Geography 2018 PDF

GEOGRAPHY
PAMPHLET
GEOGRAPHY PAMPHLET ERW – January 2018 Page 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS
A- Course Summary Notes
B- Activities
C- Model Questions
D- Marksheets and Model answers

A- Course Summary Notes

PROGRAMME OF STUDY
 Weather and Climate
 Weathering
 Population and Settlement
 Transport and Industry
 Volcanoes and earthquakes
 Rivers / coasts

Weather and Climate
When we look at this module of work we must first of all be clear in our minds
of what weather and climate is.
Are we able to explain this?
 Is weather and climate the same?

 If they are the same then in which way are they the same?
 Are they different?
 If they are different, how are they different?
 If they are not the same and they are not different are they related in
any way?
Definitions
WEATHER
Weather is the conditions found at any one place at a specific time. Weather
includes factors such as temperature, precipitation, sunshine, wind, cloud
cover, fog, snow and humidity.
CLIMATE
Climate is the average weather conditions over a set period of time. This set
time can be days, weeks, months, seasons or years.

WEATHER
Weather exists over the earth’s surface in the lowest level of the atmosphere
called the TROPOSPHERE. This layer is on average 10km high and above this
the rest is calm and still. We may have seen this for ourselves when we fly to
go on holiday. When we take off, the weather at ground level may well be
rainy and dismal. Once we get up above the clouds it is always blue sky and
sunny – as long as your flight is during the day!!
The weather then is the state of the atmosphere and we can tell quite a lot
about it just by looking……..
 There is lots of clouds in the sky so it will probably rain

 There is snow on the ground so I will need to my gloves and hat
 The sun is shinning, there is no clouds in the sky so I do not need my
jumper at break time
 It’s a really hot day today so I will need my sun block and hat for the
cricket match this afternoon.
Measuring the weather
Every day, on the TV or on the radio, you can hear the weather forecast. It tells
you what the weather will be like for that day nationally or regionally. What it
will be like for the next few days and even for the week ahead if you watch
‘Country File’ on a Sunday. In the UK weather forecasting is very difficult
because weather changes so much from one day to the next. With this in mind
predicting the week ahead is very complex and risky and this is why we are
very quick to criticise weather reporters for being wrong again.
People who study the weather are called METEOROLOGISTS. In the UK the
weather forecast comes from the METEOROLOGICAL OFFICE (MET OFFICE for
short) which is currently based in Exeter, South West England.
Every minute, day and night, all round the world; the weather is observed and
measured. At weather stations based on land, and by equipment carried on
planes, ships, weather balloons and satellites. This information is passed from
country to country. It is fed into powerful computers, and meteorologists use it
to write weather reports and make weather forecasts.

THE CLIMATE OF THE BRITISH ISLES
 Seasonal patterns of temperature and rainfall across the British Isles

 Britain’s climate can be described as having:
- Mild Winters
- Cool Summers and
- Rain throughout the year
This climate is described as TEMPERATE or MARITIME.
However, there are noticeable changes as we look at different parts of the

British Isles.
In the WINTER, the west of Britain has milder, damper weather than the rest of
the country. This is because the Prevailing Wind blows from the South West
and crosses a warmer sea area. The Atlantic is made warmer by the presence
of the Gulf Stream which comes across from the Gulf of Mexico.
The west is wetter because the south westerly wind also brings moisture which
rises over the land to form rain clouds. This is helped by the fact that the relief
in the west of Britain is higher than on the eastern side. So the eastern side of
the country is considerably drier (RAINSHADOW EFFECT). The east is also
colder in winter because easterly winds from Europe are blowing from a colder
land mass.
In the SUMMER, the south of Britain is warmer than the north because the
sun is more directly overhead. The influence of the land and sea is not so
greatly felt at this time of the year. However, the south westerly winds still
bring rain in the summer and also slightly cooler conditions to the country
overall.

RAINFALL
In Britain we can expect rain at any time of the year.
Although winter is wetter than the summer, seasonal differences in rainfall are
very small. As the “annual rainfall” map shows however, the amount of rainfall
varies considerably from place to place and the greatest differences are
between the east and the west.
The British Isles in the Winter

The British Isles in the summer
Sun overhead at the Tropic of Cancer
Different types of rainfall and their causes.
 Rain clouds form when moisture is forced to rise.

 As it rises it cools condenses until the humidity reaches 100%. This is
known as DEW POINT.
 It is now that the clouds can drop their moisture as rain, snow or hail.
 There are THREE main ways in which the air containing the moisture
may be forced to rise and these three ways create three different types
of rainfall which we in the UK experience.

 Relief Rainfall
This is the precipitation caused by the cooling of moist air after it has been
forced to rise over mountains. In other words the shape of the land causes the
air to rise.
Clouds form on the windward side (points 1-3) of the mountains where the moisture
has been forced to rise rapidly.
On the sheltered or leeward side (points 5 and 6) of the mountain the air is
descending so it is warming and therefore there is little condensing taking place.
The result of this is that less rain falls on the leeward side. This is known as the RAIN
SHADOW EFFECT.
The maximum amount of rainfall will be at points 3 and 4 as they are the highest
points on the hills/mountains. This will be much of western Britain – Scottish
Highlands, Lake District and Wales.

 Convectional Rainfall
This is the precipitation caused by currents of hot air rising from heated surfaces. In
other words if the air over one part of the earth’s surface becomes much warmer
than the surrounding air a Convection Currents is set up and the warm air rises.
As the warm air rises, it cools, condenses and forms tall cumulus clouds which will
then give rain, which can be heavy. This heavy rainfall may be accompanied by
thunder and lightning.
This type of rain is very common within the Tropics where it is often warm, but in
Britain it is more likely to happen in the summer.
If the temperature above the surface where condensation is happening is below

freezing, small ice crystals form. These may then grow to give us hailstones.

 Frontal Rainfall
This is the precipitation caused by the passage of a warm front in a depression.
At a front, the lighter warm air is forced to rise over the denser cold air. As it rises it
cools, condenses and then it rains. Rainfall is often heavier along the cold front
where the warm air is forced to rise more strongly.
In Britain much of our Frontal Rain comes when warmer air moving north from the
Tropics meets colder air moving south from the Polar Regions.

CLIMATE
You will have already seen the definition of Climate at the start of this module.
Climate is the average weather in a place over a specific period of time.
It is worked out by taking weather measurements over a long period and then
calculating the average. Although the weather in the UK is quite unpredictable
from one day to the next, climate hardly changes from one year to the next.
Climate records are kept by the Met Office and we frequently hear reference
being made to them on the weather forecast. For example.
 It has been the wettest September since 1995

 It has been the hottest summer this century
 We have had more rain this month than we did in the first three months
of last year.
 Climate across the UK

The climate varies all across the UK but it is possible to divide the country into
four climate regions.
Climate in the British Isles can be influenced by different factor:
 Latitude
Places near the Equator are hotter than places nearer to the Poles. This is due
to the curvature of the earth and the angle which this makes with the sun.

At A the suns rays are concentrated around the Equator and so the earth gets
hottest here.
At B because the earth is curved the suns rays are spread out over a larger area
of the earth - so it gets cooler or less hot
At C the curvature of the earth is even greater again and in these areas it rarely
gets warm.
This therefore explains why:
 The UK is always cooler than Egypt

 The north of the UK is usually cooler than the south
 It is very cold at the North and South Poles

 Distance from the sea
The sea (a liquid) changes its temperature far more slowly than the land (a
solid). The reason for this is that water heats up slowly because its molecules
are spaced apart, but it is then able to retain its heat better than the land.
The land changes its temperature far quicker than the sea. The reason for this
is that solids heat up quickly because its molecules are tightly packed but it
then loses heat quickly for the same reason.
In winter places near the sea, particularly in the west will be milder than places
inland to the east. The Irish Sea and North Atlantic lose heat slowly keeping
coastal areas milder. Land to the east (Land mass of Europe) will cool quicker
therefore making inland/eastern places colder.
In summer places near the sea, particularly in the west will be cooler than
places inland to the east. The Irish Sea and North Atlantic are slow to heat up
keeping coastal areas cooler. Land to the east (Land mass of Europe) will heat
up quickly therefore making inland/eastern places hotter.
 Prevailing wind direction
The prevailing wind is the direction from which the wind usually comes. In the
British Isles the prevailing wind is from the South West. Because it is coming
straight off the ocean then the wind contains lots of water vapour, which
means rain.
Prevailing winds will bring:
 Cooler weather if they blow over cool surfaces such as the land in winter
or the sea in summer.
 Warmer weather if they blow over warmer surfaces such as the sea in
winter or the land in summer.
 Wet weather if they blow over sea areas and pick up moisture.
 Dry weather if they blow over land.
Sometimes the wind does come from other directions too. For example when
the wind blows down from the north then we get colder weather and when
the wind blows up from the south the reverse is true – we get hotter weather.

 Ocean currents
Ocean Currents are large flows of warm or cold water through the oceans.
Warm Currents flow from tropical areas (The Tropics) towards the North and
South Poles. The North Atlantic Drift (see later) is an example of an ocean
current which warms the west coast of the UK in winter.
Cold currents have the opposite effect and lower temperatures in coastal
areas.
 Height/Altitude/Relief
Places which are high up in mountains have lower temperatures and more
rainfall than places which are lower down.
Height also tends to increase wind speed because there is less shelter.
Temperatures decrease as we move up at a rate of roughly 1oc for every 150

metres.

MICROCLIMATES
How local features affect our climate
Why?
 On a fine summers day some classrooms feel hotter than others?

 When the sun shines or the wind blows, one side of the classroom is
warmer or colder than the other?
 On a summer’s day, dark, tarmac areas are hotter than grassy areas?
 Wooded areas are cooler than open areas?
 Cities are warmer than the surrounding countryside?
Each particular place or site tends to develop its own special climatic
conditions. When the climate of a small area is different to the general
surroundings it is called a MICROCLIMATE.
The causes of microclimates
There are 5 which you must be able to explain
1) Buildings
2) Aspect
3) Surface
4) Shelter
5) Physical Features
Comparing urban and rural Microclimates
The following factors contribute to creating microclimates in both ‘Urban’ and

‘Rural’ areas:
 Urban – Built up areas (towns and cities)
 Rural – Countryside areas

 Urban Areas
 On average one degree warmer than rural areas in the day.

 On average four degrees warmer than rural areas at night (tarmac
absorbs heat in the day and releases it at night).
 Release of man-made heat from power stations, industry, buildings,
concrete surfaces, humans and transport (pollution).
 Less wind than rural areas. Tall buildings act as wind breaks;
however, funnelling or channelling of wind can create gusts.
 More convectional rainfall due to more hot air rising.
 Rural Areas
 Affected by the shape of the land, south facing slopes are warmer.
 Valley floors are cold at night due to cold air sinking, sometimes this
causes frosts. Goring on a typical frosty winter’s day will be colder at
9am than it will be at the OPS.
 There are often stronger winds as there is little shelter.

The Water cycle (hydrological cycle)

Weathering
To fully understand the process of weathering, and to be able to give it a

definition, we have to be mindful of how it relates to erosion.
Both WEATHERING and EROSION involve the process of wearing down. The
difference with the processes is the way in which the wearing down takes
place.
 Weathering
Definition: The wearing away in one place. What we call “In Situ”.
Example:
A garden shed if untreated will slowly break down because of the elements
(wind, rain, sun etc.). Eventually it will break up and collapse in the same place
as it originally stood.
 Erosion
Definition: The wearing away by a moving force (water, wind and ice). The
material is eroded, then transported and deposited away from the point of
erosion.
Example
 Coastlines
Rivers

Physical Weathering: Freeze-Thaw Weathering
This crack has been made wider by Freeze-thaw weathering
Freeze thaw weathering has split this rock in two
Eventually rocks get broken down to be

loose material like this.

Freeze Thaw Weathering
Frost Shattering
 Water fills the crack in the rock
 The water freezes by approximately 11% and

the crack is made wider. The water then melts
when the temperature rises above 0˚C.
 This process is repeated until the rock

breaks into several pieces.
 The process of freeze thaw weathering will be a lot

quicker in softer rocks such as sandstone than in
harder, more resistant rocks such as granite. It will
also be quicker in areas where Freeze Thaw happens
regularly during the winter months.

Chemical Weathering
This is caused by the action of Water. Ordinary rainwater contains small

amounts of acid, especially these days where pollution in the atmosphere is
absorbed into the rainwater. These pollutants come from things like traffic
fumes and industry.
When this rain comes into contact with certain rocks the acids will attack it and
cause it to crumble away. The results of this can be seen on Buildings, statues
and in church yards where stone gets worn away or pitted.
Sedimentary rocks, such as limestone and chalk are particularly at risk to this
type of weathering.
 Carbonic acid in the rain falling on limestone, turns it into calcium

bicarbonate, which is soluble in water.
 Limestone gravestones and steps and pavements are also vulnerable as
the acid water falls into the cracks and attacks a large surface area.
The situation becomes even more of a problem in warm and wet conditions
where the process is speeded up.
A new headstone before weathering takes effect After a number of years, this is what
happens

Other examples:
Biological Weathering
The process of Biological Weathering is caused by the action of PLANTS and

ANIMALS.
 Animals:
Burrowing animals can break up the rocks eg. Rabbits, badgers and moles. We
have also looked at the impact burrowing animals have on the foundations of
buildings.
 Plants:
Plant seeds can fall into cracks in the rock. This provides the ideal conditions
for a seed to germinate. A germinated seed will grow to become a strong plant
which will grow out through the crack. All strong plants are dependent on a

strong root network which pushes downwards through the rock splitting it
further. The pressure the plant exerts on the crack will force it wider until
eventually the crack will split and the rock will fall to pieces.
Tree roots will also have a similar impact as they often spread well away from
the tree. They too will exert pressure on the cracks as they grow, causing them
to widen. We have looked at the impact of this on paving stones on
pavements, tarmac driveways and on roots which encroach on building
foundations.
The impact of tree roots, weeds, fungus and animals

Biological Weathering
A seed blows into a crack in a rock. The

crack is damp and sheltered. The seed
grows.
The roots grow down into the crack. The

roots get bigger as the plant grows
The tree grows and splits the rock
Animals like moles burrow

underground. They can loosen
rocks as they dig.

Population and Settlement
Density
Population figures are constantly changing.
The map below shows the world population densities (2017)
The map below shows the Population distribution in the UK

Various factors affect population density.
 Climate
Climates which are temperate are ideal for settling.
Places which are extremely hot, cold or dry tend to have lower population densities, for
example the Sahara desert is very hot and dry and therefore very few people live there.
Mountainous areas of the UK, which are wetter, windier and colder than the rest of the UK,
have comparably lower population densities than the places with more favourable climates.
 Relief of the land
Places which are flat or have gentle relief are best for settling because this usually provides
a temperate climate and is easier for the construction of infrastructure. Therefore the
Himalayas has a low population density.
Mountainous areas of the UK, such as the Grampians or Snowdonia, have lower population
densities than flatter areas such as the southeast of England.
 Fertility of soil
Areas where soil is fertile provide for productive agriculture. Therefore population densities
are greater in these areas.
Fertile areas include land with rivers and at the base of volcanoes.
Bangladesh, on the Ganges floodplain, has a high population density.
East Anglia, with its fertile boulder clay soil, has a reasonably high population density.
 Availability of natural resources
Countries or areas which are rich in resources such as oil, coal and precious minerals are
likely to have high population densities.
 Perceived likelihood of natural disaster
Countries which are away from tectonic plate boundaries and are less likely to experience
other natural disasters such as hurricanes and floods are likely to be more densely
populated. For example the UK is not likely to experience sever tectonic disasters or
hurricanes and this is one reason why it has a high population density.
 Stability of government

Countries with unstable governments often experience high levels of emigration. Foe
example, the Central African Republic has experienced many coups and has a low
population density.
Job opportunities
Areas with many job opportunities are likely to have high population densities. For example
the southeast of the UK has a much higher population density than the rest of the UK, and
this is partly due to the fact that London provides a multitude of jobs and high paid jobs.
Population terminology
 The birth rate is the number of births per thousand of the population per year.
 The Death rate is the number of deaths per thousand of the population per year.
 The rate of natural increase is the difference between the birth and death rates
(RNI = birth rate – death rate)
Causes of the UK’s increase in population since 1945
The UK’s population rose by over 10 million between 1945 and 2000. It is expected to grow
by 6.1 million to 65.7 million by 2031 and then reach a peak at 67 million by 2051.
 Death rate and birth rate
Death rate has been low in the 20th century due to great improvements in medical care and
nutrition. Currently in the UK, it is about nine (deaths on average per 1000 people each
year). Birth rate has reduced considerably. This has been due to:
o The increasing ease of access to contraception

o Agriculture becoming mechanised so fewer children are required to work the
land.
o Infant mortality rates lowering
o The desire for material possessions taking over from the desire for large
families
o Equality of women meaning that many have pursued careers rather than
staying at home.
However, birth rate in the UK is higher than many countries in the rest of Europe; currently
it is about 12 (births per 1000 people each year)
With a birth rate of twelve and a death rate of 9, the current rate of natural increase is three
in the UK (difference between birth rate and death rate)

 Immigration
There has been a considerable amount of immigration into the UK. This has increased the
population considerably.
o Many people living in former colonies of the British Empire such as in India,
Bangladesh, Pakistan, the Caribbean, South Africa, Kenya and Hong Kong have
arrived in the UK.
o Many others have come as asylum seekers seeking protection as refugees from war
torn countries such as Afghanistan, Sudan, Iran and Zimbabwe.
o There has been much immigration from countries within the EU. In 2004, Poland and
seven other Eastern European countries joined the EU and this led to much
immigration to the UK.
o In 2005, about 565 000 migrants arrived in the UK and only 380 000 people left the
UK to live abroad. 57 000 of these immigrants were from Poland.
Functions of a settlement
A settlement is a place where people live.
The functions of a settlement are the things that happen there. A settlement may have
more than one function and these may change overtime.
As well as a residential function, meaning that people live there, a settlement may have a
number of other functions:
 An industrial function means that factories are located there. These now tend to be
in out-of-town locations in the outer suburbs.
 A commercial function means that shopping facilities are located there. This may
take the form of shopping centres, cinema, leisure centres, etc.
 A service function may include schools, hospitals, libraries etc.
 A tourism function will be a particular kind, depending on the type of settlement.
 An administrative function means that local government has offices there from
which it runs public services.
Reasons for the site or situation of a settlement
The site of a settlement is its exact physical location.
The situation of a settlement is its setting in relation to surrounding features. Most

settlements grew up in ancient times, before motorways and tourism. Early settlers would
have considered the following factors:
 Relief: settlers would choose an area that was high enough to be safe from flooding
but low enough to be sheltered from winds.

 Transport: settlers would choose a site near the fording or bridging point of a river,
at a crossroads (originally tracks rather than roads) or near the coast as this made
travel more easy.
 Soil: settlers would choose areas with deeper and more fertile soil as this is better
for agriculture.
 Water supply: settlers would choose a site near a river, spring or well as they needed
water for cooking, cleaning and drinking.
 Wood: settlers would choose to settle near woodland as they used wood for building
and fuel.
 Defence: settlers would choose hilltops, marshes and meanders bends as these sites
were easier to defend.
Settlement hierarchy
Settlements can be ranked in order – a hierarchy. The order within the hierarchy is decided
by population, area, and a range and number of services. The larger the settlement, the
more services it will have.
More services, greater importance

and a larger population Greater number of settlements
Megacity
City
Town
Village
Hamlet
Isolated house
Settlement Services Approximate population

Hamlet Perhaps none Less than 100
Village Church, public house, convenience shop 100-2500 people
(although many are disappearing), primary school
Town Several shops, churches, secondary school, 2500 – 100 000 people
dentist, bank, small hospital (although fewer and
fewer exist in towns)
City Cathedral, large railway station, large shopping More than 100 000 people
centre, large hospital, specialist shops, museum
Megacity Cathedral, large railway station, large shopping More than 10 million
centre, large hospital, specialist shops, museum

Settlement patterns
Settlements develop in a pattern. The main settlement patterns are:
 Linear
 Dispersed
 Nucleated
 Planned
Many settlements contain a mixture of these shapes.
Linear settlements (also know as ribbon settlements) developed as houses were built along
transport routes. As transport improved in Britain in the 1920s, people could drive further
from work, and urban sprawl occurred together with linear settlements along new transport
routes. Green belts (where planning permission is limited) were introduced to control urban
sprawl.
Reasons why some settlements grow and others do not
Some settlements grow bigger than others for the following reasons:
 Lack of competition – there are no other big settlements nearby.

 Villages or small towns that are near cities may grow bigger as commuters come to
live in them. This is called suburbanisation.
 If a new industry locates in a settlement, it will create jobs, which will encourage
people to migrate to this place. On the other hand, a lack of job opportunities will

encourage people to leave; for example, in rural areas there are now fewer jobs
available in agriculture or mining.
 Accessibility and flat land encourage growth whereas marshy or steep land can
inhibit the growth of a settlement.
Transport and Industry
Advantages and disadvantages of different modes of transport
Modes of transport advantages disadvantages

Car / road Convenient Carbon dioxide released
Short journey time unless in Cost
congestion Danger to self and others
Noise
Destruction of environment to create
roads
Foot Healthy Longer journey time
Free Uncomfortable if very hot or cold
Only option in many
developing countries
Bus / road Less carbon monoxide Cannot go at exact time of choice
released per person than car Can suffer from congestion
Can use bus lanes
Cheaper than using a car
Boat / sea Can carry heavy freight a Takes longer than air travel
long distance cheaply
Plane / air Quick Expensive for people and freight
Safer than road and rail Carbon dioxide released
Good for transporting light, Noisy for people who live on flight
valuable freight long path
distances Have to use another mode of transport
to get to airport and to destination
Bicycle Healthy Danger, reduced by use of cycle lanes
cheap Cannot carry freight
Lorry / road Most efficient for carrying Carbon dioxide released
freight short distances to noisy
specific points; most freight
is transported this way in the
UK
rail Can carry freight middle to Can be expensive for passengers
long distances reasonably Have to use another mode of transport
cheaply to get to exact destination
Destruction of natural habitats to
create railway tracks
Vibrations of trains can disturb
foundations of buildings
noise

Value of transport routes
People need to get to work (commute) and children need to go to school using
transport infrastructure.
People who live in rural areas need to access urban areas for shops and services.
People use transport for leisure / tourism and for socialising.
Industry needs transport for accessing raw materials, for getting the finished
products to the market and for labour to get to work.
Quality of life is improved for people who have good access to transport
infrastructure and it also brings an increase in the value of property.
Employment structure
The employment structure of a country s determined by the percentage of the

workforce employed in each of the four types of activity.
 Primary industry, which extracts raw materials from the earth or sea, and
employs, for example, farmers, miners, fishermen and forestry workers.
 Secondary industry, or manufacturing industry, which makes raw materials
into goods, and employs, for example, bakers and car-factory workers.
 Tertiary industry, or service industry, which sells goods or provides a service,
and employs, for example, doctors, lawyers and bankers.
 Quaternary industry, or knowledge –based industry, such as research and
development into high-tech goods, which employs, for example, research
scientists.
Employment structure in developed and developing countries
A developing country has a different employment structure to that of a developed

country. In a developing country, many more people work in primary activities, as
subsistence farmers, or in mining or fishing. In a developed country, less people
work in primary activities as mechanisation has meant that less workers are required
in the agricultural and mining industries. Also, much food is imported into developed
countries.
Secondary industry has increased in developing countries over the last 50 years as
companies have taken advantage of the cheaper labour in developing countries to
decrease their costs and increase their profits.
In developed countries, many people work in tertiary activities as the population has
disposable income to spend on leisure and services, and in shops. More taxes are
collected by the government in developed countries, which means that more
doctors, nurses, teachers and so on can be employed.
There are more people employed in quaternary industries in a developed country as
more money is available for research and development.

Location of an industry
During the last century in the UK, traditional heavy industries, such as iron and steel,
were located next to coalfields (for power supply), raw materials and railways. But
industries in the UK today are generally high-tech and tend to be far less tied with
regard to their location. However, company owners still have to consider the
following when deciding where to locate:
 Labour force (where the workers live)
 Relief (whether the land is suitable for building on)
 Space (whether there is space available to build on)
 Market (where the people or firms that make up the market are located)
 Leisure facilities (whether facilities such as golf courses or health spas are
nearby)
 Government grants (whether the government is offering money to locate in a
certain area)
 Transport (proximity to motorways, railways and airports)
How economic activities can affect the environment
The environment is made up of:

 Landscape
 Atmosphere of an area
 Plants and animals that make that area their home (habitat)
Economic activities that can affect the environment:
 Agriculture: Use of pesticides can kill certain insects and fertilisers going into
rivers can cause eutrophication (excessive growth of plant life) Habitats may
be destroyed when land is cleared for cultivation. Some agricultural buildings
cause visual pollution. Intensive animal rearing can cause bad smells in the
area and noise pollution, and can be seen as cruel to the animals themselves.
 Tourism: Tourists can drop litter and cause footpath erosion. Tourist traffic
releases carbon dioxide and some hotels cause visual pollution. Livestock can
be scared by tourists’ dogs.
 Mining: visual pollution can be caused by mine sand / or the waste material
that is piled up near them. Quarries can cause dust and noise pollution.
Habitats are destroyed to create quarries.
 Manufacturing: Noise pollution can occur and factories can cause visual
pollution. Carbon dioxide is released by most manufacturing industry.
 Forestry: The natural environment is altered by the removal of natural
vegetation and non-native trees being planted. Noise pollution can occur
when trees are felled.

Sustainable economic development
The environment has been and continues to be damaged by human behaviour. Stewardship
means looking after (or managing) resources in a sustainable way so that they exist for
future generations.
It is therefore our responsibility to protect the environment for future generations by

practising sustainable development or conservation. This means using resources or area of
land in such a way that they will not run out or be damaged for future generations. For
example:
 Sustainable fishing would involve only catching breeds that are plentiful
 Sustainable mining would include screening the quarry with trees, filling in the
quarry and replanting when the work was finished or filling in the quarry with water
to make a reservoir which would create new habitats.
 Sustainable forestry would include planting as many trees as were cut down.
 Sustainable agriculture would include encouraging wildlife by planting strips of wild
flowers around fields, replanting hedgerows and not using pesticides or chemical
fertilisers.
 Developing a school in a sustainable way would mean encouraging children to walk
to school if possible, turning lights and computers off when not in use and making
sure recycling was taking place.
 A sustainable factory would minimise the amount of carbon dioxide used by using
renewable energy.
 Sustainable tourism would allow tourists to visit a place to boost the economy
without causing any damage to the environment. Management techniques such as
those shown in the table below could be used to make tourism sustainable.
Technique Why is it needed Effect on place Effect on people

No rubbish To stop littering near Area is litter free or They take litter
bins bins more litter is dropped home and drop litter
Car parking To stop people Less vegetation They are encouraged
areas parking anywhere damage and soil to use the car park
erosion elsewhere
but car park could be
classed as visual
pollution
Logs at side of To stop car park Less vegetation They park within the
car park becoming larger damage and soil bays
erosion
Screening of To ensure that car The area looks They are attracted to
car park with park does not cause attractive the area as it looks
trees visual pollution beautiful
Footpaths To stop vegetation Vegetation trampling They are encouraged
trampling and soil and soil erosion is to use paths
erosion on other limited to certain
locations areas

Honey pot To minimise Honey pot sites suffer They are encouraged
sites environmental from negative to visit the honey
damage at other environmental effects pot sites
locations
but other areas
benefit
Visitor centres To educate visitors The environment They understand the

suffers less from environment and
human activity as conservation
people learn about
the area but there are
negative effects as it
creates a honey pot
sites
Globalisation
Globalisation is the process by which companies become more distributed and

ideas and lifestyles are increasingly spread and adopted around the world.
Globalisation affects what we:
 eat (for example, we eat Indian or Mexican food)
 wear (for example, people all around the world wear Nike trainers)
 watch on TV (for example, we watch shows made in the USA, such as the
Simpsons.)
Globalisation has been aided by improvements in transport, communications
and technology, which have meant that proximity to raw materials, energy
supply and market as no longer as important for the location of a business.
Goods can now be transported easily, energy supplies are available all over the
world and markets have become global. Low labour costs have therefore
become the most important factor affecting the location of a company.
Globalisation has led to the development of and also been driven by
transnational corporations (TNCs) - also known as multinational corporations
(MNCs) – which are companies with branches in many countries.

Volcanoes and Earthquakes
Natural Disasters
A lot of the geography which we look at and hear about in the news is the results of
‘NATURAL DISASTERS’.
A ‘Natural Disaster’ is basically described as a freak of nature. It is going to happen or it has

happened and there is nothing we as humans can do to change that. We cannot stop it but
we can try and limit the damage or soften the impact in some way.
Examples of natural disasters include:
 Volcanoes
 Earthquakes
 Flooding
 Storms
In Britain we are fortunate that earthquakes and volcanoes are rare and usually very minor.
Britain is more likely to be affected by the other two in the list - flooding and storms. The big
difference being that what we are used to rarely kills a lot of people. Where volcanoes and
earthquakes are common the death rate is invariably high with each event.
It is not so much the power of the earthquake or volcano that kills it is the number of people
living in the area. What we call the population density.
Example : In San Francisco in the USA in 1989 there was a very powerful earthquake. Sixty
seven people died and over three thousand were injured.
Compare this to :
An Indian earthquake in 1993 which was much less powerful than the one in San Francisco
yet 20,000 people died and hundreds of thousands were injured. Close to where the
earthquake happened a third of the population of one town died.
Watching disasters
With the wide range of media now at our fingertips (TV, internet, radio and newspapers) we
have no excuse of not knowing what is going on in the world. Depending on the scale of
disaster and its relevance to us in the United Kingdom coverage can vary but there will
always be something to report. The above mentioned earthquake in India did not make the
front page news in our newspapers but the South East Asian Tsunami in 2004 made the
headlines and front pages for at least a week.

The location of volcanoes and earthquakes
Some of the common things said by children when they study volcanoes and earthquakes
have included the following:
 I think that earthquakes and volcanoes only happen in hot places. The heat cracks
the ground
 They only happen in poor countries as the people there do not have the technology
to prevent them
 I think that they will only happen on large continents. Britain is an island, and we
don’t get earthquakes and volcanoes
 I think that we can get earthquakes and volcanoes everywhere and anywhere – its
just a question of luck

Hopefully by the end of this topic you will see why these comments were made but more
importantly you will agree that with subject knowledge each statement is in fact untrue.
When you look at the three maps which you have completed:
 ‘Global distribution of earthquakes’

 ‘Global distribution of volcanoes’ and
 ‘The worlds major plate boundaries’
You will see that there is a pattern which emerges.

 Earthquakes and volcanoes don’t just happen anywhere. They tend to occur along
lines, which we call BELTS.
 They often occur together areas which we call ZONES OF ACTIVITY
 They occur in the oceans as well as on the land
 The two most important belts are the one which circles the Pacific Ocean – PACIFIC
RING OF FIRE and the one which comes down the middle of the Atlantic Ocean –
MID ATLANTIC RIDGE.

It has taken scientists many years to try and work out why this is the case and they came to
the conclusion that:
 The earth’s surface is cracked into pieces like an eggshell. We call these pieces
PLATES
 The plates are constantly moving
 The plates are named and can either be land (continental) or sea (oceanic)
 These movements cause earthquakes and volcanoes to occur along the cracks
To understand why the earth’s surface is split into plates and why they move and why we
get earthquakes and volcanoes as a result of this, we must look at the ‘structure of the
earth’.

The World’s Major plate boundaries
KEY
______ Plate Boundary

KEY
Direction of mov
______ Plate Boundary
ing plate
Direction of
moving plate

The Structure of the Earth
The earth is believed to have formed 4,600 million years ago. Since then it has been slowly cooling
down. We know this for sure as around the outside a CRUST has formed, which is a layer of solid
rock. The process which has caused this is similar to that which causes skin to form on top of a bowl
of custard as it cools.
Compared to the rest of the earth the crust is very thin and has split into separate pieces known as
PLATES. We know that some of these plates are as large as continents whilst others are much
smaller. What will always stay the same, however, is that where they meet each other, we call it a
PLATE BOUNDARY and this is where earthquakes and volcanoes happen.
There are two types of crust. The OCEANIC crust is a thin layer that covers the earth’s surface and
forms the ocean bed. The CONTINENTAL crust sits on top of it and forms the continents. It is
important that we accept that there are three main differences between the plates.
OCEANIC CONTINENTAL
Heavier / denser Lighter
Sinks Floats
Continually renewed and Permanent

destroyed
Rock type - granite
Rock type – basalt
The layer beneath the crust is called the MANTLE. The plates float like rafts on top of the mantle,
where the rock is so hot that it is molten (like treacle). Heat from the solid CORE (approximately
5500oc) rises through the mantle creating CONVECTION CURRENTS which cause the plates above
them to move very slowly – usually no more than a few centimetres each year. The plates can either:
move apart, collide or slide past each other.

The structure of the Earth
Plate movements
Activity at plate boundaries
Over a long period of the earth’s history we know that plates have been moving apart at a very slow
rate (as little as 1 or 2 cm per year).
 The movement of the continents is called CONTINENTAL DRIFT and

 The movement of the ocean floor is called SEA FLOOR SPREADING.

At plate boundaries the plates can do one of three things:
 They can move towards each other

 They can move away from each other or
 They can slip past each other.
Destructive plate boundaries

A destructive plate boundary is when oceanic crust moves towards continental crust. As the oceanic
crust is heavier it is forced downwards. The point at which it is forced down is called the
SUBDUCTION ZONE. As it is forced down pressure increases, which can trigger extremely violent
earthquakes. At the same time the heat produced by friction from the rocks rubbing against each
other turns the sinking crust back into a liquid rock called magma. The hot magma tries to rise to the
surface and when it does so there will be a volcanic eruption.

Constructive plate boundaries
Constructive plate margin
A constructive plate boundary is when two plates move apart e.g The North American Plate
moving away from the Eurasian Plate. When this happens a gap appears between the two
plates. Lava deep within the earth will see this as a weak spot/exit point and pressure will
be released through it. Lava will rise through this gap. How quickly it does this will depend
on the pressure which is forcing it out. What will always happen however, is that when the
lava makes contact with sea water on the bed of the ocean it will quickly cool and harden. In
this process the lava creates new oceanic crust and forms the MID-ATLANTIC RIDGE.
If we were able to drain the water from the Atlantic we would be able to see that running
right down the middle would be a range of mountains. It is this range of mountains that we
call the Mid Atlantic Ridge. Iceland forms one of the islands along this ridge.

Conservative plate boundaries
 The two plates move in opposite directions

 The plates become locked together and movement is restricted
 Pressure builds up until the plates suddenly give way
 The amount of pressure released will dictate the size of earthquake
 Sometimes smaller slips can give small quakes which lead up to a big one
 Other times an earthquake can be followed by others which can be equally as
powerful or smaller. We call these AFTERSHOCKS.

The different parts of a volcano
Predicting and preparing for Volcanoes

There are a number of measures a country can take to PREDICT volcanic activity and
eruptions, and many steps can be taken to prepare for them. We must remember however,
that they are natural events and therefore unpredictable in what they bring. Because of this,
however well prepared a country may think they are they may still be caught out. What we
can be sure of though is that whatever measures are adopted, they require a great deal of
money and organisation. It is these two factors which make it easier to enforce in wealthier
countries and more of a challenge in poorer, less developed countries. It would be true to
say that the population of poorer countries in volcanic areas can rightly feel the most
vulnerable.

Methods of predicting
Predicting a volcanic eruption is made easier by the fact that the volcano may well give
some clues that there is going to be some action about to be unleashed.
 A volcano will begin to change shape as the magma rises within it. At times we can
see this with our eyes but it is more accurately measured with satellite imaging. Tilt
metres are also used for the same purpose.
 Scientists can place sensing equipment on, or around the volcano to measure the
level of sulphur dioxide and carbon dioxide being released by the volcano. The
greater the level of gas the greater the likelihood of an eruption.
 Seismometers can be placed on the slopes of the volcano. Before an eruption it may
well be that a series of earthquakes will occur which the seismometer will register.
The better the information about the likelihood of an eruption the better as local people can
then be evacuated. Using a combination of the above methods has allowed scientists to
successfully predict eruptions, particularly in developed countries where the appropriate
scientific equipment is available. In developing countries, money is not always available for
such equipment.
Despite huge strides in science it is still not easy to predict exactly when, and how severe a
volcanic eruption will be. There are however, several measures which can be taken to
prepare for such an eventuality.
Ways to Prepare
 Authorities can evacuate local residence based on scientific prediction and
knowledge of how far lava flows have reached in past eruptions. This may be
recorded on a hazard map.
 Many settlements on the sides of volcanoes have trenches built above them which
will divert the lava flows either side of the settlement.
 During an eruption water can be sprayed on slow-moving lava to cool it down to

slow its progress, especially if it is heading for a settlement. In a similar way lava
flows can be bombed in order to divert the flow. This method has been done by the
Italian airforce on Mount Etna.

Why people still live in or near volcanoes and earthquakes zones
Despite the dangers of living near a volcano, people continue to live in these areas for a
number of reasons:
 They cannot afford to move or live anywhere else. This is particularly the case with
people in developing countries.
 They have always lived there and that is where they want to stay. Family members
are there and family bonds are difficult to break.

 People believe it will never happen to them. They have not experienced a volcanic
eruption or an earthquake in their life time so what’s to say it can’t stay that way?
 The enticement of a good job with a big salary might force individuals to take the risk
and move to a danger zone. For example, a banker in London might be asked to go
and do a similar job in Tokyo or Los Angeles for a set period of time. The money is
too good to turn down yet both places are known earthquake/volcanic areas.
Why people specifically continue to live near volcanoes
 Interest in volcanoes generates tourism and therefore boosts the local economy.
 Geothermal energy can be produced from the rising steam, for example in Iceland
and New Zealand people heat their houses and run industry using this method.
 Fertile soil is produced by the weathering of volcanic ash. The soil is particularly good
for grapevines. This is the reason why Sicily is such a good wine producing region.
 Minerals such as gold and diamonds can be found in the area.

The location of the South East Asia Tsunami
on a world scale
The location of the South East Asia Tsunami and its

impact on the surrounding countries

Predicting and preparing for Earthquakes
There are a number of measures a country can take to PREDICT earthquakes, and many
steps can be taken to prepare for them. We must remember however, that they are
natural events and therefore unpredictable in what they bring. Because of this,
however well prepared a country may think they are they may still be caught out. What
we can be sure of though is that whatever measures are adopted, they require a great
deal of money and organisation. It is these two factors which make it easier to enforce
in wealthier countries and more of a challenge in poorer, less developed countries. It
would be true to say that the population of poorer countries in ‘danger zones’ can
rightly feel the most vulnerable.

Methods of predicting
Predicting earthquakes remains extremely difficult. ‘Where’ and ‘When’ remain key
questions even though we know that they will be triggered somewhere along plate
boundaries. The following methods will help to assist making predictions.
Regular, small earthquakes often occur along conservative plate boundaries as the plates
slide past each other causing friction and a build-up of stress which periodically gets
released. If these small earthquakes stop it may well be a sign that the plates are locked.
Another sudden movement may unlock the plates and a larger earthquake may be felt. In
the hours and minutes before a large earthquake, smaller earthquakes called ‘foreshocks’
may be felt, indicating that a big one is on its way. These shock waves are measured using a
seismometer.
Scientists have noticed a gas called Radon is often released in the hours before an
earthquake. Monitoring for this gas along a fault line may help to predict the location of an
impending earthquake.
Certain animals are very sensitive to movement within the ground and can feel and react to
foreshocks that humans cannot feel. It took over an hour for the Tsunami wave to hit the
coast of Thailand, but local elephants had already broken free of their chains and headed to
higher ground as they felt the earthquake.
Preparing
In developing countries earthquakes that strike densely populated areas can kill thousands
of people. Buildings in these countries are often built quickly and without following proper
building regulations. The result is that they often fall in on themselves. We call this
pancaking.
Developed countries in contrast can better afford to protect their buildings and to limit the
damage and threat to life.
A building made of brick, stone or concrete is not particularly flexible, but if it is encased in a
steel frame or shell it is able to twist and bend during an earthquake (cross bracing).
In developing countries wood is often used to construct buildings. This is good in the fact
that they are flexible and less likely to collapse but problematic in the fact that they can
quickly catch fire and spread. Where the emergency services are not particularly efficient
this is devastating. In developed countries buildings are often equipped with sprinkler
systems which deal with fires before they get a chance to spread.

To enable building to absorb much of the power of the shock waves they can be built on
rubber foundations. These allow the building to move with the quake instead of collapsing.
A building can be protected by installing a counterweight on the top floor. This ensures the
building stays stable even when the ground is shaking. Counterweights are expensive to
install and are therefore only used in developed countries in buildings such as office block
which are often covered in glass. Reinforced glass will obviously have to be used as well in
order to deduce death and damage.
Earthquake drills can be practised in schools and offices (like our school fire drills)
Computers can cut off gas supplies as soon as an earthquake breaks, to minimise fires.
Tsunami walls and shelters can be built in areas prone to this kind of threat.
Families can keep survival kits in their homes.
Factors determining the severity of damage

A number of factors determine the severity of damage caused by an earthquake or volcano:
The type of plate boundary. A destructive (oceanic v continental) boundary causes the most violent
volcanoes.
The proximity of a volcano or an earthquake’s epicentre to a large settlement. Those

situated near large cities where population is dense cause more deaths than those in less
populated areas.
The proximity of the earthquake’s focus to the earth’s surface. The closer the focus the
more powerful the earthquake.
The wealth of the country in which it happens. A developed country can afford scientific
prediction instruments, buildings that are designed to withstand earthquakes, a quick
reaction force and good medical care for the injured.
The time of day when the volcano or more particularly the earthquake strikes. If it strikes
when people are in bed or congregated in one area, for example, at rush hour, its results
can be more devastating.

Comparing an earthquake or volcano in a developing country with one in a
developed country
The death and injury levels will be greater in a developing country as the hospitals and
emergency services are less efficient.
The cost of repair may be greater in a developed country as the infrastructure is more
developed.
More death and destruction may occur around volcanoes in a developing country as many
subsistence farmers will farm close to the volcanic cone in order to benefit from the fertile
soil.
The amount of aid received is probably going to be greater in a developing country as the
population’s needs are greater.
Greater scientific monitoring and data gathering will occur in developed countries.
Therefore prediction will be more accurate in developed countries, although predicting an
earthquake is very difficult.
Emergency action plans are less likely to be prepared or practised in developing countries.
A good emergency plan has three stages.
PREDICT – PLAN – TAKE ACTION.
Secondary effects may be worse in a developing country, as the level of poverty means that
disease is more likely to spread.

Rivers and Coasts
Rivers, ‘From Source to Sea’

The main features of a river basin
A DRAINAGE or RIVER BASIN is an area of land drained by a river. The higher land which
forms the boundary of the river basin, and which separates two river basins, is called the
WATERSHED.
Most rain falls in mountainous areas. Rain falling on higher land near the watershed collect
in small pools called SOURCES, and from here the water will flow quickly downhill either
through the topsoil or it will cut a CHANNEL for itself. This channel is called a TRIBUTARY
and as it continues its journey it will increase in size. The reason for this is that the stream
will join up with other streams. The point at which they meet is called a CONFLUENCE.
As the journey continues so the stream will become bigger and so it becomes an established
river. The river will then continue its journey to the sea. The point of entry into the sea is
called the MOUTH.
From its beginnings at the source to the end of its life at the mouth the river will change, not
only its own character but also that of the land which it flows across. It will do this by three
processes:
 Erosion
 Transportation and
 Deposition

The Three Stages of a river’s journey
All rivers are trying to get the smoothest possible profile from source to mouth. However,
most rivers find it impossible to reach this smooth profile because of the differences in the
resistance (hardness) of the rocks over which they pass.
By looking at each stage we can see how and why the river changes itself and the shape of
its valley at the different stages along its course. The rivers course may be divided into
THREE main stages.

 Upper Stage
The Upper Stage is high up in the mountains

The valley is V-SHAPED. This means it has steep sides.
EROSION and TRANSPORTATION are happening a lot because of the fast flowing water.
DEPOSITION does not have an opportunity yet.
Erosion is cutting downwards. We say it’s eroding VERTICALLY.
The water is shallow but fast flowing.
The river is narrow
There is a lot of friction between the surface of water and the river bed which causes
lots of white water / RAPIDS.
The river winds its way around hard bits of rock called INTERLOCKING SPURS.
WATERFALLS and GORGES are common features in the upper stage.
 Middle Stage
The river is slowing down.

The valley is much wider and flatter. We say the valley is U-SHAPED.
The river is much deeper and wider as more tributaries have joined by this stage.
Being flat the valley floor also acts as a FLOOD PLAIN
MEANDERS are a common feature in the middle stage.
EROSION and TRANSPORTATION is common. The DEPOSITION of larger material also
starts happening.
LATERAL EROSION replaces vertical erosion. The river is pushing out sideways not
downwards. This is why the river meanders across the flood plain.
 Lower Stage
The river is now very slow moving.

The river is very wide. At this stage the river contains all the water from the drainage
basin
There are no valley sides. The valley is saucer shaped. Each side of the river there is a
wide FLOOD PLAIN.
There is little EROSION.
TRANSPORTATION of only light material eg. sand and silt
Lots of DEPOSITION due to the lack of energy in the river.
Due to large quantities of deposition the river may get choked. If this happens the river
spreads out to form many channels – see later.
 When the river floods onto the open land each side of the river a layer of ALLUVIUM
gets deposited by the river. This looks like mud but in fact it makes the land fertile
and excellent for farming.

River Valley Long Profile
The long profile of a river is a cross section from its source to its mouth. Along its profile
the river travels through the upper, middle and lower stages.
The river gradient decreases gradually downstream. It is steep in the upper stage, gentle
in the middle stage and very gentle in the lower stage.
Waves
When we are looking at erosion, transportation and deposition at work in coastal areas we
firstly have to understand what the main tool is that causes these processes.
Waves are instrumental in shaping the coastline and in turn make coastal areas exciting yet
dangerous places to be. The coast is important to us in the United Kingdom as we are
surrounded by 8000km of coastline, none of which is ever far away from us.

What causes waves?
Waves are formed by the WIND dragging on the surface of the water. The area of water,
which the wind blows over, can vary but it is always called the FETCH.
When waves reach the coast

 Out at sea waves role along. In strong winds they can be as much as 40 metres high. In
lighter winds they may appear like ripples on a glass like surface.
 Once the waves reaches the coastline they will break, usually in shallow water. Water
then rushes up the beach. We call this the SWASH.
 Once the wave loses momentum it rolls back to the sea. We call this the BACKWASH.
If the backwash has more energy than the swash the waves eat away at the land – pebbles
and sand are dragged back into the sea.
BUT
If the swash has more energy than the backwash, material is carried on to the land and is
left there.

Waves at work
Waves have energy. That means that they can work. They work non-stop, night and day,
shaping the coastline.
What do waves do?

Waves do exactly the same as rivers
They ERODE the coast
They TRANSPORT the eroded material
They DEPOSIT their load in sheltered areas where energy is lost
What causes waves?

How rivers and seas shape the land?
Rivers and Seas work very hard and continually erode and move material. They are a major
force in shaping and altering the land. What happens is that the water pushes along
boulders, stones and rock particles. As it does this so the loose material scrapes the river
bed and banks or the coastline and loosens other material. We call this EROSION. Much of
what is worn away is then TRANSPORTED by the river or waves in the sea and put down
somewhere else. In this way both rivers and seas change the landscape. Rivers by wearing
out and deepening valleys and seas by battering against coastlines. They can also change
their shape by DEPOSITING material.
There are FOUR main processes by which rivers and seas can cause erosion and FOUR
processes by which they transport material.
Erosion
Processes of river erosion

1) ATTRITION
Material is moved along the bed of a river, collides with other material, and breaks up into
smaller pieces.
2) CORRASION/ABRASION
Fine material rubs against the river bank. The bank is worn away by a sand papering action
called abrasion, and collapses.
3) CORROSION
Rocks forming the banks and bed of a river are dissolved by acids in the water.
4) HYDROLIC ACTION
The sheer force of water hitting the banks of the river.

The processes of wave erosion are identical to river erosion.
Processess of wave erosion
1. ATTRITION – chunks of rock knock into each other and wear themselves down into
smaller bits. They end up as shingle / pebbles and sand.
2. CORRASION / ABRASION – sandpapering action caused by the waves throwing sand,

pebbles and stones against the rock.
3.CORROSION – the water is dissolving soluble material from the rock.
4.HYDROLIC ACTION – under pressure water is forced into cracks in the rock. Over time this
eventually breaks the rock down.
The weaker rocks such as clay are eroded quicker than stronger rocks such as granite or
limestone.
The more energy rivers or waves have, and the softer the rock, the faster erosion will be.
Most erosion occurs when a river is in flood or the sea is experiencing stormy conditions. It
can then carry huge amounts of material in suspension as well as being able to move the
largest of boulders lying on its bed.
As a result of erosion a number of different landforms are produced. We are going to look at
:
 Waterfalls and Meanders (Rivers) and

 Notches, Caves, Arches, Stacks and Stumps on a headland (coasts).
Waterfalls
Waterfalls are common features of a rivers upper stage. A waterfall is caused when there is
a difference in the height of the land over which a river flows. There are many reasons why
there is a height difference but one of the most common causes of waterfalls is a river
flowing over rock types of different resistance (strength).

Waterfalls are best understood if we look at their formation in stages.
Stages 1, 2 and 3
The land over which the river flows is a complex mixture of different rock types. We have
already seen when we looked at weathering that softer rocks such as sandstone are going to be
worn away much quicker than harder more resistant rocks such as granite.
When a river flows through the upper stage it has lots of energy to erode vertically downwards.
When it flows over an area where soft and hard rock meet common sense tells us that the
softer rock is going to be eroded much quicker. Due to different speeds of erosion a smaller
step will develop and in time this will further develop into a larger step. In front of the step
RAPIDS quite often can be seen and these will cause the water to froth. We call this white
water. Eventually the step will become significantly big enough for the water to fall onto the
lower level of softer rock.
Stage 4
The flow of water falling onto the lower level of softer rock will scrape out a bowl called a
PLUNGE POOL. Hydraulic action is the main force of erosion at work here, but sometimes if the
flowing water has lots of material being carried in it we will also see corrasion.
Stage 5
The bigger the step becomes, the bigger the drop the water has to fall so more spray will be
created when it hits the plunge pool beneath. The spray will hit the softer rock at the back of
the waterfall and this will lead to its break down by chemical weathering.

Stage 6
As the back wall moves back due to chemical weathering the layer of harder rock sitting above
it will overhang the waterfall. The more the softer rock moves back the more the hard rock will
stick out. In time, gravity will mean that the overhanging rock will collapse and fall into the
plunge pool.
Stage 7
After the overhanging rock has collapsed the river water will then fall slightly nearer to the
source and cause the whole waterfall to retreat upstream, leaving behind it a very steep sided
valley called a GORGE.
Meanders
Ideally a river would like to flow from source to sea in a straight line. This however, is not
possible as a river is forced to turn. We call a turn in a river a MEANDER.
Meanders will start to form when an obstacle blocks its path/course. This obstacle is usually
hard rock.
Once the river starts to turn LATERAL EROSION will make the bend get larger. The outside
bend will be forced outwards because of erosion and the inside will build up with deposition
and follow it.

Outside Bend
As a river goes around a bend most of the water is pushed towards the outside causing
increased erosion. The bank becomes very steep and may even be undercut. Water is faster
and so lateral erosion takes place. The river here is deeper and RIVER CLIFFS may be seen.
Inside Bend
On the inside of the bend, in contrast, there is much less water. The river will therefore be
shallow and slow flowing. It cannot carry as much material and so sand and shingle will be
deposited. The deposited material collects at the bottom of the SLIP-OFF-SLOPE.

Inside Bend
On the inside of the bend, in contrast, there is much less water. The river will therefore be
shallow and slow flowing. It cannot carry as much material and so sand and shingle will be
deposited. The deposited material collects at the bottom of the SLIP-OFF-SLOPE.

Features formed as a result of coastal erosion:
 wave cut notches

 caves
 arches
 stacks
 stumps
All the above features develop in sequence over a long period of time and are seen on many
headlands around the world. Some of the most famous being:
 ‘The Green Bridge of Wales’ on the Pembrokeshire Coastline in West Wales.

 Durdle Door in Dorset
 ‘London Bridge’ in the state of Victoria Australia.
 Azure Window Malta – an arch which collapsed on the 8th March 2017. In collapsing
the power of the sea did not even leave a stack or stump as we would expect but
instead, everything was removed.
 The ‘Needles’ in the Isle of Wight and ‘Old Harry’s Rock’ are other examples too.

Transportation
Transportation involves the movement of material which has been eroded.
Moving water in rivers and along the coast can do this in one of four ways.
Processes of river and wave transportation
1) TRACTION
Large rocks and boulders are rolled along the river / sea bed.
2) SALTATION
Smaller stones are bounced along the river / sea bed in a leap frogging - motion.
3) SUSPENSION
Fine material, light enough in weight to be carried by the water. It is this material which
discolours the water.
4) SOLUTION
Dissolved material transported in the water. This material also discolours water.
The process of transportation does not actually produce features that we can see as the
process always involves the movement of material. Material therefore, is not in one place
for long enough to form a feature. Instead we have to look for evidence that the process is
working.
In a river we have already seen that on a meander bend for erosion on the outside to
happen and deposition on the inside, transportation must be the link!
Along the coastline we are going to look at the process of ‘Longshore Drift’ which we can
see the full force of by looking at the work done by groynes to try and slow it down.

Coastal Groynes
As a way of reducing Longshore Drift and stopping beaches being carried away many seaside
resorts build GROYNES. These are basically walls which are built at right angles to the sea
(down the beach). Their job is to trap sand. The bigger the problem of longshore drift the
closer the groynes are to each other.
Direction of longshore drift

A close up of
a groyne
Wave coming onto

beach at an angle

Deposition
As a river slows down or the sea is experiencing calm conditions it will start to drop or
deposit the material which it has picked up. The largest particles are dropped first and the
finer material such as sand and silt are deposited last of all where the river is flowing very
slowly or the sea has lost its energy. As a result of Deposition a number of different
landforms are produced.
 Estuaries and Deltas in a river
 Beaches and Spits along the coastline.
Estuaries
At the lower stage, at the mouth the river is very slow flowing. The result of this is that the
river only has the power to deposit. The deposited material however, is never given any
time to settle as the tide comes in and out twice a day. The power of the tide will constantly
move the material deposited by the river. This area of the river will expose sand banks/mud
flats at low tide and we call it the ESTUARY.
It is important to remember that because the deposition is never allowed to settle, an

estuary is not a feature of deposition. We need to understand what an estuary is so that
we know what a delta is. (A delta is a feature of deposition).

Deltas
If a river flows into a sea which has a weak tide or no tide at all their will not be an injection
of fast moving water on an incoming tide, so the material deposited by the river will get the
opportunity to build up. When this happens the river becomes shallower. The shallower it
gets the more chance salt water tolerant plants will grow on the deposited material.
Because the river has little power it struggles to get through the deposited material. The
water then breaks into smaller channels called DISTRIBUTARIES or BRAIDED CHANNELS.
These are basically narrow channels of river water finding weak areas in the deposited
material. We call this area a DELTA.

Spits
Beaches
Beaches are made up of sand, mud, pebbles or shingle, usually from the material that has
been eroded from the headlands and cliffs. Usually this material has been eroded from
rocks nearby but it may also come from miles away, caught up in the action of the waves
and longshore drift.
Beaches are important because they protect the coastline from wave attack. If you visit a
beach on holiday you will see little change in it whilst you are there. However, the constant
action of waves breaking on the beach particularly during a storm can lead to beaches
changing in appearance at different times of the year.
Beaches grow in sheltered areas because calm, slow moving water deposits material which
helps build a beach. (see diagram A)
On straight stretches of coastline we may have to work harder to keep the beach in one
place. This will depend on the impact of longshore drift.

How can the risk of flooding be reduced?
The reasons for trying to reduce the risk of floods may depend upon several factors:
Places which flood frequently are more in need than places which only flood occasionally.
Small floods may be a nuisance which have to be endured. Perhaps nothing can stop very
big floods.
Attempts to stop floods will be greater where lives and poverty of many people are at risk.
The methods used will depend upon the wealth of the country e.g. poor countries like
Bangladesh cannot expensive dams like those in the USA.
Methods by man to reduce flooding:
 Dams and reservoirs
The construction of dams creates reservoirs, which apart from preventing flooding provide
water supply and hydro-electricity. Dams hold back water at times of flood and release it
when river levels are lower.
 Aforestation
The planting of trees delays run-off and reduces the amount of water reaching the river.
Diversionary spillways
These are overflow channels, which can take surplus water during times of flood. The water
is usually diverted into small bays, reservoirs and lakes and eventually into the sea.
 Strengthening levees
Levees used to consist of soil, which was vulnerable to erosion. Today levees are made of
concrete. The levees are positioned to cover the deepest part of the river to above the flood
level.
 Making the course straighter and shorter
This method aims to get rid of floodwater from the river basin as quickly as possible. It is
achived by cutting through narrow necks of large meanders. By shortening the distance of
the river so the speed of the river increases.

GLOSSARY OF USEFUL TERMS
A
abrasion: a type of erosion involving rock particles being scraped against, and
wearing away, the surface of other rocks.
active: a volcano which is constantly or frequently erupting
air: mass a very large body of air with relatively uniform temperature and moisture
characteristics
air pressure: the weight of the air above a reference point, measured in millibars
anticyclone: an area of high air pressure bringing clear skies
arch: a coastal feature created by the erosion of back to back caves
atmosphere: the layer of air round the earth
attrition : a type of erosion involving rock fragments being ground together to
become smaller, smoother and rounder
B
backwash: the outgoing water from a coastal wave
bay: an area of sea between two headlands beach material which the sea deposits on the
coast
biodiversity: the number and variety of all living things within an ecosystem
birth rate: the number of babies born per thousand of the population per year
braiding: a river feature consisting of islands of sediment deposited in the river
channel in its middle course
BRIC countries: countries with rapidly expanding economies: Brazil, Russia, India, China,
South Africa
brownfield site : disused or derelict urban land which is available for redevelopment
business park: a development of offices and industrial units
bypass: a road built round a town
C
CBD: Central Business District: the commercial and business centre of a town or city,with
highest land values
climate : the average weather over many years
collision: boundary where continental plates collide, forming mountain chains
compass: an instrument used to identify direction
condense: gas becoming liquid
confluence : the point where two rivers (including tributaries) meet
conservative boundary: where two tectonic plates slide past each other, but where crust is
neither formed nor destroyed

conserve: not to waste resources
constructive boundary: where two tectonic plates move apart from each other and new
crust is formed
containerisation : to transport goods in standard-sized, sealed containers
continent : a large land mass (a total of seven)
contour line : a line on an OS map joining all points of the same height
convection current : heated plumes of magma which create crustal plate movement
convectional rain : rain formed by the sun heating the land surface causing moist air to rise,
condense and produce heavy rainfall
core: the centre of the Earth
corrosion : a chemical process involving the dissolving away of sedimentary rocks, e.g. chalk,
limestone a type of erosion by water involving the dissolving away of rock, particularly
limestone and chalk
crust : the thin outer layer of solid rock round the Earth’s surface
D
death rate: the number of deaths per thousand of the population per year
delta : a depositional landform created where a river splits into numerous outlets
depression : a cyclonic weather system bringing precipitation and winds
desert : an area receiving less than 250 mm of precipitation per year
destructive boundary : where an oceanic plate slides underneath a continental plate or
another oceanic plate
detached : a house which is completely separate from other houses
dispersed : spread out
distribution : the spread of places, people or data
dormant : inactive
drainage basin : an area of land which is drained by a single river and its tributaries
drought : a prolonged period of below average precipitation
E
earthquake : a sudden and violent shaking of the ground caused by tectonic
movements
easting : a vertical grid line on an OS map
ecosystem : an area displaying a distinctive interaction between plants, animals and the
physical environment
eco-tourism : low impact tourism aimed at protecting the natural environment and local
cultures
environment : the air, land, water, plants and wildlife
epicentre : the point on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus of an earthquake

Equator : the imaginary line running round the middle of the Earth
erosion : the wearing away of land by material carried in rivers, glaciers, waves and wind
estuary: the final section of a river, subject to tides
ethnic group : people of the same cultural background

evaporate : liquid turning to gas
exploit : to seek and to use a natural resource for human benefit
extinct : no longer in existence (of animals); no longer active (of volcanoes)
F
fault : a line of weakness in rock
fetch : the maximum distance over which wind can blow to form a wave
fieldwork : an enquiry which takes place outside the classroom
floodplain : the flat area either side of a river which is regularly flooded
focus : the point underground where the rock breaks and the energy of an
earthquake is released
fog : cloud at ground level (reducing visibility to less than 1km)
front : the boundary between warm and cool air masses
frontal rainfall : rain formed when warm, moist air rises over cold air, causing
condensation and precipitation
function : the activities of a settlement
G
geothermal energy : heat and electricity produced from hot, underground water
gorge: a deep, steep-sided valley
greenfield site : land which has not previously been built on
grid reference : a number which locates an area on a map
globalisation : the ways in which companies, ideas and lifestyles spread round the world and
interact with one another
H
habitat : an area in which plants and animals have adapted in order to survive there
headland : a promontory of resistant rock which juts out into the sea
hemisphere : half of the globe
hierarchy : a ranking of settlements according to their size, functions or importance
high order settlement : a settlement which contains top- level shops and services
HS2 : High Speed Railway 2 - a planned high-speed railway proposed to run between London
(Euston) and the Midlands and the North of England

humidity : the moisture in the air
hydro-electric power : electricity produced by water being released through dam turbines
hydraulic action : a process of erosion involving water and air trapped in cracks and crevices
I
igneous : a type of rock/process/landform involving magma
impermeable : not allowing water to pass through
infiltration : the movement of water from surface into the soil
interception : precipitation landing on plants, trees or buildings
interlocking spurs : a series of alternating rocky projections found in mountain river valleys
irrigation : the artificial watering of crops
isotherm : a line on a map joining points of equal temperature
J
jet stream : a fast-flowing, narrow air current found in the atmosphere
joint : a crack in bedrock
K
key : a list giving the meaning of symbols on a map
L
lahar: a product of volcanic eruptions, composed of a mixture of ash and
water
land use : the way in which land is put to use by humans
landfill : the disposal of waste in natural or man-made holes in the ground
lava : molten rock at the Earth’s surface
LEDC : Less Economically Developed Country
levée : an embankment next to a river channel, raised above the flood plain
life expectancy: the average age which men and women may expect to reach
in a particular country
linear : extending in a line
longshore drift : the movement of sand and pebbles along a beach by wave
action
low order settlement : a settlement which contains few basic shops and
services

lower course : the stage of a river as it nears the sea, dominated by the process
of deposition
M
magma : molten rock beneath the Earth’s crust
mantle : the semi-solid mass of rock beneath the Earth’s crust
market : the place/point where goods and services are sold
meander : a bend in a river found in its middle and lower courses

metamorphic : a rock that has undergone transformation by heat and/or pressure
MEDC: More Economically Developed Country
microclimate: the local climate of a small area e.g. a garden
middle course : the stage of a river between its upper and lower sections, containing a
mixture of erosion and deposition
migration : the movement of people from one place to another
mouth: the point where a river enters a sea, ocean or lake
multinational : a company which operates in several different countries
N
national park : an area of countryside of outstanding beauty which is protected from
development
natural increase : a rise in population caused by a greater number of births than deaths
NIC : Newly Industrialised Country

North Atlantic Drift : an ocean current which warms coastal areas in western Europe
northing : a horizontal grid line on an OS map
nucleated : clustered together
O
oxbow lake : the cut-off remnant of a meander found in the lower course of a river
OS : Ordnance Survey
P
permeable : allowing water to flow through, e.g. joints in rocks
plate boundary : the point where two tectonic plates meet
plate tectonics : the theory explaining how the Earth’s crust is able to move
plunge pool : a deep pool which is formed by erosion at the base of a waterfall

pollution : damage to the environment as a result of human activity
porous : able to hold water like a sponge, allowing it to flow through
precipitation: rain, snow, hail or sleet
prevailing wind : the most common direction of wind e.g. SW in the British Isles
primary industry : an economic activity involving the collecting of food and raw
materials from the Earth
primary data : information gathered in person through fieldwork
pull factors : reasons why migrants are attracted to a destination
push factors: reasons why migrants leave their homes to go elsewhere
pyroclastic flow : a cloud of superheated gas and ash ejected from a volcano
Q
quaternary industry : a high-tech industry involving research and manufacturing, employing
highly- skilled workers, e.g. computer chips, pharmaceuticals
R
rapids: fast-flowing, white-water section of the upper course of a river
raw material : mineral and agricultural resources which can be processed to make
something else
recycling : the reuse of waste material
relief : the height and shape of land
relief rainfall : rain formed when moist air is forced to rise over highland, causing cooling,
condensation and precipitation
renewable energy : a sustainable source of power which can be used indefinitely (e.g. wind,
solar, tidal)
reservoir : a lake behind a dam
resource : any product of the environment which can be used for the benefit of
people retail the sale of products to the public
Richter Scale : a logarithmic scale used to measure the magnitude of earthquakes
river basin : an area of land drained by a river and its tributaries
river cliff : a steep, undercut area on the outside of a river meander
routeway : a line of transport, e.g., road, rail, sea or air
run-off : the movement of water across a surface
rural : relating to the countryside
S
saltation: the transport of sand in a hopping fashion in water or air
science park : a development of high-tech industries often close to a university

scree : piles of broken rock found beneath steep rock faces
secondary data : information collected by a third party
secondary industry : an economic activity involving the manufacturing of goods
sedimentary rock : layered rock formed by the deposition of sediments
seismic wave : a shock wave produced by earthquakes
seismometer : a sensitive instrument used to measure earthquakes
semi-detached : a house joined on one side to another
service industry: an economic activity such as retail, administration, education,
healthcare or tourism
settlement pattern : the shape and spacing of settlements
settlement : a place where people live
site : the exact location of a settlement
situation : the location of a settlement in relation to the surrounding area (its
environs)
slip-off slope : a gently-sloping area formed on the inside of a river meander

solution : the transport of a soluble load in water
social : relating to society
source : the beginning of a river
spit : an extended beach which grows by deposition across a bay or river mouth
spur: a rocky projection found in the upper stage of a river’s course
spurs : see interlocking spurs
stack : a pillar of rock which stands in the sea
stewardship : looking after resources in a sustainable way for the future
subduction zone : the downward movement of crust at a destructive plate boundary
suburb : the residential and commercial development at the edge of a city
sunrise industry : a newly-developed, growing business sector
sunset industry : a long-established business sector in decline
suspension : the transport of silt in water
sustainable : using resources in a manner which allows them to be available for
future generations
swash : an incoming coastal wave
symbol : an image, letter or number used on a map to indicate a particular landscape
feature
T
tectonic plate : a large, rigid section of the Earth’s crust
terraced : a house joined to another on both sides, forming rows
tertiary industry : an economic activity providing a service (as opposed to a product) for
their customers

through flow : the movement of water through the soil as part of the water cycle
tourism : a tertiary economic activity involving the commercial organisation of
holidays and visits to places of interest
traction: the transport of boulders in a rolling motion in water
transpiration : the release of water vapour into the air from plants
transportation : the movement of eroded material
tributary : a river joining a larger river
tsunami : a sea wave caused by earthquakes and volcanic eruptions
U
upper course : the section of a river near its source, dominated by the processes of erosion
urban : relating to a town or city
urbanisation : the increase in the percentage of people living in cities
V
volcano : a mountainous vent or fissure in the Earth’s crust which emits lava and other
igneous products
volcanic bomb: lava exploded into the air which solidifies as it falls
W
waterfall : a point on a river where water falls vertically
watershed : an area of highland separating river basins
water table : the upper surface of water in the ground
weather : the day-to-day condition of the atmosphere
weathering : the breakdown of rocks in situ by mechanical, chemical or biological means

B - Activities

Global localization
a- Countries and Capital Cities of The British Isles
Mark the following names on map 1
Countries Capitals
England London
Wales Cardiff
Scotland Edinburgh
Republic of Ireland Dublin
Northern Ireland Belfast
b- Physical Features of and around the British Isles
Sea Areas Upland Areas
English Channel Grampians
Irish Sea Pennines
North Sea Lake District
Snowdonia
Rivers Islands
Severn Isle of Wight
Thames Isle of Man
Trent Orkneys
Shannon Shetlands
Clyde Anglesey
Mersey Jersey
Tyne Guernsey

c- British Isles capitals and major cities
Major Cities Capitals
Birmingham Manchester London
Bristol Newcastle Edinburgh
Glasgow Oxford Cardiff
Leeds Plymouth Belfast
Liverpool Reading Dublin
Southampton
d- Continents of the world
Africa
Antarctica
Asia
Oceania
Europe
North America
South America

e- Mountain ranges of the world
Alps
Pyrenees
Andes
Himalayas
Rockies
f- Oceans, Seas and Deserts of the world
Oceans Seas
Arctic Ocean Mediterranean
Indian Ocean
Red Sea
North Atlantic Ocean
South Atlantic Ocean
Pacific Ocean (mark in two

Deserts
places)
Sahara
Southern Ocean

g- Rivers of the world
Amazon
Ganges
Mississippi
Nile
Rhine
Yangtze (Chang Jiang)
h- Other global features of the world
Arctic Circle
Antarctic Circle
Equator
International Dateline
North Pole
South Pole
Prime Meridian
Tropic of Cancer
Tropic of Capricorn

i- European countries and capital cities
Belgium – Brussels
Denmark – Copenhagen
France – Paris
Germany – Berlin
Greece – Athens
Iceland – Reykjavik
Italy – Rome
Netherlands – Amsterdam
Norway - Oslo
Poland - Warsaw
Portugal – Lisbon
Russia – Moscow
Spain - Madrid
Switzerland - Bern
j- African countries and capital cities
Egypt – Cairo
Ethiopia - Addis Ababa
Ghana – Accra
Kenya – Nairobi
Nigeria – Abuja
South Africa - Pretoria

k- The Americas
North American Countries and North American Major Cities

Capitals
 New York
 Canada – Ottawa  Los Angeles
 Mexico – Mexico City  Vancouver
 USA – Washington DC
South American Major Cities

South American Countries and
Capitals  Rio de Janeiro
 Sao Paulo
 Argentina – Buenos Aires
 Brasil – Brazilia
 Chile – Santiago
 Colombia - Bogota
 Peru - Lima
l- Asia countries, capitals and major cities
 Afghanistan – Kabul Major Cities

 Bangladesh – Dhaka/Dacca  Dubai
 China – Beijing  Kolkata
 Shanghai
 India – New Delhi
 Indonesia – Jakarta
 Iran – Tehran
 Iraq – Baghdad
 Israel – Jerusalem
 Japan – Tokyo
 Pakistan – Islamabad
 Saudi Arabia – Riyadh
 South Korea – Seoul
 Thailand – Bangkok
 Turkey – Ankara

m- Oceania countries, capitals and major cities
Countries and Capitals of Major Cities of Oceania

Oceania
 Australia - Canberra
 Sydney
 New Zealand –
Wellington
 Papua New Guinea –
Port Moresby
For more activities, please have a look at the CE 13+ Practice questions
Book that has been uploaded on your Google account.

Key:
= Capital cities

Key:
= Rivers
= Upland areas
= Islands

Key:
= Capital cities
= Major cities

Global Location Map 5
Mountain Ranges of
the world

Oceans, Seas and Deserts

of the world

Rivers of the world

Other Globe Features of

the world

European Countries and

Capital Cities

African Countries and

Capital Cities

Global
Location
Map 11
The
Americas

Asia
Countries, Capitals and

major Cities

Oceania : Countries,
Capitals and major Cities

C- Model questions

 Please complete the Autumn 2017 CE 13+ Papers over the
holiday.
 Please complete the Summer 2017 CE 13+ Papers over the
holiday.
 Please answer as many questions as possible from the CE13+
Geography Practice questions pages

D- Marksheets and Model answers

All mark sheets to be found on Google Drive in the Geography folder.

Geography 2018 PDF

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GEOGRAPHY

GEOGRAPHY PAMPHLET ERW – January 2018 Page 1

A- Course Summary Notes

D- Marksheets and Model answers

GEOGRAPHY PAMPHLET ERW – January 2018 Page 2

GEOGRAPHY PAMPHLET ERW – January 2018 Page 3

 Weather and Climate

 Population and Settlement

 Transport and Industry

 Volcanoes and earthquakes

GEOGRAPHY PAMPHLET ERW – January 2018 Page 4

Are we able to explain this?

 Is weather and climate the same?

GEOGRAPHY PAMPHLET ERW – January 2018 Page 5

 There is lots of clouds in the sky so it will probably rain

Measuring the weather

GEOGRAPHY PAMPHLET ERW – January 2018 Page 6

 Seasonal patterns of temperature and rainfall across the British Isles

- Cool Summers and

- Rain throughout the year

This climate is described as TEMPERATE or MARITIME.

However, there are noticeable changes as we look at different parts of the

GEOGRAPHY PAMPHLET ERW – January 2018 Page 7

In Britain we can expect rain at any time of the year.

The British Isles in the Winter

GEOGRAPHY PAMPHLET ERW – January 2018 Page 9

Sun overhead at the Tropic of Cancer

Different types of rainfall and their causes.

 Rain clouds form when moisture is forced to rise.

GEOGRAPHY PAMPHLET ERW – January 2018 Page 10

GEOGRAPHY PAMPHLET ERW – January 2018 Page 11

If the temperature above the surface where condensation is happening is below

GEOGRAPHY PAMPHLET ERW – January 2018 Page 12

This is the precipitation caused by the passage of a warm front in a depression.

GEOGRAPHY PAMPHLET ERW – January 2018 Page 13

Climate is the average weather in a place over a specific period of time.

 It has been the wettest September since 1995

 Climate across the UK

Climate in the British Isles can be influenced by different factor:

GEOGRAPHY PAMPHLET ERW – January 2018 Page 14

This therefore explains why:

 The UK is always cooler than Egypt

GEOGRAPHY PAMPHLET ERW – January 2018 Page 15

 Prevailing wind direction

Prevailing winds will bring:

GEOGRAPHY PAMPHLET ERW – January 2018 Page 16

Temperatures decrease as we move up at a rate of roughly 1oc for every 150

GEOGRAPHY PAMPHLET ERW – January 2018 Page 17

How local features affect our climate

 On a fine summers day some classrooms feel hotter than others?

The causes of microclimates

There are 5 which you must be able to explain

Comparing urban and rural Microclimates

The following factors contribute to creating microclimates in both ‘Urban’ and

 Urban – Built up areas (towns and cities)

 Rural – Countryside areas

GEOGRAPHY PAMPHLET ERW – January 2018 Page 18

 On average one degree warmer than rural areas in the day.

GEOGRAPHY PAMPHLET ERW – January 2018 Page 19

GEOGRAPHY PAMPHLET ERW – January 2018 Page 20

To fully understand the process of weathering, and to be able to give it a

GEOGRAPHY PAMPHLET ERW – January 2018 Page 21

This crack has been made wider by Freeze-thaw weathering