Vectors

1.1 Introduction
Quantities are of two different types: scalars and vectors.
Comparison between Scalars and Vectors. A scalar is a quantity with magnitude only (for
example, length, mass, work, etc). A vector is a quantity with the magnitude as well as
direction (for example, force, momentum, acceleration, velocity, etc.).
A quantity such as mass is a scalar because knowing its magnitude (value) is enough in
engineering computations. However, velocity, force and some other quantities are expressed
in terms of their magnitude and direction and are called vectors. For example, in order to find
the resultant of several forces acting on a beam (or body), values of the acting forces and their
direction as well determines the direction and the magnitude of the resultant.
1.2 Geometrical representation and component form of Vectors
Vectors can be shown geometrically as an arrow. Then its starting point is called the initial
point and the point where the vector is ended is called terminal point. In the below diagram;
points O, B and D are the initial points whereas the points A, C and E are terminal points.

Vectors can be expressed using numbers i.e. in terms of their x, y and z components.

For example the vectors 𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =〈3,2〉, 𝐷𝐸

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =〈1,32〉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹 =〈4,2,−1〉. Given the coordinates of
initial and terminal points, vectors can be found e.g. 𝑣 =〈𝑥2−𝑥1,𝑦2−𝑦1,𝑧2−𝑧1〉

1.3 Magnitude (Length) of vectors

The longer a vector is the higher its value. Therefore, longer vectors have higher magnitude
comparing with shorter ones. To find the length of a vector, Pythagorean Theorem is used:

|𝑣| = √(x2 − x1)2 +(y2 − y1)2 + (z2 − z1)2

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Notes
1. When the initial point of a vector is the origin then it is called a position vector.
2. All vectors can be transformed into a position vector after its components are calculated.
3. Two vectors are equal if they have the same length and direction.
4. If v is a two-dimensional vector in the plane equal to the vector with initial point at the
origin and terminal point (v1,v2) then the component from v=<v1,v2>
5. If v is a three-dimensional vector in the space equal to the vector with initial point at the
origin and terminal point (v1,v2,v3) then the component from v=<v1,v2,v3>
6. v1, v2 and v3 are called components of v

Example (1)
Find the component form and length of vectors: (a) P1(1,1) and P2 (3,-2); (b) the position
vector for (2,5,1)
Solution:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =𝑃2−𝑃1=〈𝑥2−𝑥1,𝑦2−𝑦1〉=〈3−1,−2−1〉=〈2,−3〉
a) 𝑣=𝑃1𝑃2
b) 𝑤 =𝑃2−𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛=〈2−0,5−0,1−0〉=〈2,5,1〉; ‖𝑤‖ = √(2)2 +(5)2 + (1)2 = √30

Example (2)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ with P(-3,4,1) and Q(-5,2,2)
Find the component form and length of vector 𝑃𝑄
Solution:

a) The Component form of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑃𝑄 =Q−𝑃=〈𝑥2−𝑥1,𝑦2−𝑦1,z2-z1〉=〈-5−-3,2-4,2-1〉=〈-2,−2,1〉
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =√(−2)2 +(−2)2 + (1)2 = 3
b) The length or magnitude of 𝑃𝑄

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1.4 Vector Algebra
In this section the two basic operations of addition/subtraction and scalar multiplication are
illustrated.

a) Vector addition/subtraction
Two vectors or more can be added/subtracted with each other geometrically and numerically
as well. Geometrically, addition of vectors is putting the vectors sequentially such that the tail
of the second vector lies on the tip of the first. By putting all vectors such that the resultant
vector is the one directed from the tail of the first vector to the tip of the last one:

Let U=(u1,u2,u3) and V=(v1,v2,v3) then

1. U+V=(u1+v1, u2+v2, u3+v3)
2. U-V=U+(-V)=( u1-v1, u2-v2, u3-v3)

b) Scalar multiplication and parallel vectors

Scalar multiplication of a vector is the elongation or shortening of vectors. Also
depending on the sign of a scalar a vector might be reversed. Therefore, if two or more
vectors are scalar multiples of a vector then they are parallel.

𝑎 =(𝑎1,𝑎2,𝑎3) →𝑐.𝑎 =(𝑐.𝑎1,𝑐.𝑎2,𝑐.𝑎3)↔𝑎 ∥𝑐.𝑎

Where c is a scalar

Properties
1. U+V=V+U
2. U+0=U
3. 0U=0
4. A(U+V)=AU+AV
5. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = −𝐵𝐴⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

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Example (3)

If 𝑎 =〈1,2〉 ,𝑏=〈−1,−1〉,𝑐=2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑=−2 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑:

1. 𝑐.𝑎
2. 𝑑.𝑏
3. 𝑎 +𝑐𝑏

Solution:
1. 𝑐.𝑎 =〈2,4〉
2. 𝑑.𝑏 =〈2,2〉
3. 𝑎 +𝑐𝑏 =〈−1,0〉

Example (4)
Check whether these vectors are parallel: 𝑎 =〈2,−4〉 ,𝑏 =〈3,−6〉,𝑐 =〈−3,6〉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑 =〈4,−16〉

Solution:
𝑏 =〈3,−6〉=1.5〈2,−4〉=1.5𝑎 →𝑎 ∥𝑏
𝑐 =〈−3,6〉=−1.5〈2,−4〉=−1.5𝑎 →𝑎 ∥𝑐 ∥𝑏
𝑑 =〈4,−16〉= 4〈1,−4〉≠b≠c then 𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 (a,b,c).

Example (5)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and |𝑃𝑄
If P =〈4,3〉 ,Q=〈−2,5〉, find a) 2𝑃𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |, b) 𝑃𝑄
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 2𝑃𝑄
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

Solution

a) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄=(-6,2)⇒ 2𝑃𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =(-12,4), |𝑃𝑄
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |=√(−6)2 +(2)2 =√40
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 2𝑃𝑄
b) 𝑃𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =(-18,6)

1.5 Unit Vectors

Unit vectors have a length of one unit. They point the direction of a vector. Unit vectors are
shown by “u”. To find the unit vector of 𝑎 :

𝑎⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑢𝑎 = ‖a ‖

Standard unit vectors are “i”, “j” and “k”

which lie on x,y and z-axes respectively

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Every vector can be written as a combination of the standard unit vectors such as:

𝑎 =〈𝑎1,𝑎2,𝑎3〉=𝑎1𝑖+𝑎2𝑗+𝑎3𝑘

Example (6)
Find a unit vector in the direction of the vector from P1(1,0,1) and P2 (3,2,0).
Solution:

𝑎 =𝑃2−𝑃1=(3−1)𝑖+(2−0)𝑗+(0−1)𝑘
𝑎 =2𝑖+2𝑗−𝑘

‖𝑎 ‖=√22 + 22 + 12=√9=3

𝑎⃗ 1
𝑢𝑎 = ‖a ‖ =3 (2𝑖+2𝑗−𝑘)
⃗⃗⃗⃗

Example (7)
If the velocity vector 𝑣 =3𝑖−4𝑗, express the velocity as a product of speed and direction.

Solution:
(speed is magnitude and direction is a unit vector in the direction of motion)
𝑣 =‖𝑣 ‖.𝑢𝑣

‖𝑣 ‖=√32 + 42 =5
1
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑢𝑣 =5 (3𝑖−4𝑗)
1
𝑣 =5.[ 5 (3𝑖−4𝑗)]

Example (8)
A force of 6 N is applied in the direction of 𝑣 =2𝑖+3𝑗−√3𝑘. Write the force as a product of
its magnitude and direction.

Solution:

‖𝑣 ‖=√22 + 32 +(−√3)2=4

1
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑢𝑣 =4 (2𝑖+3𝑗−√3𝑘)
6 3
𝐹 =4 (2𝑖+3𝑗−√3𝑘) =2 (2𝑖+3𝑗−√3𝑘)

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Midpoint of line segment

The midpoint M of the line segment joining points P1(x1,y1,z1) and P2(x1,y1,z1) is the
𝑥1+𝑥2 𝑦1+𝑦2 𝑧1+𝑧2
point ( 2 , 2 , 2 )

Example (9)

Find the midpoint M of the line segment joining points P1(3,-2,0) and P2(7,4,4)

is M= (5,1,2) then the vector OM is 5i+j+2k (from original point)

Directional angles and directional cosines

The angles that a vector makes with the positive axes can be found. The three angles are
shown in the diagram below:

The direction angles α, β and γ of a vector v=ai+bj+ck are

α: angle between v and positive x-axis.

β: angle between v and positive y-axis.
γ: angle between v and positive z-axis.

v=ai+bj+ck |v|=√𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 +𝑐 2

the direction cosines by

l=cos α
m=cos β
n=cos γ

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 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 𝑣
cos α+ cos β+ cos γ= 𝑣 + + = 𝑣 = 1 ‘; Therefore; 𝑙 2 + 𝑚2 +𝑛2 = 1
𝑣 𝑣

Example (10)
Find the direction cosines of v=3i-2j+6k
Solution
|v|=√32 + −22 +62 =7
The direction cosines are l=3/7 m=-2/7 n=6/7

Example (11)
Find the directional angles that the vector 𝑣 =2𝑖+4𝑗+4𝑘 makes.
Solution:
|𝑣|=√22+42+42=6
2
𝛼=cos−1(6)=70.53°
4
𝛽=cos−1(6)=48.19°
4
𝛾=cos−1(6)=48.19°

H.W.1
1. If P=(1, 3) and Q=(2,-1) find ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑄𝑃
2. Find the vector from the point A=(2,3) to the origin.
3. Find −3𝐴𝐵⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ +2𝐶𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , where A=(1, -1), B=(2,0), C=(-1, 3) and D=(-2, 2).
4. Write 𝑀⃗⃗ =8𝑖−𝑗+4𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 ⃗ =〈−4,2,4〉 as a product of magnitude and direction.
5. Find a vector that has the opposite direction of 𝑁 ⃗ =〈−2,4,2〉 and has length 6. If 𝑢
⃗ =𝑣
find x,y,z where 𝑢 ⃗ =(1,4,6) and 𝑣=(x-2,y+3,z-5)
6. If a=(1,2,3),b=(2,3,4),c=(3,4,5),d=(4,5,6) prove that ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 =𝐶𝐷
7. Prove that midpoint M of the line segment joining points P1(x1,y1,z1) and
𝑥1+𝑥2 𝑦1+𝑦2 𝑧1+𝑧2
P2(x1,y1,z1) is the point ( 2 , 2 , 2 ).
8. From the two equations below find the values of t and 𝑢 ⃗
4𝑢⃗ +t𝑢⃗ =(2,-4,6)
3𝑢⃗ -t𝑢
⃗ =(5,-10,15)

(ans. t=-2 and 𝑢

⃗ =(1,-2,3))

9. Find the directional angle that vector 𝑣=2i+4j+4k (ans.α=70.53, β=48.19,

γ=48.19).