltage versus discharged current,
it is a non- linear function with three regions, usually drawing up to certain
current values for each voltage waveform (1.2/50 µs for lightning discharge,
250/2500 µs for switching discharge, 50/60 Hz for power frequency).The curve
is usually expressed in PSCAD/EMTP-RV as a per unit table, the base for
p.u. values is the arrestor rated voltage (peak).

10. Back-flashover is more severe than direct flash, as it injects large amount of cur-
rent(especially with higher tower footing resistance) into the station surge impedance,
resulting in higher voltage values/energy dissipation through Surge Arresters.

11. In terms of probability and risk estimation, starting with the shield failure proba-
bility of the OHTL (for direct strokes) which is dependent of its construction and
the lightning current distribution recorded in the certain geographic region where
the Transmission Line exists ( only the 5-10 towers near to the station under study
as for longer distances, the line corona effect will deform/attenuate the steepness of
the travelling surge).

12. Usually the lightning current considered for direct flash is: 20 kA, and 200 kA
for back-flash. Double concave wave shall be used for more realistic results (CI-
GRE/IEC).

13. While carrying out the system study, knowledge about the system operation shall
be taken care(switching sequence, auto-reclosure scheme, application of single-phase

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INSULATION COORDINATION STUDY

Figure 1.2: Double Concave shape lightning current

switching,. . . etc) in order to justify / recommend / not recommend certain switching

events.

14. VFTO is a maximum when the switch under operation (CB or DS) is biased with
an opposite polarity trapped/residual charge prior to its operation i.e. phase peak
voltage represented as -1 p.u. shall be applied behind the switching device and
removed just before the commencement of switch operation (the charge shall be
removed from the circuit in order to enable the natural, not forced, oscillation of
system due to switch motion/striking).

15. During operation of the switch, depending on how fast is the separation / connection,
the trapped charge is consumed i.e. the faster the switch, the greater the mean value
the trapped charge voltage can reach.

16. Switching studies (slow front) aren’t applicable for system voltages ¡ 300 kV, how-
ever, the same is required for some cases like reactors, capacitors or extra-long lines.

17. The switching overvoltage is dependent on line configuration as well as length, the
longer the line, the higher the switching voltages on its remote end; this is due to
the effect of line capacitances / Ferranti effect.

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INSULATION COORDINATION STUDY

18. Statistical switching shall be carried out with a repeated pattern to cover complete
power frequency cycle (1/60 = 16.6 ms), 100-200 times results shall be listed and
the maximum parameter for 98% level shall be less than 80% BSL.

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Chapter 2

PROCEDURES AND GUIDE

LINES

The objective of insulation coordination is to bring the insulation strengths of electrical

equipment into the proper relationship with expected over voltages and with the charac-
teristic of surge protective devices. Insulation Coordination is the process of determining
the proper insulation levels of various components in a power system as well as their ar-
rangements. The process is determined from the known characteristics of voltage surges
and the characteristics of surge arresters. Accordingly, the conclusion would be whether
the insulation level is adequate or some mitigation (usually surge arrestor installation)
would be suggested. There are three basic elements to insulation coordination, which are:

1. Determining the over voltage stresses from the system. Over voltages have to be
determined by system simulation using EMTDC/PSCAD software. Therefore, a
close to the actual model of the system has to be build as explained below.

2. Knowing the strength of the insulation of specific equipment in the substation. The
insulation criteria have to be fulfilled against all possible over voltages.

3. Selecting surge arrester ratings and locations, or other mitigation equipment or

operating restrictions, to ensure the system-imposed over voltages do not exceed the
insulation strength of the equipment including an appropriate protective margin

2.1 System Modelling

The first step in insulation coordination study is to build a detailed frequency dependent
EMTDC/PSCAD simulation model that reflects the behavior of the key system com-
ponents. Such components are transmission line, cables, transformers, surge arrestors,

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ICS PROCEDURES AND GUIDELINES

reactors etc. A system equivalent reflects the rest of the system has to be modeled as
well. Sensitivity for some uncertain parameters has to be adopted.

1. Transmission lines and cables: Frequency dependent model has to be considered

for the analysis purposes.

2. Tower and take-off structure: Proper model has to be considered for the towers
and take-off structures. Footing resistance 20 ohms will be considered for the study.

3. System Equivalent: One bus away from the substation of concern have to be
modeled and system equivalent for the rest of the system is to be collected.

4. V-I characteristics of the surge arrester.

All the network elements required for over voltage analysis purposes shall be designed/modeled
in detail and the design/modeling criteria shall be supported by well-recognized literature
and references.

2.2 Over Voltage Simulations

To assess the insulation level of the system, the over voltage stresses on the equipment
has to be known through simulation.
The different types of over voltages that may occur on a power system and shall be
simulated are:

• Temporary over voltages.

• Switching over voltages (Statistical and Deterministic).

• Fast transient (Lightning) over voltages.

• Very fast transient over voltages

2.2.1 Temporary Over Voltages (TOV)

These may usually be short power frequency over voltages or weakly damped oscillatory
voltages. Those are power frequency over voltages that last for more than a cycle and can
last a number of seconds. The main (but not restricted to) causes of these over voltages
are:

• Phase to Earth Faults: Single line to Ground, Double line to Ground, 3 Phase to
Ground.

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ICS PROCEDURES AND GUIDELINES

• Load Rejection

• Resonance and Ferro Resonance.

• Ferranti Effect.

Combination of temporary over voltage origins such as earth fault with load rejection

2.2.2 Switching Over voltages (Statistical and Deterministic)

These surges are of short duration, irregular (or impulse form) and highly damped. Those
are over voltages arising from switching operations performed in the network as follows;

• Faults and fault clearing.

• Load Rejection

• Switching of inductive or capacitive currents, etc,

Switching (Slow-front) over voltages play a role in determining the energy duty of surge
arresters and in the selection of required withstand voltages of equipment as well as the
air gap insulation for transmission line towers. Statistical switching approach for different
configuration has to be simulated where the actual closing time is statically chosen using a
random-flat distribution within a one-cycle window. The pole span of the breaker is chosen
to be 5 ms with 2.5 ms standard deviation. The switching over voltages is determined for
100-200 simulation.
The effects of such over voltages are of great concern when the transmission voltage
is greater than 300kV. However, below 300kV, some causes of these over voltages, that
require simulation, are:

• Resonance effects when switching transformer feeders, or cables and overhead lines.

• Ferro resonance encountered on transformer feeder double circuits, when one circuit
is switched out but the other parallel feeder remains energized

• Line Energization may cause switching surges especially at the remote end of the
line that is being energized.

2.2.3 Lightning over voltages (Fast-front over voltages (FFO)

They are essentially produced by lightning strokes. Their magnitude is much larger than
other kinds of over voltages. FFO are therefore critical for all voltage levels, and it is
essential to mitigate them with protective devices, i.e. mainly surge arresters. Lightning
over voltages shall be studied to determine the risk of equipment failure and therefore

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ICS PROCEDURES AND GUIDELINES

to select their required withstand level in relation to protective device configuration and
tower earthing, and to evaluate line and station performance.
The two types of lightning have to be considered are direct stroke to the phase con-
ductors and the back flashover. The magnitude of lightning current for both the cases
shall be estimated using proper techniques and shall be explained. Consider a varying
tower footing resistance from 0 to 20 ohms regardless of measured value.

2.2.4 Very Fast Transient Overvoltages (VFTO)

VFTO are generated in GIS due to the breakdown across the contacts of disconnector
during a switching operation or line-to-ground fault. Very fast transients (VFT) in GIS
can be divided into internal and external. Internal transients can produce over voltages
between inner conductors and the encapsulation and external transients can cause stresses
on secondary and adjacent equipments.

2.3 Insulation Coordination Criteria

The insulation coordination criteria are to be fulfilled against the severest over voltages
of each type. The types of over voltages and the studies to be considered are:

• Temporary over voltages (TOV): should not exceed the fundamental frequency with-
stand voltage for any equipment.

• Switching over voltages: 98% out of the statistical switching for any switching
operation should not exceed 80% of the BSL ( switching Impulse Withstand limit)

• Lightning over voltages: for both direct stroke and back flashover events, the max-
imum determined over voltage at any equipment should not exceed 80% of the BIL
of that equipment.

• Very Fast Transient over voltages (VFTO): Internal transients and external tran-
sients (TEV) and its mitigation techniques.

In all cases, the surge arrestor measured energy absorption should be with the surge
arrestor energy capability/class.

2.4 Conclusion of the insulation coordination study

The insulation coordination conclusion has to be in line with utility standard and fulfill
the insulation criteria above. Such conclusion may recommend that:

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ICS PROCEDURES AND GUIDELINES

• The existing insulation is adequate and fulfills the criteria

• There is a need for a surge arrestor/surge arrestors of X class at X location

• There is an operation restriction and controlled witching is needed

• suggested surge protection device other than surge arrestor

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Chapter 3

FERRO RESONANCE ANALYSIS

AND ITS MITIGATION

Ferro resonance is a non-linear resonance phenomena occurring in a low loss electric cir-
cuit containing a non-linear inductance, capacitor and voltage sources. Power network is
example of such an electrical circuits, where non-linear inductances are due to magnetiz-
ing impedances of power transformers, measurement inductive voltage transformers and
capacitances are due to cables, EHV lines, CVTs, Series capacitors etc. Hence, certain
switching actions, operating conditions and a few system configurations may cause occur-
rence of Ferro resonances. Some examples of switching actions are transformer-switching,
capacitor switching etc. Some of the configurations/conditions that may cause Ferro
resonance are;

1. Transformer supplied through a long transmission line or cable with low short-
circuit power

2. Opening of one or two phases of a cable feeding the primary side of a lightly loaded
transformer

3. Transformer energized through the grading capacitance of one or more open circuit
breakers

4. Transformer connected to a de-energized transmission line running in parallel with

one or more energized lines

5. Energization of lightly loaded or unloaded transformers,

6. Transformer connected to a series compensated transmission line,

7. Transformers working with voltages very near the Knee point.

8. Switching of CVT/CCVT in the system,

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FERRO RESONANCE

9. Ungrounded transformer primary connections,

10. Cable damage and manual switching during construction of underground cable sys-
tems,

11. The use of single-phase switching devices on 3-phase systems,

A detailed study is required to explore all the sources (not restricted to above conditions)
of Ferro-resonance in a power system and to be explained in the report.

3.1 Ferro Resonance prediction

Ferro resonance is frequently accompanied by some of the symptoms described below:
High permanent over voltages of differential mode (phase-to-phase) and/or common mode
(phase-to-earth),

1. High permanent over currents,

2. High permanent distortions of voltage and current waveforms,

3. Displacement of the neutral point voltage,

4. Transformer heating (in no-load operation),

5. Continuous, excessively loud noise in transformers and reactances

6. Damage of electrical equipment (capacitor banks, VT, CVT etc.) due to thermal
effect or insulation breakdown. A characteristic symptom of VT destruction by
Ferro resonance is a destroyed primary winding and an intact secondary winding.

7. Apparent untimely tripping of protection devices.

Owing to the stochastic manner of Ferro resonance, detailed digital modeling of the system
and computer simulations are required for the prediction of Ferro resonance occurrence. It
is required to use frequency dependent complex model for the cable circuits incorporating
the transpositions, cross-bonding etc. for the study.

3.2 Conclusion of Ferro resonance Analysis

The Ferro-resonance conclusion has to be in line with SEC standard. Such conclusion
may recommend that:

• List out the different sources of Ferro resonance in the power system and the miti-
gation methods to be adopted.

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FERRO RESONANCE

• The magnitude and the time duration of the oscillations, which exist during the
Ferro-resonance. The frequency of the oscillations shall also be provided in the
conclusion.

• Harmonic analysis to compute the magnitude of fundamental and other harmonic

components in the current and voltage spectrum, as the magnetizing current and
voltage waveforms are signal spectrums made up of fundamental frequency as well
as other harmonics.

• Advise for the protection of EHV and HV equipments in case of over voltages and
Ferro-resonance.

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