Alejandra Sánchez

Introduction to Didactics
Prof.: Mariana Fernandes Antunes

SECOND READING ASSIGNMENT – INTRODUCTION TO DIDACTICS –

CERP DEL ESTE
UNIT 2: THEORIES OF LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Read and develop your answers
1) Describe theories of first language acquisition.

There are four theories of first language acquisition: Behaviourist, mediation, nativist and functional theory.

The behaviourist approach establishes that when children born, they come with a tabula rasa, which is a
clean slate bearing no preconceived notions about the world or about the world or about language. These
children are then shaped by their environment through various schedules of reinforcement. Moreover,
behaviourists focus on the perceptible aspects of linguistics behaviour (the publicly observables
responses) and how these responses associated with the world surrounding them.
The production of correct responses to stimuli is considered as an effective language behaviour. In case
that a particular response is reinforced, it then becomes conditioned or habitual. Thus, children produce
linguistic responses that are reinforced. We learn to comprehend an utterance by responding appropriately
to it and by being reinforced for that response.
Skinner’s theory of verbal behaviour is one of the best-known attempts to construct a behaviouristic model
of linguistic behaviour, which is an extension of his general theory of learning by operant conditioning. The
theory of operant conditioning is based on the conditioning in which the human being emits a response or
operant without necessarily observable stimuli; that operant is learned by reinforcement.
With reference to Skinner, verbal behaviour is controlled by its consequences: when consequences are
rewarding, behaviour is maintained and is increased in strength, or perhaps frequency. When
consequences are punishing, or when there is a total lack of reinforcement, the behaviour is weakened
and eventually extinguished.

The nativist theory proposed that we are born with innate predispositions: we born with a genetic capacity
that predisposes us to a systematic perception of language around us, which ends in the construction of
an internalized system of language.
According to Chomsky, there are innate properties of language that explains the child’s mastery of a native
language in a short period of time. This knowledge is known as “language acquisition device”, which
consists of four innate linguistic properties from McNeill perspective:
1- the ability to distinguish speech sounds from other sounds in the environment,
2- the ability to organize linguistic data into various classes that can later be
defined,
3- knowledge that only a certain kind of linguistic system is possible and that other
kinds are not, and
4- the ability to engage in constant evaluation of the developing linguistic system so as to construct the
simplest possible system out of the available linguistic input.

One of the contributions that this theory had made is that child’s language is a legitimate system in tis own
right. The child’s language is systematic in that the child is constantly forming hypothesis in speech. As
the child’s language develops, those hypotheses are continually revised, reshaped, or sometimes
abandoned.

The third approach is the functional one. This approach is based on constructivism and it has two
emphases:
a) Researchers began to see that language was one manifestation of the cognitive
and affective ability to deal with the world, with others and with the self.
b) The generative rules (that were proposed under the nativist framework) were
abstract, formal, explicit and logical but they deal with the focus of language and
not with the deeper functional levels of meaning constructed from social
interaction.
Functions of the language are the meaningful, interactive purposes within a social context that we
accomplish with the forms.
From the relationship between Cognition and Language Development, there are many authors that had
examined these topics on first language acquisition.
Louis Broom criticized the Pivot grammar theory as she notices that the relationships in which words occur
in telegraphic utterances are only superficially similar. She found three possible underlying relations which
can be explained with the example “Mommy sock”:
1. Agent-action (Mommy is putting the sock on”.
2. Agent-object (Mommy sees the sock)
3. Possessor-possessed (Mommy’s sock).
Piaget described overall development on the result of children interaction with their environment, with a
complementary interaction between their developing perceptual cognitive capacities and their linguistic
experience. What children learn about language according to what they already know about the world.
In addition, Wanner establishes that children are equipped with conceptual interpretative abilities for
categorizing the world.
Slobin demonstrated that in all languages, semantic learning depends on cognitive development and he
establish two principles of language development involving the poles of function and form:
1- On the functional level, development is paced by the growth of conceptual and communicative
capacities, operating in conjunction with innate schemas of cognition.
2- On the formal level, development is paced by the growth of perceptual and information-processing
capacities, operating in conjunctions with innate schemas of grammar.
Moreover, from the relationship between Social Interaction and Language Development, we can se the
social constructivist emphasis of the functional perspective. Holzman proposed that “a reciprocal
behavioural system operates between the language-developing infant-child and the competent [adult]
language user in a socializing-teaching-nurturing role.”
Some research of Berko and Lock looked at the interaction between the child’s language acquisition and
the learning of how social systems operates in human behaviour.
Other investigations such as Budwing and Kuczaj demonstrate that the child language centred on one of
the thorniest areas of linguistic research: the function of language in discourse.
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2) According to Lightbown, describe theories of second language acquisition.

As in first language acquisition, there are theories of second language acquisition. In this case, there are
four theories: the behaviourist, the innatist, the cognitive and the sociocultural perspectives.
The behaviourist theory explains learning in terms of imitation, practice, reinforcement and habit formation.
Nelson Brooks and Robert Lado were two authors of this perspective and they explained that classroom
activities emphasized mimicry and memorization and students learned dialogues and sentence patterns by
heart. Because language development was viewed as the formation of habits, it was assumed that a
person learning a second language would start off with the habits formed in the first language and these
habits would interfere with the new ones needed for the second language.
As a result of researchers, there id a rejection of both the contrastive analysis hypothesis and
behaviourism, leading to a period during which both the roe of first language and the role of practice in
learning a second language received limited attention in both research and pedagogy.
The influence of the learner’s first language may not simply be a matter of habits, but a more subtle and
complex process of identifying points of similarity, weighting the evidence in support of some popular
feature, and even reflecting about whether a certain feature seems to “belong” in the target language.

Chomsky had made a critique to the innatist perspective; he argued that the innate knowledge of the
principles of Universal Grammar permits all children to acquire the language of their environment during a
critical period of their development.
According to Vivian Cook, we need an explanation for the fact that learners eventually know more about
the language than they could reasonably have learned if they had to depend entirely on the input they are
exposed to. The implication is that the knowledge of UG must be available to second language learners as
well as to first language learners. Some of the theorist who hold this view claim that the nature and
availability of UG may be present and available to second language learners, but that its exact nature has
been altered by the acquisition of other languages.
Bonnie Schwartz concludes that instruction and feedback change only superficial aspects of language
performance and do not affect the underlying systematic knowledge of the new language. She argues that
language acquisition is based o the availability of natural language in learner’s environment.
Lydia White and other agrees that acquisition of many grammatical features of the new language takes
place naturally when learners are engaged in meaningful use of the language. However, they also suggest
that, because of the nature of UG is altered by the acquisition of the first language, second language
learners may sometimes need explicit information about what is not grammatical in the second language.
Otherwise, they may assume that some structures of the first language have equivalents in the second
language when, in fact, they do not.
Krashen’s Monitor Model was first described in 1970, at a time when there was growing dissatisfaction
with language methods based on behaviourism. Krashen described his model in terms of five hypothesis:
1- The acquisition or learning hypothesis consists of that human develop language skills through two
processes: the language acquisition (natural process sustained by exposure to the language) and
language learning (involves the learner consciously working, studying the different systems and
committing that information to memory).
2- According to the monitor hypothesis, second language users draw on what they have acquired when
they engage in spontaneous communication. They make minor changes and polish what the acquired
system has produced based in the rules and patterns that they have learned.
3- In natural order hypothesis, language acquisition occurs through predictable stages and following a
predictable path, which is not affected by direct instruction.
4- Input hypothesis establishes that the acquisition occurs when the language which we are exposed to is
comprehensible and adequate to our level of understanding.
5- Finally, the affective filter hypothesis is a kind of barrier to acquisition which prevent learners from
acquiring language even when an appropriate input is available. When the filter stays “down” the learner
ins able to focus on meaning and the language learning experience at hand as he or she is relaxed and
well-motivated. However, when the filter is “up”, the learner is uncomfortable and he or she cannot pay
attention to the learning.

Another theory is the cognitive one, which is based on comparing language acquisition to the capacities of
computers for storing, integrating and retrieving information.
Richard Schmidt and others have suggested that learners must use cognitive resources to process
 information at first to any aspect of the language that they are trying to learn or produce. Learners at the
earliest stages will tend to use most of their resources to understand the main words in a message.
Gradually, through experience and practice, information was new becomes easier to process, and learners
become able to access it quickly and even automatically.
Drawing on J. R. Anderson and others have investigated second language acquisition as “skill learning”.
They suggest that most learning, including language learning, starts with declarative knowledge, that is,
knowledge that we are aware of having, for example, a grammar rule. The hypothesis is that, through
practice, declarative knowledge may become procedural knowledge, or the ability to use the knowledge.
With continued practice, the procedural knowledge can become automatized and the learner may forget
having it first as declarative knowledge.
According to transfer-appropriate processing (TAP), information is best retrieved in situations that are
similar to those in which it was acquired. This is because when we learn something our memories also
record aspects of the context in which it was learned and even the cognitive processes involved in the way
we learned it, for example, by reading or hearing it.
The cognitive perspective emphasizes the role of general human abilities to process and learn information
on the basis of experience. In recent years, the term ‘cognitive linguistics’ has emerged and highlights the
view that language is but one of the complex knowledge systems that humans acquire.
Another area of work within but not limited to the cognitive perspective is concerned with language
learning and the brain.
Recent studies show activation in different locations in both hemispheres of the brain during language
processing. This is true for both first and second languages. However, differences have been observed,
depending on the learners’ age and level of proficiency.

Finally, the sociocultural theory views speaking and thinking as tightly interwoven. Speaking and writing
mediates thinking, which means that people can gain control over their mental processes as a
consequence of internalizing what others say to them and what they say to others. This internalizing is
thought to occur when an individual interacts with an interlocutor within his or her “Zone of Proximal
Development” that is, in a situation in which the learner can perform at a higher level because of the
support offered by an interlocutor.
The ZPD is a metaphorical location in which learners co-construct knowledge in collaboration with an
interlocutor.
In the interaction hypothesis of Vygotsky, the emphasis is on the individual cognitive processes in the mind
of the learner. Interaction facilitates those cognitive processes by giving learners access to the input they
need to activate internal processes. In Vygotskyan theory, greater importance is attached to the
conversation themselves, with learning occurring through the social interaction. Sociocultural theory holds
that people gain control of and reorganize their cognitive processes during mediation as knowledge is
internalized during social activity.
Swain first proposed the comprehensible output hypothesis based on the observation that French
immersion students were considerably weaker in their spoken and written production than in their reading
and listening comprehension.
She considers collaborative dialogues as the context where “language use and language learning can
occur. It is language use mediating language learning. It is cognitive activity and it is social activity”.
Sociocultural theorists assume that the cognitive processes begin as an external socially mediated activity
and eventually become internalized. Other interactionists models assume that modified input and
interaction provide learners with the raw material that is interpreted and analysed through internal
cognitive processes.

3) According to Brown, what is communicative competence and what are its components?
According to Brown, Dell Hymes defined communicative competence as the aspect of our competence
that enable us to convey and interpret messages and to negotiate meanings interpersonally within specific
contexts. In addition, Savignon noted that communicative competence is relative, not absolute, and
depends on the cooperation of all the participants involved.
Moreover, there is a distinction proposed by James Cummins which consists of the differences between
cognitive or academic language proficiency (CALP) and basic interpersonal communicative skills (BICS):
- CALP is that dimension of proficiency in which the learner manipulates or reflects upon the surface
features of language outside of the immediate interpersonal context.
- BICS is the communicative capacity that all children acquire in order to be able to function in daily
interpersonal exchanges.
Later, he modifies his notions of BICS and CALP in the form of context-reduced (school-oriented language
for example) and context-embedded (face-to-face communication with people) communication.

Canale and Swain had defined four different components or subcategories that make up the construct of
communicative competence:

1- Grammatical competence: Encompasses knowledge of lexical items and of

rules of morphology, syntax, sentence-grammar semantics and phonology.
2- Discourse competence: focused on intersentential relationships. It is the ability
we have to connect sentences in stretches of discourse (everything from simple
spoken conversations to lengthy written texts) and to form a meaningful whole
out of a series of utterances.
3- Sociolinguistic competence: knowledge of the sociocultural rules of language
and of discourse. It requires an understanding of the social context in which
language is used: the role of the participants, the information they share and the
functions of the interaction.
4- Strategic competence: the strategies that one uses to compensate for imperfect
knowledge of rules.

According to CEFR, what are the levels of competence?

The CEFR is a guideline used to describe achievements of learners of foreign languages across Europe
and in other countries. The Common European Framework divides learners into three broad divisions that
can be divided into six levels; it describes what a learner is supposed to be able to do in reading, listening,
speaking and writing.
The three broad divisions are:
1. A – Basic user. (A1 – A2)
2. B – Independent user (B1 – B2)
3. C – Proficient user. (C1 – C2)

The six levels are:

1) Breakthrough or beginner (A1)
Can understand and use familiar everyday expressions and very basic phrases aimed at the satisfaction of
needs of a concrete type. Can introduce him/herself and others and can ask and answer questions about
personal details such as where he/she lives, people he/she knows and things he/she has. Can interact in a
simple way provided the other person talks slowly and clearly and is prepared to help.

2) Waystage or elementary (A2)

Can understand sentences and frequently used expressions related to areas of most immediate relevance
(e.g. very basic personal and family information, shopping, local geography, employment). Can
communicate in simple and routine tasks requiring a simple and direct exchange of information on
 familiar and routine matters. Can describe in simple terms aspects of his/her background, immediate
environment and matters in areas of immediate basic need.

3) Threshold or intermediate (B1)

Can understand the main points of clear standard input on familiar matters regularly encountered in work,
school, leisure, etc. Can deal with most situations likely to arise whilst travelling in an area where the
language is spoken. Can produce simple connected text on topics which are familiar or of personal
interest. Can describe experiences and events, dreams, hopes and ambitions and briefly give reasons and
explanations for opinions and plans.

4) Vantage or upper intermediate (B2)

Can understand the main ideas of complex text on both concrete and abstract topics, including technical
discussions in his/her field of specialisation. Can interact with a degree of fluency and spontaneity that
makes regular interaction with native speakers quite possible without strain
for either party. Can produce clear, detailed text on a wide range of subjects and explain a viewpoint on a
topical issue giving the advantages and Independent disadvantages of various options.

5) Effective Operational Proficiency or advanced (C1)

Can understand a wide range of demanding, longer texts, and recognise implicit meaning. Can express
him/herself fluently and spontaneously without much obvious searching for expressions. Can use
language flexibly and effectively for social, academic and professional purposes. Can produce clear, well-
structured, detailed text on complex subjects, showing controlled use of organisational patterns,
connectors and cohesive devices.

6) Mastery or proficiency (C2)

Can understand with ease virtually everything heard or read. Can summarise information from different
spoken and written sources, reconstructing arguments and accounts in a coherent presentation. Can
express him/herself spontaneously, very fluently and precisely, differentiating finer shades of proficient
meaning even in more complex situations.

UNIT 3: FACTORS THAT AFFECT LANGUAGE TEACHING

Read and develop your answers
1) According to Harmer, describe the generalities about the learner.

According to Harmer, learners can be children (2 – 14 years old), young learners (5 – 9 years old),
adolescents (12 – 17 years old), young adults (16 – 20 years old) or adults (more than 20 years old).
In the case of children, they can learn several things at the same time although they do no focus on what
is being taught. They know the importance of hearing, seeing and touching at the time of understanding
what the teacher is teaching. In addition, they usually feel pleased when the teacher approvals them and
they respond well to individual attention of the teacher. However, children do not tend to be concentrated
in one activity for a long time. Otherwise, they have the ability to become competent speakers of a new
language with remarkable facility if they are exposed to it.

Then, adolescents have developed a greater capacity for abstract thoughts: their intellects are kicking in
and they can talk about more abstract ideas. Also, they have grater capacity for learning, potential for
creative thoughts. Adolescents give more importance to the approval from their pairs rather than the one
from the teacher. Adolescents can have behaviour problems as children.
Finally, adults have wider range of experiences, they are more disciplined than adolescents and they apply
themselves to the task of learning even when it is boring. They have clear reasons for why they are
learning and can sustain their motivation by perceiving goals. Moreover, in the case that an adult had a
negative learning experience in the past, he or she will be nervous of new learning, but the ones who had
got out of the habit of study can find the classrooms as a daunting space. Adults can be disruptive and
exhausting.

2) With reference to Lightbown & Spada describe the importance of the role of age, intelligence,
aptitude, personality of learners in the learning process.
In reference to Lightbown and Spada, age, intelligence, aptitude and the personality of the learner have an
important role at the time of second language acquisition.

The term ‘intelligence’ has traditionally been used to refer to performance on certain kinds of tests. These
tests are often associated with success in school, and a link between intelligence and second language
learning has sometimes been reported. Students which have a weak general academic performance can
success in second language learning if they are given the right opportunities.
According to Gardner, we have multiple intelligences which includes abilities in the areas of music,
athletics, interpersonal relations as well as verbal intelligence, which is commonly associated with success
in school.

Specific abilities thought to predict success in language learning have been studied under the title of
language learning ‘aptitude’. John Carroll has characterized aptitude in terms of the ability to learn quickly.
Leila Rama found that children who were good at analysing language were the most successful learners in
an English second language programme in which activities almost never involved direct attention to
grammar. Leila Rama found that children who were good at analysing language were the most successful
learners in an English second language programme in which activities almost never involved direct
attention to grammar.
Nick Ellis and others have hypothesized that working memory (WM) capacity may be the most important
variable in predicting success for learners in many language learning situations. Individuals differ in the
amount of information they can process in working memory. Peter Skehan suggests that successful
language learners need not be strong in all of the components of aptitude.
Wesche repined a high level of student and teacher satisfaction when students were matched with
compatible teaching environments. In addition, some evidence indicated that matched students were able
to attain significantly higher levels of achievement than those who were mismatched. While few schools
could offer such choices to their students, teachers may be able to ensure that their coaching activities are
sufficiently varied to accommodate learners with different aptitude profiles.
Erlam found that all learners benefited from the deductive instruction regardless of differences in aptitude.
This was interpreted as support for Peter Skehan's hypothesis that more structured teaching may even out
individual differences compared with less structured teaching. Erlam's findings also showed that learners
with greater language analytic ability and memory capacity were able to benefit more from the inductive
and structured input instruction on written (but not oral) tests. This supports the hypothesis that learners
with greater aptitude can figure out the rules of language based on input, and that they are able to
consolidate this knowledge without the need to produce language-at least in terms of their written ability
A number of personality characteristics have been proposed as likely to affect second language learning,
but it has not been easy to confirm in empirical studies. Lily Wong Fillmore observed that, in certain
learning situations, the quiet observant learner may have greater success.
Another aspect of personality that has been studied is inhibition. lt has been suggested that inhibition
discourages risk-taking, which is necessary for progress in language learning. This is often considered to
be a particular problem for adolescents, who are more self-conscious than younger learners.
One study carried out by Alexander Guiora consists of the analysis of the effects of small doses of alcohol,
known for its ability to reduce inhibition, on pronunciation. Study participants who drank small amounts of
alcohol did better on pronunciation tests than those who did not drink any. While results such as these are
interesting, they may have more to do with performance than with learning. We may also note, in passing,
that when larger doses of alcohol were administered, pronunciation rapidly deteriorated.
Learner anxiety-feelings of worry, nervousness, and stress that many students experience when learning a
second language-has been extensively investigated. Other researchers investigating learner anxiety in
second language classrooms see anxiety as dynamic and dependent on particular situations and
circumstances. Peter Maclntyre argues that 'because nervous students are focused on both the task at
hand and their reactions to it . . . [they] will not learn as quickly as relaxed students.
Because anxiety is often considered to be a negative term, some researchers have chosen to use other
terms they consider to be more neutral. Spielmann and Radnofsky found that tension, as experienced by
the learners in their study, was perceived as both beneficial and detrimental and that it was also related to
the learners' social interactions
inside and outside the classroom.
A learner's willingness to communicate (WTC) has also been related to anxiety. We have all experienced
occasions when we tried to avoid communicating in a second language. WTC may change with the
number of people present, the topic of conversation, the formality of the circumstances, and even with
whether we feel tired or energetic at a given moment.

Another important fact in learners is age. Many adult second language learners achieve excellent
language skills. We can find adult learners of a second language with a rich vocabulary, sophisticated
syntax, and effective pragmatic skills, even though there may be differences between their use of
language and that of those who began learning a language while they are very young.
In addition, younger learners in informal language learning environment usually have more time to devote
to learning language. They often have more opportunities to hear and use the language in environments
where they do not experience strong pressure to speak fluently and accurately from the beginning. In the
case of adult learners, they are more likely to find themselves in situations that demand more complex
language and the expression of more complicated ideas. Adults are often embarrassed by their lack of
mastery of the language and they may develop a sense of inadequacy after experiences of frustration in
trying to say exactly what they mean. Such negative feelings may affect their motivation and willingness to
place themselves in situations where they will need to use the new language.
Mark Patkowski studied the relationship between age and the acquisition of features of a second language
other than pronunciation. He hypothesized that, even if accent were ignored, only those who had begun
learning their second language before the age of 15 could achieve full, native-like mastery of that
language. He founded that far learners who acquire a second language primarily in the ‘natural’
environment, age of acquisition is an important factor in setting limits on the development of native-like
mastery of a second language and that this limitation does not apply only to pronunciation.

Moreover, adults and adolescents learn faster than children. Studies made by Snow and Hoefnagel
suggested that adults and adolescents can make considerable and rapid progress in their proficiency in a
second language in contexts where they use the language in social, personal, professional, or academic
interaction.

3) According to Brown, what are learning styles and strategies?

According to Brown, learning styles is a concept that refers to consistent and rather enduring tendencies
or preferences within an individual. Styles are those general characteristics or intellectual functioning that
pertain to you as an individual, and that differentiate you from someone else.
Cognitive styles are the way we learn things in general and the way we attack a problem seem to hinge on
a rather amorphous link between personality and cognition. In the case of educational contexts, cognitive
styles are known as learning styles. Keefe defined learning styles as “cognitive, affective, and
physiological traits that are relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and respond
to the learning environment.” In addition, this kind of style can be conceptualized as a general
predisposition, voluntary or not, toward processing information in a certain way.

Strategies are specific methods of approaching a problem or task, models of operation for achieving a
particular end, planned designs for controlling and manipulating certain information. They can vary intra
individually; each of us has a number of possible ways to solve a particular problem, and we choose one
or more strategies for a given problem.
The field of second language acquisition has distinguished between two types of strategies: learning
strategies and communication strategies. While learning strategies deal with the receptive domain of
intake, memory, storage, and recall, communication strategies pertain to the employment of verbal or
nonverbal mechanisms for the productive communication of information. Faerch and Kaspers defined
communication strategies as “potentially conscious plans for solving what to an individual presents itself as
a problem in reaching a particular communicative goal”.

4) According to Brown, what is motivation and why is it important?

There are many definitions for motivation according to the different historical schools of thought:
a- In behaviouristic terms, it is the anticipation of a reward. Driven to acquire
positive reinforcement, and driven by previous experiences of reward for
behaviour, we act accordingly to achieve further reinforcement.
b- From a cognitive perspective, there is much more emphasis on the individual’s
decisions. Motivation are the choices people make as o what experiences or
goals they will approach or avoid, and the degree of effort they will exert in that
respect. Ausubel identified six needs undergirding the construct of motivation:

1- the need for exploration, for providing the unknown;

2- the need of manipulation, for operating on the environment and causing
change,
3- the need for activity, for movement and exercise, both physical and mental,
4- the need for stimulation, the need to be stimulated by the environment, by
other people, or by ideas, thoughts and feelings,
5- the need for knowledge, the need to process and internalize the results of
exploration, manipulation, activity and stimulation, to quest for solutions to
problems and for self-consistent systems of knowledge,
6- the need for enhancement, for the self to be known and to be accepted and
approved of by others.

c- In constructivist terms, each person is motivated differently and will therefore

act on his or her environment in ways that are unique. But these unique acts are
always carried out within a cultural context. Maslow considered that motivation
is dependent on the satisfaction first of fundamental physical necessities, then
of community, security, identity and sell-esteem.
5) With reference to Brown, describe types of motivation.
When a student is motivated, he or she can be intrinsically or extrinsically motivated.
Intrinsically motivated behaviours occur when activities are the ones which does not have apparent reward
except the activity itself. These behaviours are aimed at bringing about certain internally rewarding
consequences, namely, feelings of competence and self-determination.
However, extrinsically motivated behaviours are the ones that are carried out with anticipated reward from
outside and beyond the self, such as money, grades, prizes or certain types of feedback.
It is important to distinguish the intrinsic-extrinsic construct from Gardner’s integrative-instrumental
orientations.
The instrumental side of the dichotomy referred to acquiring a language as a means for attaining
instrumental goals: furthering a career, reading technical material, translation, etc. Nevertheless, the
integrative side described learners who wished to integrate themselves into the culture of a second
language group and become involved in social interchange in that group.
While many instances of intrinsic motivation may indeed tur out to be integrative, some may not. For
example, one could, for highly development intrinsic purposes wish to learn a second language in order to
advance in a carrier or to succeed in an academic program. Likewise, one could develop a positive affect
toward the speaker of a second language for extrinsic reasons, such as parental reinforcement or a
teacher’s encouragement.

This is a good summary. However, try to check the notes I wrote to you with some conceptual mistakes
that you need to correct for the first mid- term test.
Mark: 9!