Chapter 2

Chapter 2
Mathematical Modeling of
Engineering Systems
Dr.-Ing. Azmi Mohamed Yusof
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Content
 Learning outcome
 Mechanical Systems.
 Electrical Systems.
 Electromechanical Systems.
 Fluid Systems.
MEC 521 – VIBRATIONS : Dr. Azmi M.Yusof 2

1.0 Learning outcome
At the end of this chapter, student should be able to state and apply
the fundamental principle of control system to model mathematically
various engineering systems:-

Introduction
Mathematical modeling
 A mathematical model of a dynamic system is defined as a set of
equations that represents the dynamics of the system accurately
 The dynamics of many systems (mechanical, electrical, economic etc.)
may be described in terms of differential equations.
 The differential equations may be obtained by using physical laws
governing a particular system :-
 Newton’s laws for mechanical systems
 Kirchhoff’s laws for electrical systems
 Linear Systems
 the principle of superposition applies. i.e. the response produced by the
simultaneous application of two different forcing functions is the sum of the two
individual responses.
 In an experimental investigation of a dynamic system the cause and effect are
proportional,

Mathematical Modeling : Mechanical Systems
The spring element
 The spring property is denoted by the spring stiffness (k, unit in N/m)
 Springs can be set into series or parallel arrangement
 The restoring force from spring, 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥

 Parallel arrangement
𝑘𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2
 Series arrangement
1 1 1 1
= + or 𝑘𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 1 1
𝑘𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑘1 𝑘2 +
𝑘1 𝑘2
The damper / damping element
 Damper is a device to dissipate the mechanical energy
 The property of damper is the damping constant, c (unit Ns/m) or
damping ratio,  (no unit)
 The damping force, 𝐹 = 𝑐 𝑥ሶ
 Parallel arrangement
𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2
 Series arrangement
1 1 1 1
= + or 𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 1 1
𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐1 𝑐2 +
𝑐1 𝑐2

Degree Of Freedom (DOF)
 Minimum number of generalized coordinate to completely specify the
position of dynamic system
 No of equation of motion  DOF
2 DOF Rotation
2 DOF Translation
Newton’s 2nd law of motion / Euler’s law of motion
𝑑2𝑥
 Translational motion : σ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑥ሷ or σ 𝐹 = 𝑚 2
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2𝜃
 Rotational motion : σ 𝑀 = 𝐼𝑜 𝜃ሷ or σ 𝑀 = 𝐼𝑜 2
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑2𝜃
 General plane motion : σ 𝐹 = 𝑚 2
𝑑𝑡
and σ 𝑀 = 𝐼𝑜 2
𝑑𝑡
Mathematical Modeling : Mechanical system
Steps to write the mathematical model of mechanical systems
 Identify the classification of motion for the system (translation / rotation /
general plane motion)
 Identify the generalized coordinates and DOF
 Draw free body diagram (FBD) showing all forces acting on rigid body
 Draw kinetic diagram (KD) showing inertial component of forces acting
on rigid body
 Apply Newton’s Law / Euler’s law of motion, i.e σ 𝐹𝐹𝐵𝐷 = σ 𝐹𝐾𝐷 or
σ 𝑀𝐹𝐵𝐷 = σ 𝑀𝐾𝐷
 Establish and simplify the differential equation accordingly

Example
 Obtain mathematical models of the mechanical systems shown below
and write its transfer function

Solution
 Draw FBD 𝑚𝑥ሷ
 Apply Newton’s law

𝑘1 + 𝑘2 𝑥 m
෍ 𝐹𝐹𝐵𝐷 = ෍ 𝐹𝐾𝐷
𝑘1 +𝑘2 𝑘1 +𝑘2
− 𝑥 − 𝑢(𝑡) = 𝑚𝑥ሷ  𝑚𝑥ሷ + 𝑥 = 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘1 𝑘2
 Taking the Laplace transform

𝑘1 +𝑘2 𝑘1 +𝑘2
𝑚𝑠 2 𝑋(𝑠) + 𝑋(𝑠) = 𝑈(𝑠) 𝑋 𝑠 [𝑚𝑠 2 + ] = 𝑈(𝑠)
𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘1 𝑘2
𝑋(𝑠) 1
The trandfer function : = 𝑘 +𝑘
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝑘1 𝑘 2
1 2

Example
 Consider the spring-mass-dashpot system mounted on a massless cart
as shown in figure below. Obtain the mathematical models and transfer
function of the system by assuming that the cart is standing still for t < 0
and the spring-mass-dashpot system on the cart is also standing still for t
< 0. In this system, u(t) is the displacement of the cart and is the input to
the system. At t = 0, the cart is moved at a constant speed, or constant.

Solution
𝑚𝑦ሷ
 Draw FBD
 Apply Newtons’s law of motion 𝑘 𝑦−𝑢
−𝑘 𝑦 − 𝑢 − 𝑏 𝑦ሶ − 𝑢ሶ = 𝑚𝑦ሷ 𝑏 𝑦ሶ − 𝑢ሶ
 The equation of motion / mathematical model : 𝑚𝑦ሷ + 𝑏𝑦ሶ + 𝑘𝑦 = 𝑘𝑢 + 𝑐 𝑢ሶ
 Taking the Laplace transform, 
𝑚𝑠 2 𝑌 𝑠 + 𝑏𝑠𝑌 𝑠 + 𝑘𝑌(𝑠) = 𝑏𝑠𝑈 𝑠 + 𝑘𝑈(𝑠)
 Simplify,  𝑌 𝑠 [𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘] = 𝑈 𝑠 [𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘]
𝑌(𝑠) 𝑏𝑠+𝑘
 Transfer function, 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝑈(𝑠) = 2
𝑚𝑠 +𝑏𝑠+𝑘
 Block diagram
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘 𝑌(𝑠)
𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘

Example
 Find the transfer function, 2(s)/T(s), for the rotational system shown in
Figure (a). The rod is supported by bearings at either end and is
undergoing torsion. A torque is applied at the left, and the displacement
is measured at the right.

Solution
 The FBD is shown in Fig (b)
 Applying σ 𝑀𝐹𝐵𝐷 = σ 𝑀𝐾𝐷 for each rod
 For rod 1  𝐷1 𝜃ሶ1 𝑡 + 𝐾 𝜃1 𝑡 − 𝜃2 𝑡 + 𝑇 𝑡 = −𝐽1 𝜃ሷ1
 Applying Laplace transform
𝐷1 𝑠𝜃1 𝑠 + 𝐾 𝜃1 𝑠 − 𝜃2 𝑠 + 𝑇 𝑠 = −𝐽1 𝑠 2 𝜃1 𝑠
 Rearrange  𝜃1 𝑠 𝐽1 𝑠 2 + 𝐷1 𝑠 + 𝐾 − 𝐾𝜃2 𝑠 = 𝑇(𝑠) ---(1)
 For rod 2  𝐷2 𝜃ሶ2 𝑡 + 𝐾 𝜃2 𝑡 − 𝜃1 𝑡 = −𝐽2 𝜃ሷ2
 Applying Laplace transform
𝐷2 𝑠𝜃2 𝑠 + 𝐾 𝜃2 𝑠 − 𝜃1 𝑠 = −𝐽2 𝑠 2 𝜃2 𝑠
 Rearrange  𝜃2 𝑠 𝐽2 𝑠 2 + 𝐷2 𝑠 + 𝐾 − 𝐾𝜃1 𝑠 = 0 ---(2)
𝜃2 𝑠 𝐽2 𝑠 2 +𝐷2 𝑠+𝐾
 Or 𝜃1 𝑠 = 𝐾
----(3)

 Sub. (3) into (1)
𝜃2 𝑠 𝐽2 𝑠 2 +𝐷2 𝑠+𝐾
 𝐾
𝐽1 𝑠 2 + 𝐷1 𝑠 + 𝐾 − 𝐾𝜃2 𝑠 = 𝑇(𝑠)
𝐽2 𝑠 2 +𝐷2 𝑠+𝐾 𝐽1 𝑠 2 +𝐷1 𝑠+𝐾 −𝐾2

 𝜃2 𝑠 𝐾
= 𝑇(𝑠)
 The transfer function 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝜃𝑇(𝑠)

2 𝑠
=
𝐾
𝐽2 𝑠 2 +𝐷2 𝑠+𝐾 𝐽1 𝑠 2 +𝐷1 𝑠+𝐾 −𝐾2

Exercise
 Obtain the mathematical model and transfer function for the mechanical
system shown below
a) b)
c)
d)

Electrical system
 Basic laws governing electrical circuits are Kirchhoff’s current law and
Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
 Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL - node law)
 The sum of currents entering a node is equal to the sum of currents leaving the
same node
෍𝐼 = 0
𝐼3 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
 Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL - loop law)

 The sum of the voltage drops is equal to the sum of the voltage rises around a
loop
෍𝑉 = 0
𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 = 0
𝑉𝑠 − 𝐼𝑅1 − 𝐼𝑅2 = 0

Mathematical Modeling : Electrical system
L-R-C circuit
 Inductor
 Property : Inductance, L (unit in henry, H)
 Voltage across inductor
𝑑𝐼
𝑉𝐿 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
 Capacitor
 Property : Capacitance, C (unit in farad, F)
 Voltage across capacitor
1
𝑉𝑐 = න 𝐼 𝑑𝑡
𝐶
 Resistor
 Property : Resistance, R (unit in ohm, )
 Voltage across resistor
𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼 𝑅

 For the circuit shown below, applying the KVL yield :
𝑑𝑖 1
σ 𝑉 = 0,  𝐿 + 𝑖𝑅 + ‫𝑖𝑒 = 𝑡𝑑 𝑖 ׬‬
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
1
also
𝐶
‫𝑖׬‬ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒𝑜
 Let us write the transfer function, use Laplace transform pairs,

1 𝐼 𝑠 1
𝐿𝑠 𝐼 𝑠 + 𝑅𝐼(𝑠) + ∙ = 𝐸𝑖 (𝑠)  𝐼 𝑠 {𝐿𝑠 + 𝑅 + } = 𝐸𝑖 (𝑠)
𝐶 𝑠 𝐶𝑠
1 𝐼 𝑠
∙ = 𝐸𝑜 (𝑠)
𝐶 𝑠

 The transfer function
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) 1
𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) 𝐿𝐶𝑠 2 + 𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1
 The block diagram
𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) 1 𝐸𝑖 (𝑠)
𝐿𝐶𝑠 2 + 𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1

Example (multiple loop circuit)
 Consider the system shown in figure below. Assume that ei is the input
and eo is the output. The capacitances C1 and C2 are not charged
initially. Obtain the transfer function for the system.

Solution
 Using mesh analysis
 Loop 1
1
𝑒𝑖 − 𝑉𝑅1 − 𝑉𝐶1 = 0  𝑒𝑖 − 𝑖1 𝑅1 − ‫𝑖(׬‬1 − 𝑖2 )𝑑𝑡 = 0
𝐶
1 1
 𝐸𝑖 𝑠 = 𝑅1 𝐼1 𝑠 + 𝐼 𝑠 + 𝐼 𝑠 …..(1)
𝐶1 𝑠 1 𝐶1 𝑠 2
 Loop 2
1 1
𝑉𝐶2 + 𝑉𝑅1 + 𝑉𝐶1 = 0  ‫𝑖(׬‬2 − 𝑖1 )𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖2 𝑅2 + ‫𝑖 ׬‬2 𝑑𝑡 = 0
𝐶 1 𝐶 2
1 1 1
 𝐼 𝑠 − 𝐼 𝑠 + 𝑅2 𝐼2 (𝑠) + 𝐼 (𝑠) = 0…..(2)
𝐶1 𝑠 2 𝐶1 𝑠 1 𝐶2 𝑠 2
1 1
also 𝑒𝑜 = 𝑉𝐶2 𝑒𝑜 = ‫𝑖 ׬‬2 𝑑𝑡  𝐸𝑜 𝑠 = 𝐼 𝑠 ……(3)
𝐶2 𝐶2 𝑠 2

 Eliminate I1 by substitute (2) into (1)
 The transfer function is
𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) 1
𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑠 + 1 𝑅2 𝐶2 𝑠 + 1 + 𝑅1 𝐶2 𝑠

Impedance
 The transfer function for the resistor, capacitor and inductor are as follow
 Resistor : 𝑉(𝑠) = 𝑅 ∙ 𝐼 𝑠 , Resistive impedance,𝑍𝑅 = 𝑅
1 1
 Capacitor : 𝑉(𝑠) = ∙ 𝐼(𝑠), Capacitive impedance,𝑍𝐶 = 𝐶 ∙
𝐶
 Inductor : 𝑉(𝑠) = 𝐿𝑠 ∙ 𝐼(𝑠), Inductive impedance, 𝑍𝐿 = 𝐿𝑠
 The transfer function for impedance, 𝑍(𝑠) = 𝑉(𝑠)

𝐼(𝑠)
 Impedance = resist the current to flow, The impedance approach is valid

only if the initial conditions involved are all zeros

Example
 Obtain the transfer function Eo(s)/Ei(s) by use of the complex impedance
approach for the circuit shown in fig (a). Given that
𝑍1 = 𝑍𝑅1 , 𝑍2 = 𝑍𝐶1 , 𝑍3 = 𝑍𝑅2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑍4 = 𝑍𝐶2

Solution
 We may redraw fig a into fig. b.
 Applying KVL for the first loop
𝐸𝑖 𝑠 = 𝐼 𝑠 𝑍1 + 𝐼1 𝑠 𝑍2  𝐸𝑖 𝑠 = [𝐼1 𝑠 + 𝐼2 𝑠 ]𝑍1 + 𝐼1 𝑠 𝑍2 --------(1)
 Applying KVL for the second loop
−𝐼1 𝑠 𝑍2 + 𝐼2 (𝑠)𝑍3 + 𝐼2 (𝑠)𝑍4 = 0 --------(2)
 Also we have,
𝐸𝑜 𝑠 = 𝐼2 𝑠 𝑍4 --------(3)
 From (2) 𝐼1 𝑠 = 𝐼2 𝑠 𝑍3𝑍+𝐼2 𝑠 𝑍4 --------(4)

2
𝑍3 +𝑍4
 Sub. (4) into (1)  𝐸𝑖 𝑠 = 𝐼2 𝑠 𝑍1 + [𝑍1 + 𝑍2 ] 𝑍2
𝐼2 𝑠
 Thus, 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝐸𝐸𝑜 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑍 𝑍 +(𝑍 𝑍+𝑍

4 𝑍2
)(𝑍 +𝑍 )
=
1
𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑠+1 𝑅2 𝐶2 𝑠+1 +𝑅1 𝐶2 𝑠
𝑖 1 2 1 2 3 4

Summary

Exercise
 Obtain the transfer function for the circuit shown below
a) b) c)
d) e)

Mathematical Modeling : Electromechanical System
 hybrids of electrical and mechanical variables
 electrical input   mechanical output
 Example : electric motor

 The armature circuit consists of the resistance and coil (inductor) where
the magnetic fields are generated that produce force to turn the rotor
𝐹 = 𝐵 ∙ 𝑖𝑎 ∙ 𝑙
 When the current carrying conductor is rotating in a magnetic field, the
back emf is produced:
𝑑𝜃(𝑡) 𝑑𝜃(𝑡)
𝑣𝑏 = 𝐾𝑏 where is the angular frequency and is 𝐾𝑏 the constant
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 Taking Laplace transform for 𝑣𝑏

𝑉𝑏 𝑠 = 𝐾𝑏 ∙ 𝑠 ∙ 𝜃(𝑠)
 Applying KVL for armature circuit
𝑑𝑖𝑎 (𝑡)
𝑒𝑎 𝑡 + 𝑉𝑅𝑎 + 𝑉𝐿𝑎 + 𝑉𝑏 𝑡 = 0  𝑒𝑎 𝑡 = 𝑖𝑎 𝑡 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐿 + 𝑉𝑏 𝑡 =0
𝑑𝑡

𝐸𝑎 𝑠 = 𝐼𝑎 𝑠 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐿𝑠𝐼𝑎 𝑠 + 𝑉𝑏 (𝑠)
𝐸𝑎 𝑠 = 𝐼𝑎 𝑠 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐿𝑠𝐼𝑎 𝑠 + 𝐾𝑏 ∙ 𝑠 ∙ 𝜃(𝑠)
 The torque produced in the armature is proportional to the current input
𝜏(𝑡) ∝ 𝑖𝑎 (𝑡)  𝜏 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑡 𝑖𝑎 (𝑡) where 𝐾𝑡 is the constant
T 𝑠 = 𝐾𝑡 𝐼𝑎 (𝑠)
 Finally the total voltage in armature circuit become
(𝑅𝑎 +𝐿𝑎 𝑠)𝑇(𝑠)
  𝐸𝑎 𝑠 = + 𝐾𝑏 ∙ 𝑠 ∙ 𝜃(𝑠)
𝐾𝑡
 We are going to determine the transfer function for the system which is
𝜃𝑚 (𝑠)
𝐺 𝑠 =
𝐸𝑎 (𝑠)
 The output consisting the shaft and damper as shown in figure. The
equation of motion for this system is
ሷ
J𝜃(𝑡) ሶ
+ 𝑐 𝜃(𝑡) − 𝑇(𝑡) = 0
 The Laplace transform is,  𝐽𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑠 + 𝑐𝑠𝜃 𝑠 = 𝑇 𝑠
 The equation for input voltage now became
(𝑅𝑎 +𝐿𝑎 𝑠)𝐽𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑠 + 𝑐𝑠𝜃 𝑠
𝐸𝑎 𝑠 = + 𝐾𝑏 ∙ 𝑠 ∙ 𝜃(𝑠)
𝐾𝑡
 Assume that the resistance in the coil is more dominant, thus eliminate
𝐿𝑎
𝑅𝑎 𝐽𝑠 2 + 𝑐𝑠
𝐸𝑎 𝑠 = 𝜃(𝑠) + 𝐾𝑏 ∙ s
𝐾𝑡
 Finally the transfer function is
𝜃𝑚 (𝑠) 𝐾𝑡 /(𝑅𝑎 𝐽)
𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝐸𝑎 (𝑠) 𝑠 𝑠 + 1 𝑐 + 𝐾𝑡 𝐾𝑏
𝐽 𝑅𝑎
 The simplified version of transfer function is written as
𝜃𝑚 (𝑠) 𝐾
𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝐸𝑎 (𝑠) 𝑠 𝑠 + 𝛼

Gear train system
 Suppose the external load is driven by a motor using a gear train as
shown below
 Suppose N1 and N2 are the number of teeth of gear train

 The equivalent moment of inertia Jm and damping constant Dm is given
by:-
2
𝑁1
𝐽𝑚 = 𝐽𝑎 + 𝐽𝐿
𝑁2
2
𝑁1
𝐷𝑚 = 𝐷𝑎 + 𝐷𝐿
𝑁2
Torque-speed curves
 In the experimental test the relationship
between the torque (T) and angular speed
() at varying input voltage (ea) is as
shown in figure
 The stall toque (Tstall) – the torque at zero
speed is given by
𝐾𝑡
𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝑒𝑎
𝑅𝑎
 Angular velocity (no-load) at zero torque (T
= 0) or without load is given by
𝑒𝑎
𝜔𝑛𝑜−𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 =
𝐾𝑏

Example
 Given the system and torque-speed curve of Figure below, find the
transfer function

 Solution
 Finding the moment of inertia and damping contant
 Find the electrical constants, Kt = Ra and Kb. From the torque-speed

curve
 the electrical constants are

 Substitute into equation for finding the transfer function
𝜃𝑚 (𝑠) 𝐾𝑡 /(𝑅𝑎 𝐽)
𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝐸𝑎 (𝑠) 𝑠 𝑠 + 1 𝑐 + 𝐾𝑡 𝐾𝑏
𝐽 𝑅𝑎
 The block diagram

Exercise
 For the motor, load, and torque-speed curve shown in Figure below, find
the transfer function, .

Mathematical Modeling : Fluid system
Resistance and Capacitance of Liquid-Level Systems
 Fluidic resistance  element that resitrict the fluid to flow. Example :
valve, small opening on a vessel / container
 Fluidic capacitance  element that store liquid / fluid. Example :
Container, vessel, accumulator

 Fluid resistance, R
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 ∆𝐻 𝑚
𝑅= = =
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 ∆𝑄 𝑚3 /𝑠
 For laminar flow,
𝑄 ∝ 𝐻,  𝑄 = 𝐾𝐻 where K is a constant
 For turbulent flow
𝑄=𝐾 𝐻
 Fluid capacitance, C
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑚3
𝐶= =
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑚
 Since the inflow minus outflow during the small time interval dtis equal to
the additional amount stored in the tank, we see that
𝐶𝑑ℎ = 𝑞 − 𝑞𝑜 𝑑𝑡

 From 𝑞𝑜 = 𝑅ℎ, equation 1 now become
𝑑ℎ(𝑡)
𝑅𝐶 + ℎ(𝑡) = 𝑅𝑞(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
 Taking the Laplace transform:-
𝑅𝐶𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 + 𝐻 𝑠 = 𝑅 𝑄(𝑠)  𝐻 𝑠 [𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1] = 𝑅 𝑄(𝑠)
𝐻(𝑠) 𝑅
𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝑄(𝑠) 𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1

Example
 Obtain the transfer function for the system shown in figure below

Solution
ℎ1 −ℎ2
 𝑅1
= 𝑞1
 𝐶1 𝑑ℎ
𝑑𝑡
1
= 𝑞 − 𝑞1
ℎ2
 𝑅2
= 𝑞2
 𝐶2 𝑑ℎ
𝑑𝑡
2
= 𝑞1 − 𝑞2

𝑄2 (𝑠) 1
𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝑄(𝑠) 𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑅2 𝐶2 𝑠 2 + 𝑅1 𝐶1 + 𝑅2 𝐶2 + 𝑅2 𝐶1 𝑠 + 1

Chapter 2

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Chapter 2

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Chapter 2

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 The restoring force from spring, 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥

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 Apply Newton’s law

 Taking the Laplace transform

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𝐽2 𝑠 2 +𝐷2 𝑠+𝐾 𝐽1 𝑠 2 +𝐷1 𝑠+𝐾 −𝐾2

 The transfer function 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝜃𝑇(𝑠)

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 Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL - loop law)

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 Let us write the transfer function, use Laplace transform pairs,

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 The transfer function for impedance, 𝑍(𝑠) = 𝑉(𝑠)

 Impedance = resist the current to flow, The impedance approach is valid

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 From (2) 𝐼1 𝑠 = 𝐼2 𝑠 𝑍3𝑍+𝐼2 𝑠 𝑍4 --------(4)

 Thus, 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝐸𝐸𝑜 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑍 𝑍 +(𝑍 𝑍+𝑍

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 Taking Laplace transform for 𝑣𝑏

 Taking the Laplace transform

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 Suppose N1 and N2 are the number of teeth of gear train

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 Find the electrical constants, Kt = Ra and Kb. From the torque-speed

 the electrical constants are

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 The block diagram

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 The transfer function

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