Rotation of Rigid Bodies

Angular Motion
Angular Motion Definitions

 Rotational kinematics: describes rotational motion.

 Rigid body: idealized model of a body which has a perfectly definite
and unchanging shape and size.
Rigid Bodies

A rigid body is one where all the

particles maintain their
relative position

As the body rotates

Each particle moves

Bowling Green
Relative positions don’t change

Cities on the earth are always moving

But they don’t get closer together
Sydney
Angular Motion Definitions
 First, let’s discuss the rotation of rigid body about a fixed axis.
Fixed axes: axes which is at rest in some inertial frame of
reference and does not change direction relative to that frame.
 We will usually select the origin of our x-y plane to be in the same as
the plane that the rotating object occupies and the origin O
corresponded to the location of the axis of rotation.
 Then, if we pick a point on the rotating object and draw a line from
this point to the origin it will make an angle q with the x-axis. This
angle is called the angular position.
 The angular displacement will be defined as a change in angular
position, Dq = q2 - q1, during a time interval Dt = t2 - t1.
 Both angular position and angular displacement will most commonly
be expressed in radians. To convert between radians, revolutions,
and degrees use the conversion:

1 revolution = 2 p radians = 360 degrees

Angular Motion Definitions

 One radian is the angle subtended at  Angle θ is subtended by an arc with a

the center of a circle by an arc with a length S equal on a circle of the radius r.
length equal to the radius of this circle.
s
1 rad : s  r q  , s  rq
r
 Angle in radians is the ratio of two lengths, so it is a pure number (NO dimensions).
Angular Motion Definitions

The average angular velocity wav-z is the angular displacement per


q 2  q1 Dq
unit time w  av z 
t 2  t1 Dt

 The instantaneous angular velocity wz is the limit of wav-z when Dt

approaches zero. This is derivative of angular position with respect to time.
Dq dq
w z  lim 
Dt 0 Dt dt
 At any instant, every part of a rotating rigid body has the same angular
velocity. The angular velocity is positive if the body is rotating in the
direction of increasing q and negative if it is rotating in the direction of
decreasing q .
 Angular velocity will usually be expressed in radians per second (rad/s).
Another common unit for angular velocity is revolutions per minute (rpm).
Angular Motion Definitions
 Angular velocity is a vector quantity.
 The direction of angular velocity is defined
using the right-hand rule.
 To use this rule, curl the fingers of your right
hand in the direction of rotation. Your right
thumb then points in the direction of the
angular velocity.
Angular Motion Definitions

 The average angular acceleration aav-z is change in angular velocity

per unit time. w w Dw
a av z  2z 1z
 z
t2  t1 Dt

 The instantaneous angular acceleration az is the limit of aav-z when Dt

approaches zero. This is also the derivative of angular velocity with
respect to time and the second derivative of angular position with respect
to time.
Dw z dw z d dq d 2q
a z  lim  az   2
Dt 0 Dt dt dt dt dt

 Angular acceleration is typically expressed in radians

per second squared (rad/s2).
Angular Motion Definitions

Just as was the case for linear motion:

 the object will be "speeding up" if

the angular acceleration is in the
same direction as the angular
velocity, and

 the object will be "slowing down"

if the angular acceleration is in the
opposite direction of the angular
velocity.
Angular Motion Definitions

Graph of wz and az versus time for a rotating object

 During which time intervals is the rotation "speeding up"?

 During which time intervals is the rotation "slowing down"?

Angular Motion Definitions

Graph of wz and az versus time for a rotating object

 During which time intervals is the rotation "speeding up"?

 During which time intervals is the rotation "slowing down"?

Speeding up
wz<0 and
az<0

Speeding up
wz>0 and
az>0 Slowing down
wz>0 and
az<0
Constant Angular Acceleration

 For the special case of constant angular acceleration the equations

which relate angular displacement, angular velocity, angular acceleration
and time have the same form as the kinematic equations for constant
linear acceleration.
 These equations can be obtained from the familiar ones by replacing x
with q, vx with wz, and ax with az.
.
t1=0, angular acceleration is constant and w z  w0 z

equal to average value for any interval:
az 
t 0
w z  w0 z  a z t Constant angular acceleration ONLY

w0 z  w z
wav z 
2 1
q  q 0  (w0 z  w z )t Constant angular
q  q0 2 acceleration ONLY
wav z 
t 0
Constant Angular Acceleration

 To obtain relation between q and t that doesn’t contain wz:

w z  w0 z  a z t
1
1 q  q 0  w0 z t  a z t 2 Constant angular
q  q 0  (w0 z  w z )t 2 acceleration ONLY
2

 To obtain relation between q and wz that doesn’t contain t:

w z  w0 z  a z t
Constant angular
1 w  w  2a z (q  q0 )
2 2
acceleration ONLY
q  q 0  w0 z t  a z t 2 z 0z

2
Constant Angular Acceleration
Kinematics: Rotational vs
Linear
Relating Linear and Angular Kinematics

 Consider a point P on a rotating object that is a distance r away from the

axis of rotation. As the object turns through an angle q the point covers a
distance given by s = rq
 In the above expression the angle q must be in radians

 If this expression is differentiated with

respect to time then the left hand side will
become the linear speed of particle
 This speed corresponds to the velocity of
the point P which is tangential to the
circular arc traced out by the point. When
differentiating the right hand side, we
notice that r is constant and the rate of
change of angular position is the angular
velocity. This gives:

ds dq
r v  rw Relation between linear
dt dt and angular speed
Relating Linear and Angular Kinematics

 Differentiating once again gives a relationship between the tangential

acceleration of the point, atan, and the angular acceleration of the
rotation object:

dv dw
atan  r  ra Tangential acceleration of a
point on a rotating body
dt dt
 Finally, recall that any object that is
undergoing circular motion
experiences an inwardly directed
radial acceleration given by the
speed squared divided by the radius.
If we replace v=rw we have:

v2
arad   w 2r
r
Centripetal acceleration of
a point on a rotating body
Relating Linear and Angular Kinematics

s  rq v  rw
dv dw
atan  r  ra
dt dt
 These equations apply to any particle
that has the same tangential velocity
as a point in a rotating rigid body
o Rope wound around a circular cylinder
unwraps without stretching or slipping, its
speed and acceleration at any instant are
equal to the speed and tangential acceleration
of the point at which it is tangent to the
cylinder
o Bicycle chains and sprockets, belts, pulleys, …
 Rotational Inertia (Moment of Inertia)

 The rotational inertia of an object is a measure of the resistance of

the object to changes in its rotational motion
 For a system of particles of masses mi at distances ri from an axis
passing through a point P the rotational inertia of the system about
the axis is given by:

I  m1r12  m2 r22  ...   mi ri 2 Definition of

i moment of inertia

 SI unit of moment of inertia is the kgm2

 For a solid object the rotational inertia is found by evaluating an integral
as we will see later
 In a rigid body the distances ri are constant, and I is independent of
how the body is rotating around a given axis. The rotational inertia of
some common shapes about some of their symmetry axes is given in
Table 9.2 of your textbook
Rotational Inertia (Moment of Inertia)
Rotational Kinetic Energy

 The rotational kinetic energy of a solid object rotating about an axis for
which its rotational inertia is I with angular velocity w is expressed as

1 2
K  Iw Rotational kinetic energy of a rigid body
2

 Notice the similarity between this formula and the formula for the kinetic
energy of a point mass m moving with speed v
 This kinetic energy is the sum of kinetic energies of the individual
particles that make up the rigid body
 w is in rad/s (NOT in rev or degrees per second ! K will be in Joules)
 The greater is the moment of inertia, the greater the kinetic energy of a
rigid body rotating with a given angular speed
Rotational Kinetic Energy

1 2
K Iw
2

 Greater a body’s moment of inertia, the harder it is to start the

body rotating if it’s at rest and the harder it is to stop its rotation
if it’s already rotating
Rotational Kinetic Energy

Moments of inertia for different rotation axes

 One-piece machine part consists of three heavy connectors linked by light
molded struts.
A. What is the moment of inertia of this body about an axis through point A,  to
the plane of the slide?
B. What is the moment of inertia of this body about an axis coinciding the rod BC?
C. If the body rotates about an axis through A  to the plane of the slide with
angular speed 4.0 rad/s, what is its kinetic energy?
Rotational Energy. Problems

Problem-Solving Strategy
 IDENTIFY the relevant concepts: You can use work–energy
relations and conservation of energy to find relations involving position and
motion of a rigid body rotating around a fixed axis. As we saw before, the
energy method is usually not helpful for problems that involve elapsed time.
Later we will see how to approach rotational problems of this kind.
 SET UP the problem using the following steps:
1. First decide what the initial and final states (the positions and velocities) of
the system are. Use the subscript 1 for the initial state and the subscript 2
for the final state. It helps to draw sketches showing the initial and final
states.
2. Define your coordinate system, particularly the level at which y=0. You will
use it to compute gravitational potential energies. Equations assume that
the positive direction for y is upward; use this choice consistently.
3. Identify all non-gravitational forces that do work. A free-body diagram is
always helpful. If some of the quantities you need are unknown, represent
them by algebraic symbols.
Rotational Energy. Problems

Problem-Solving Strategy

 SET UP, continued:

 List the unknown and known quantities, including the coordinates and
velocities at each point. Decide which unknowns are your target variables.
 Many problems involve a rope or cable wrapped around a rotating rigid
body, which functions as a pulley.
 In these situations, remember that the point on the pulley that contacts the
rope has the same linear speed as the rope, provided the rope doesn’t slip
on the pulley.
 You can then take advantage of Equations which relate the linear speed and
tangential acceleration of a point on a rigid body to the angular velocity and
angular acceleration of the body.
Rotational Energy. Problems

Problem-Solving Strategy
 EXECUTE the solution:
 Write expressions for the initial and final kinetic and potential energies (K1,
K2, U1 and U2) and the non-conservative work Wother (if any).
 The new feature is rotational kinetic energy, which is expressed in terms of
the body’s moment of inertia I for the given axis and its angular speed w
instead of its mass m and speed v.
 Substitute these expressions into K1+ U1+Wother =K2+U2 (if nonconservative
work is done) or K1+ U1=K2+U2 (if only conservative work is done) and solve
for the target variable(s).
 It’s helpful to draw bar graphs showing the initial and final values of K, U,
and E=K+U.

 EVALUATE your answer:

 As always, check whether your answer makes physical sense.
Parallel Axis Theorem
 Parallel-Axis Theorem

 To find the rotational inertia of an object about an axis that is

different from one listed in Table 9.2 in your textbook you may be
able to use the parallel axis theorem.
 This theorem gives the rotational inertia of an object of mass M
about an axis, P, that is parallel to and a distance d away from an
axis that passes through the object's center of mass.

I p  I cm  Md 2 Parallel-Axis Theorem
 Parallel-Axis Theorem

 Consider two axes, both parallel to z-axis, one through the center of
mass and the other through a point P.
 Mass element mi has coordinates (xi, yi) with respect to an axis of
rotation through the center of mass and  to the plane of the slide. The
mass element has coordinates (xi-a, yi-b) with respect to the parallel
axis through point P.

 Let’s take origin at the CM of the body:

 xcm= ycm= zcm=0
 The axis through the CM passes through this
thin slice at point O, and parallel axis passes
through point P with coordinates (a, b). Then
the distance of this axis from axis through CM
is d: d2=a2+b2
 Moment of inertia Icm about axis through O:

I cm   mi ( xi2  yi2 )
i
 Parallel-Axis Theorem

 Moment of inertia Icm about axis through P:

I P   mi [( xi  a) 2  ( yi  b) 2 )]
i
 These expressions don’t involve the coordinates zi measured  to the
slices. Let’s extend the sums to include all particles in all slices. Ip then
becomes the moment of inertia of the entire body for an axis through P:

I P   mi ( xi2  yi2 )  2a mi xi  2b mi yi  (a 2  b 2 ) m i

i i i i

I cm xcm  0 ycm  0 d2 M

I P  I cm  Md 2
 Parallel-Axis Theorem. Example

 A part of a mechanical linkage has a mass of 3.6 kg. We measure its

moment of inertia about an axis 0.15 m from its center of mass to be
Ip=0.132 kg·m2.
 What is the moment of inertia Icm about a parallel axis through the
center of mass?

I cm  I p  Md 2 
 0.132 kg  m 2  (3.6kg )(0.15m) 2  0.051 kg  m 2

 Result show that Icm is less than Ip. This is as it should be: the moment
of inertia for an axis through the center of mass is lower than for any
other parallel axis.
Inertia Calculations
 Inertia Calculations

 For a continuous distribution of mass the sum of the masses times the
square of the distances to the axis of rotation which defines the moment
of inertia become an integral.
 If the object is divided into small mass elements dm in such a manner
that all of the points in a particular mass element are the same
perpendicular distance r from the axis of rotation then the moment of
inertia is given by
. I   r dm 2

 To evaluate the integral, you need to represent r and dm in terms of the

same integration variable. 1-D object, slender rod: use coordinate x
along the length and relate dm to an increment dx. 3-D object: express
dm in terms of element of volume dV and density r.


dm r   r
r , I   r r (V )dV
2
2 const I r dV
dV
dV  dx dy dz  Limits of integral are determined by the shape and
dimensions of the body
Inertia Calculations

Uniform thin rod, axis  to length

 Slender uniform rod with mass M and
length L.
 Compute its moment of inertia about an
axis through O, at an arbitrary distance h
from the end.
 Choose as an element of mass a short section of rod with length dx at a
distance x from O. The ratio of the mass dm of this element to the total
mass M is equal to the ratio of its length dx to the total length L:
Lh
dm dx M
Lh
M  x 
3
1
  x dm  L h x dx   L
2 2
   M ( L2  3Lh  3h 2 )
M L   3   h 3
M  Evaluate this general expression about an axis through the left
dm  dx end; the right end; through the center. Compare with Table 9.2.
L
Inertia Calculations

 Hollow or solid cylinder, rotating about

axis of symmetry
 Hollow, uniform cylinder with length L, inner radius
R1, outer radius R2. Compute its moment of inertia
about the axis of symmetry.
 Choose as a volume element a thin cylindrical shell
of radius r, thickness dr, and length L. All parts of
this element are at very nearly the same distance
from the axis. The volume of this element:

dm  rdV  r (2prLdr)
2prL 4
R2 R2

   r p  pr  dr  ( R2  R14 ) 
2 2 3
r dm r ( 2 rLdr ) 2 L r
R1 R1
4
prL 1
 ( R22  R12 )( R22  R12 ) V  pL( R2  R1 ) I  M ( R22  R12 )
2 2

2 2
Inertia Calculations

 Hollow or solid cylinder, rotating about axis

of symmetry

1
I M ( R22  R12 )
2

If cylinder is solid, R1=0, R2=R: 1


I  MR 2
2
 If cylinder has a very thin wall, R1 and R2 are very
nearly equal:
I  MR 2
 Note: moment of inertia of a cylinder about an axis of
symmetry depends on its mass and radii, but not on
its length!
Inertia Calculations

 Uniform sphere, axis through center

 Uniform sphere with radius R. the axis is through
its center. Find the moment of inertia about the
axis is through the center of this sphere.
 Divide sphere into thin disks of thickness dx,
whose moment of inertia we already know. The
radius r of the disk is
r  R2  x2
 The volume is dV  pr 2 dx  p ( R 2  x 2 )dx
 The mass is dm  rdV  pr 2 dx  pr ( R 2  x 2 )dx
 The moment of inertia for the disk of radius r and mass dm is

1 2
dI  r dm 
2
1
2
R 2
x 2
 [pr (R
2
2
 x )dx ] 
2 pr
2
( R 2  x 2 ) 2 dx
Inertia Calculations

 Uniform sphere, axis through center

 Integrating from x=0 to x=R gives the moment

of inertia of the right hemisphere.
 From symmetry, the total I for the entire sphere
is just twice this:

pr R
I  ( 2)  
2 2 2
( R x ) dx
2 0
4p R 3
Volume of the sphere V
8pr 5 3
I R
15 4pr 3
The mass M of the sphere M  rV  R
3
 Note: moment of inertia of a solid sphere is less than the
2
I  MR 2 moment of inertia of a solid cylinder of the same mass and
radius! (Reason is that more of the sphere’s mass is located
5 close to the axis)