Chapter - I

Introduction and Statement of the Problem

 Chapter-I

Introduction

The topic “Topological Model for Traffic Management in Urban

Centres – A Data Base Management Systems approach” has been

chosen after some events encountered.

The First one being, an accident suffered by a girl, who visited twin

cities of Hyderabad for computer education anticipating a greener career.

She was travelling by Public Transport., as she got down the bus was

crossing the road only to be hit by a speeding car overtaking the bus she

just got down. Shows the need for minimizing accidents.

Second instance, a resident who wanted to catch a train at Railway

station 5 k.m. away, was looking for an auto, to catch the train ready to

leave in 10 minutes, enquired how-long it will take to reach the station.

This question although looks simple, is difficult to answer. The auto-driver

replied that the distance is something like 5 k.m., can be covered in 5-8

minutes. But there are 5 signals to pass, taking anything like 5 minutes at

each signal, need additional 25 minutes; hence it takes 30 minutes at

minimum. By that time the train will leave the station. This has prompted

me to look for minimizing the waiting time at traffic signals.

The Third, report in Newspapers, that Police Personnel supervising

of traffic at intersection, are suffering health hazards due to vehicular

pollution. I have also noticed that a large number of two wheeler users and

their Pelion and some pedestrian too, tie a hand-kerchief, a scarf around

1
 Chapter-I

their face to protect themselves from vehicular pollution. Shows there is

every need for minimizing vehicular pollution.

It is well recognized that application of Data Based Management

System would improve the efficiency and effectiveness of any System.

Accordingly, I have opted the topic “Topological Model for Traffic

Management at Urban Centers – a Data Base Management System

approach”.

In view of recent reports that Engineering solutions of Education,

Engineering and Empowerment have offering only temporary relief and not

permanent solution to the problems, I have decided to adopt a Mathematical

Modeling approach of Topological Graph Theory to simplify the Traffic

Management.

2
 Chapter-I

The National Priority on Urban Mobility :

Urban mobility faces several problems. Union Government has been

trying to solve them, by Five Year Plans. World over the problems of

Mobility has been tackled by speed mobility solutions and providing

infrastructure like road widening, flyovers, pedestrian walkways, over -

bridges and sub-ways. The Working group constituted by the Ministry of

Urban Transport has evaluated the approaches and came to a conclusion

that they are providing only temporary relief and thus the problem needs a

fresh look. Hence it is felt that a Mathematical Modeling approach is

worthy. My approach to the problem is as follows:

To make the study simple, I have adopted the approach of

Topological Graph Theory, which is distinct from other branches of

mathematics. As a Mathematical Modeling Tool this approach has

facilitated graphical representation of the problem and I am able to use the

principles of planarity, connectedness, isomorphism, decomposition/

partition, to simplify the traffic management problem of accident. This has

facilitated me in controlling the number of conflict points and to evolve

simpler signaling system to save time of the commuters. The traffic signals

need simplified approach to eliminated wastage of time and fuel at traffic

signals and also to reduced exposure to vehicular pollution.

3
 Chapter-I

Objectives of the study :

The objectives of the study are

1 To control Road Accidents (between vehicle-to-vehicle and

Vehicle-to-Pedestrian) at Urban Centres..

2. To Minimize, waiting time at Traffic signals (4-leg intersection

and Pedestrian Crossing) resulting in time loss and Wastage of

fuel.

3. To minimize the intensity and duration of exposure to vehicular

pollution, suffered by the commuters at Traffic Signals

The Tertiary Objectives are :

a. To improve average speed of commuting.

b. To improve overall capacity of the road.

c. To improve fuel efficiency of the vehicles

Scope of the study:

1. The study concentrates on Model for Traffic Management at 4-

leg intersection and Pedestrian Crossing. The T-intersection

(three and multiple legged intersections) are outside the scope of

the study.

2. The approaches of speed transport modes (BRTS, MMTS, Metro,

Light Rail) and their repercussions are outside the purview of this

study.

3. More emphasis is attached to safety, saving of time and fuel and

exposure to Pollution and hence improving efficiency of traffic

management by using DBMS will not be covered.

4
 Chapter-I

Overview of Traffic Accidents in India during the year 2010.

Majority of the road accidents Vehicle-Vehicle and Vehicle-

Pedestrian are encountered at intersections. Pedestrian suffer accidents

while crossing the road. To solve the problem several congestion. Road

widened. This has resulted in commuting by multi-lane system facilitated

overtaking, has resulted in increased accidents and congestion and other

connected problems in urban mobility.

Problem of overtaking from left and right; speeding up or slow down

or stopping suddenly. Entering from by-lanes and driving into has been

common; availability more capable engines without corresponding driving

skills is also found to be a reason. Public transport buses do not have

dedicated lanes. They overtake other commuters and commuters too have

the option and have to bear with condition of the road. Buses have to stop

every 500 mts in the name of commuter convenience. Pedestrian crossing

the road wherever they please. They also take L-turn, U-turn at

intersections, to follow their route . Wastage of fuel is rampant, emission

by vehicles is common.

Vehicular Accidents - overtaking, taking turn, changing lanes by

two, three, four wheelers. Pedestrian suffer accidents while crossing the

road, to catch bus or going to work place after leaving the bus.

a. Congestion, accidents, vehicular pollution and unbearable costs of

traffic management are universal phenomena. Working Group on

Traffic Management of Govt. of India has gone in to the problem

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 Chapter-I

and evolved approaches for urban mobility, has suggested

establishment of Centers of Excellence,

b. Experts in Traffic Management have opined that Roads Widening

and Flyovers at enormous costs are not resulting in sizable

improvement of the situation.

c. The Working group on Traffic Management has also studied the

approaches following worldwide and came to the conclusion that

they are not fit for Indian situation and found to be a costly

approach. Have suggested for fresh look to the problems to find an

indigenous solution.

The following table shows the number of road accidents (in thousands),

Number of persons injured and persons killed during the years 2006-2012.

(India) (‘000)

Sl.No. Year Road Accidents Persons injured Persons

killed
1. 2006 394.4 452.9 1,05,725
2. 2007 418.6 465.3 1,14,590
3. 2008 415.8 469.1 1,18,239
4. 2009 421.6 466.6 1,26,896
5. 2010 430.6 470.6 1,33,938
6. 2011 440.1 468.8 1,36,834
7. 2012 440.0 469.9 1,39,091

Source :Col.9 of ‘Road Transport Year Book, Min of Road Transport &
Highways, GOI . (Figures in Lakhs)

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 Chapter-II

Road Accidents 
450 440.1
440
430 440
4
418.6
420 430.6
410 421.6
415.8
400
394.4
390
380
370
2006 200
07 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Road Accid
dents 

Persons kille
ed
160000
126896 136834
114590
120000 139091
1
133938
18239
11
80000 105725

40000

0
2006 2007
2 200
08 2009 2010 2011 2012
2
Persons kkilled

o the acciddents at Urrban Centrres, betweeen vehicle take placee

Most of

at intersection
i ns and peddestrian sufffer accidennts while crossing
c thee road.

“Higheest incidencces of Trafffic Accideent cases w

was reportedd in
Delhi City
C (74799) which reesulted in 5809 injurred and 28 829 deaths;;
Bangalluru (6490)) cases, 5376 injuriess and 832 ddeaths;
Mumbai 4008 casses, 3492 injuries
i andd 785 deathhs; ……… ….

Thee number ofo Accidennts, Injured and deathhs occurredd during thee yea 20100
at 335 major ceentres are given
g in thee followingg trable.

7
 Chapter-I

Accidents at 35 Mega Cities - 2010

Accidents- 2010
Road cases Injured deaths
1 Agra 1120 818 559
2 Ahmedabad 240 240
3 Allahabad 483 333 262
4 Amritsar 70 68 70
5 Asansol 152 80 191
6 Bengaluru 6490 5376 832
7 Bhopal 3169 2492 187
8 Chennai 5123 4425 607
9 Coimbatore 1131 1066 274
10 Delhi 5987 5389 1757
11 Dhanbad 137 44 45
12 Faridabad 710 545 263
13 Hyderabad 3025 2617 543
14 Indore 203 70 221
15 Jabalpur 201 112 201
16 Jaipur 2337 2123 530
17 Jamshedpur 487 372 201
18 Kanpur 1028 348 680
19 Kochi 1779 1783 166
20 Kolkata 2967 2738 353
21 Lucknow 1281 809 504
22 Ludhiana 57 53 59
23 Madhurai 568 522 117
24 Meerut 930 642 385
25 Mumbai 4005 3492 782
26 Nagpur 1758 1319 343
27 Nasik 3040 2980 233
28 Patna 208 98 106
29 Pune 1974 1607 571
30 Rajkot 1077 1183 147
31 Surat 982 941 229
32 Vadodara 1280 1361 192
33 Varanasi 349 122 237
34 Vijayawada 1341 1340 387
35 Vishakhapatnam 1866 1804 461
Total 5755 48951 12935

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 Chapter-I

Approach to the problem :

Urban Road are network of wide roads and intersections While

accidents between Vehicles are encountered at intersections, pedestrian

suffer accidents while crossing the road, these two spots are selected for the

study. The traffic movement at the spots was studied and the reason for

accidents is found to be encountering a large number conflict points (High

Crossing Nnumber of the Graph). Accordingly, we have taken up

minimize/ eliminate the conflict points using the methods of Mathematical

Modeling of Topological Graph Theory. The Graphs of Intersection and

Pedestrian crossing were prepared. The Number of ‘Conflict points”

represented by edge crossing (Cross Number) were 16 and 4 respectively.

In the second phase, the traffic signals were studied. It was found

that the Traffic Signals at intersection operating in four phases, while that

of Pedestrian Crossing in two Phases. Thereby each leg commuters are

waiting for 3 phases of the signal at intersection, while Pedestrian signals

are stopped for one phase. Thereby much time and fuel (while idling at

signals) were lost. We need to simplify the waiting time.

The intensity and duration of Vehicular Pollution at intersection and

Pedestrian signals were worked out. 3 leg commuters contribute to

pollution at intersection signals. Each commuter suffers vehicular pollution

for a duration of 3 Phases of the signals. We need to simplify the duration

and intensity of pollution.

9
 Chapter-I

Using the methods of Graph Theory, the Graphs of Intersection and

Pedestrian Creossing were simplified to minimize the crossing number of

their graphs and adopted to the traffic management at these spots, Which

reduced the scope of accidents and improved the signals. The solutions

were recommended of adoption.

And I am happy to report that all the objectives of the study are

achieved.

Simplification of Traffic Management and Operation of Traffic Signals

at Intersection :
The problem of large waiting time at busy signaled intersection will

be studied and the number of phases in which signal operated is noted. The

numbers of conflict points encountered at the intersection will be recorded.

Using the methods of Mathematical Modeling The 4-leg intersection and

pedestrian crossing are represented by Graph in the form of Vertices and

Edges, and make them Planarity (by eliminating edge crossings) . Using

the methods of Graph Theory, the edges are altered and intersection graph

is partitioned into non-empty planar sub-graphs. The non-planar part of

the graph will be represented as union of isomorphic sub-graphs. The traffic

on these edges ply without hindrance (accident). The remaining portion is

proved to be of thickness of ONE . Since it cannot be Planar, we have opted

to introduce come controls by Traffic Signals and revise the Graph to 8

Conflict points and adopted it to intersection with Traffic Signals operating

in two Phases, to save fuel and time.

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 Chapter-I

Simplification of Pedestrian Crossing and its signals:

The problem of large waiting time at busy signaled pedestrian

crossing will be studied and the number of phases in which it operates, is

noted. The number of conflict points encountered will be recorded. Using

a Mathematical Model, the graph of Pedestrian Crossing has been

simplified . Finally, modified Graph is adopted to traffic management at

pedestrian crossing. This would minimize the waiting time of commuters.

Observations on approaches to traffic management:

a. Road Widening: When roads widened to 100’ and more, they have

facilitated use of the road in 4 lanes outward and another 4 inward.

Are permitted to overtake from left and right freely. Vehicles change

lanes using speed, apply breaks when necessary, they overtake from

left or right of a vehicle.

When traffic jam occurs, they drive at snail pace, as also follow the

car rule is not mandatory, they overtake, stop or speedup at will.

Hence, may be hit from behind, or may hit vehicle in front of them,

side swap may occur. Such happenings increased after road

widening.

b. Road widening has increased the road width. Thereby, pedestrian are

required to walk large distance to reach the other end of the road,

thereby take longer time to cross the road. Vehicle drivers complain

of increase in their of waiting-time at pedestrian crossing.

c. When 3-4 lane vehicles reach the intersection, each one option to

take left leg, opposite leg, right leg by commuters of all 4 legs, the

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 Chapter-I

number of conflict points increase in multiple. Thereby more

congestion is encountered.

d. No exclusive bus lanes are provided, hence overtaking by bus and

overtaking bus by vehicles freely happen. Bus stops at bus stops,

and vehicles following them or overtake often hitting the pedestrian

who get down from the bus.

e. The bus has two entry/exit doors, one at front and other at the back.

When bus stops, commuters alight the bus from these doors, cross

the road from the front and back of the bus, being hit by vehicles

overtaking the bus or vehicles driving from opposite direction of the

bus. When the bus stops at the bus-stop, the vehicles behind the bus

will overtake the bus, may hit the pedestrian crossing the road. The

accidents have increased as a result.

f. During the waiting time at the signals, the engine of the vehicles are

not switched off. The vehicular exhaust causes pollution and

commuters waiting at signals are exposed to. At a 4 leg intersection,

traffic signals operating in 4 phases, always 3 leg commuters will be

waiting at any point of time. Again, each commuter waits for 3

phases of the traffic signal to get their turn to cross the intersection.

g. To prevent pedestrian crossing the road, road dividers are created

from one intersection to another. Except at pedestrian crossing. The

vehicles who need to take U-turn are prevented and forced to take U-

turn only at pedestrian crossing or next intersection, causing

congestion, as U-turn requires more space and time. Further,

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 Chapter-I

incidence of wrong side driving is observed putting commuters

prone to accidents, often fatal.

h. Increase use of Public Transport results in increase in number of

pedestrian crossing the road:

It is observed that each person using public transport is required to

cross the road once at commencement or work place, either in

onward journey or return, that is twice in a trip. Hence, sufficient

capacity of pedestrian crossing are to be created, since twice the

people using public transport user would cross the road.

i. The driver/pedestrian requires 3 seconds time to take corrective

action, to avoid accident. The time is provided.

j. Vehicular exhaust is attributed to 70% of pollution in cities.

Pollution is due to driving at subnormal speed; stop-start operations

and not maintaining vehicles properly the pollution is high at traffic

signals. At any time commuters of 3 legs will be waiting at

intersection. Each leg commuter will wait for 3 Phases of the

signals. Hence, 75% of the vehicles that cross the intersection

contribute to pollution at intersection, through out the day.

k. Capacity of intersection is the number of vehicles use the

interchanges. Need to be improved.

l. It is found that introduction of Road dividers to restrict Pedestrian

crossing the road (to save from accidents) has caused inconvenience

to Vehicular commuters. The dividers force vehicular commuters to

take U-turn at nearest junction, increase in jams, severing congestion

and accidents to vehicular commuters. Installing dividers without

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 Chapter-I

provision for road-over bridges or sub-ways for use of pedestrian is

not a good approach.

m. After roads are widened, vehicles ply in 3-4 lanes in each direction

and Road dividers are constructed. There are no road over bridge or

underway. Pedestrian are at mercy of vehicular drivers (to cross the

road). Instances are common that Pedestrian look for auto to cross

the road.

n. The Signaled intersections donot provide for U-turn, thereby

congestion and accidents are resulted.

o. The motor cyclists donot have the concept of breaking time,

breaking distance, purpose of horn. Thereby, change lanes, stop or

speed up.

p. The motorcyclists are not aware that it requires 3 seconds to notice a

danger and to take corrective action, thereby fall pray to accidents.

q. To Main Roads and Streets are not separated, thereby slow and

speed moving vehicles ply on some roads, there by congestion,

accidents are common.

r. In case of encouraging use of public transport in place of self-driven

vehicles, it is found that the need for road crossing by pedestrian has

increased in proportion to the number of people using public

transport. Each commuter taking public transport is required to

cross the road two times in a trip. Without corresponding facilities

for crossing the road (road-over bridges; sub-ways), the

recommendation results in increase in pedestrian suffering injury or

fatality. Hence the recommendation to use public transport to

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 Chapter-I

individual driven vehicles needs a fresh thinking in view of

observation.

s. Since, the Engineering solutions of widening of roads, building

flyovers of different kind involve high investment and the Working

Group’s recommendation to look for simpler solutions, has

encouraged us work on accident control and saving commuters time

especially at traffic junctions and pedestrian crossing.

t. Delay at traffic signals are viewed as invisible speed breakers by the

Vehicular commuters.

u. Citizen are reluctant to take Public Transport, due to uncertainty,

lack of parking place, high parking fee.

v. Investment on individual vehicles is costly

w. Cost of private transport is comparable to individual vehicle use.

x. Roads are poorly maintained.

y. Pedestrian express displeasure to take walk-way, under-way and ask

for escalator or lift.

z. Increased speed would result in severity of accidents.

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 Chapter-I

Summary of Findings relevant to Traffic Management:

1. The number of conflict points (Crossing Number of its graph) of 4-

leg intersection is ‘16’, and that of Pedestrian Crossing is ‘4’. Larger

Crossing Number indicates that larger accidents are likely to occur.

2. The signals at intersection operate in FOUR phases and that of

Pedestrian Crossing in TWO Phases. Larger number of Phases

results in larger loss of time and fuel. Low average speed.

3. The fuel wastage (during waiting for signals)for Vehicular

commuters is for 3 phases of the traffic signals

4. At any point of time, commuters of 3-legs will be present at the

intersection contributing pollution.

5. Each leg commuter will wait for a duration of 3 phases of the signals

contribute pollution.

6. The Signals at Pedestrian Crossing operate in TWO phases.

Vehicular and Pedestrian commuters are made to wait for a duration

of ONE phase of the signal.

7. Crossing Number is the indicates the number of phases the traffic

signals will operate.

8. Thickness of the Graph indicates the number of layers the road

system needs to be free from accidents.

9. People using public transport (Pedestrian), cross the road two times

in a trip. Thereby, increased use of public transport results in

increased number of pedestrian crossing the road (two times in a

trip).

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 Chapter-I

10. Citizen are hesitant to use Public Transport due to lack of parking

place and lack of last mile transport facility.

Statement of the problem :

A large number of accidents are encountered at Major urban centres

[1] ; A lot of time is lost at Traffic Signals at intersection and Pedestrian

Crossing[2]; fuel wastage due to number of stop and start operations [3],

idling at the traffic signals[4]; Increasing cost of transportation results in

increased cost goods and services[5] . It is found that the traffic signals are

applied more as restraint measure than facilitating traffic movement, thus

need improvement[6]. The bar on entry of goods vehicles during the day

increases cost of living[7] and resulting in wastage of time results in

economic loss[8]. As much as 70% of pollution is attributed to traffic and

Commuters are exposed to a large vehicular emission resulting in health

problems[9]. Their average speed is found far below the capacity of the

vehicles they use [10].

India depends mostly on imported Petroleum products, and our

balance of payment situation is in strain. To discourage its use of imported

petrol, taxes are levied imported fuel. It is said that the taxes levied to a

tune of 40-50% of the cost[11]. The infrastructure creation by way of

widening of roads, constructing flyovers, installing traffic signals and

employing traffic signals at intersections and pedestrian crossing are giving

only temporary relief and increased vehicles are occupying the space

created[12]. The signals at traffic intersections and pedestrian crossing are

termed as invisible speed breakers by the vehicular commuters[13] and

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 Chapter-I

road crossing is scaring the pedestrian more lives are lost in accidents than

ailments. More young people lost life than the aged.[14].

Loss of hundreds of productive hours in traffic snarls has been

recorded world-wide[15]. The Comprehensive Traffic Studies undertaken

in India also at Metro cities also. For instance, In Bangalore, an average

person lost 272 hours in year due to traffic jam was documented. VIP

movements, Ambulance movement are affected due to Jam and special

arrangements are needed shows the position of traffic problem[16].

Working professionals complain that they spend 2 hours to reach office

which is 30 k.m. away. Person leaving home is doubtful to return, due to

high incidence of traffic accidents[17].

Urban is place where agricultural activity is low and is understood

as a place for industries, trade and commerce. A Place of high density of

population. Has ample facilities for employment, education, health care and

recreation. It is also understood as a place of comfort, with facility of

residential colonies, availability of drinking water, electricity and facility of

road, well lit for day night commuting. According to Censes 2011,

31.16% of Indian population live in Urban Centers The term has elaborate

meaning for Censes[18] :

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 Chapter-I

Statutory Town
1. A Municipality, Corporation, Cantonment Board or notified town

area where Area Committee has been constituted by Law.

2. A Place whose population is more than 5,000 is called Census Town.

3. Where more than 75% Men engage in non-agricultural activity.

4. Population Density more than 400 per Sq. Km. are called Statutory

Towns

5. Urban Agglomeration – An urban agglomeration is a continuous

urban spread constituting a town and its adjoining out growths, or

two or more physically continuous towns together with or without

outgrowths of such towns. (Greater UA. Delhi UA).

According to 2011 Census[19]:

There are 4041 Statutory Towns.

3894 Census Towns.

475 Urban Agglomerations

981 Out Growths in India.

“At the Census 2011 there are 7,935 towns in the country. Many of

these are part of Urban Agglomeration and the rest are independent towns.

The toal number of Urban Agglomerations/Towns, which constitutes the

urban fame, is 7,166 in the country.”

Of those, Class I cities (population more than 1 lakh) are 468 in

number. 70% of population live.

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 Chapter-I

There are 53 urban centers (population more than Ten Lakh) account

for 42.6% population.

There are Mega/Metro (population of more than a Million), and

Mega cities (with population of more than 10 million)

Greater Mumbai 18.4 Million.

Delhi UA 16.3 Million

Kolkata UA 14.1 Million

The Class I cities (population more than 1 lakh) 53 cities on priority

list for safe, smooth urban mobility as large number of accidents and loss

of valuable time of commuters, at traffic signals are:

The road structure of any town constitutes, intersections and roads,

where pedestrian and vehicular commuters move.

Improved standard of living and availability of motorized vehicles,

resulted in acquiring 2,3 and 4 wheelers for personal use. Thereby, traffic

Jam/Congestion, accidents, pollution are high. Many a pedestrian lost life

due to traffic accidents. Intersections where traffic is not supervised by

policemen or signals record accidents and traffic jam is common [22].

Pedestrian cross the road without signals are prone to accident and death.

Where traffic signals are provided, vehicular commuters are complaining of

low average speed and loss of valuable time [23].

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 Chapter-I

Congestion or jam is the impedance and delay imposed by one

vehicle on another [24]. When congestion occurs, due to wastage of fuel

and time the cost of transportation increases [25]. Delay to people, freight

results in increased cost of goods and services. The cost of maintenance of

vehicles also increased. The situation demand higher driving skills and

alertness[26]. The vehicular pollution increased, there by the health of the

commuters is affected due to pollution.

The accidents are due to two vehicles trying to occupy same spot,

while their paths cross one another [27]. The point of crossing is called

‘conflict point’. Higher the number of conflict points higher will be more

scope for accidents. To avoid a crash drivers are required to regulate their

speed, change direction or stop. Thereby, the vehicles that follow them are

forced to do so resulting in congestion or jam and when drivers fail to

control results in accident. The Crossing Number of the Graph indicates

the number of conflict points encountered.

To regulate accidents, traffic signals are introduced [28]. While

they are very useful, the time loss at the signals is found to be unbearable

and vehicular commuters complain that their average speed has fallen

drastically[29].

Road Accident deaths Urban Centers:

The loss of life is so severe that a person going out for work, is

doubtful of returning. The traffic jam is frequently referred as hell in daily

news paper terms. A a result of Jam commuters are exposured to a large

21
 Chapter-I

vehicular exhaust causing ailments and there are reports that people dye

two days early fore each day of exposure to vehicular pollution. [30].

According to Guardian, in its report on Road Safety Fund, “Traffic

accidents are ‘biggest killer of young people worldwide’, “Roads are now

the biggest killer of young people over the age of 10, with road traffic

deaths contributing a global health epidemic that has reached crisis

proportions,” according to Safe and Sustainable Roads report, launched by

Campaign for Global Road Safety. The report blames the high numbers of

fatalities on transport policies that put vehicles, highways and speed before

people and road safety. The vast majority of those who die are in

developing countries, with 20 countries accounting for 70% of global road

deaths.”

Traffic Congestion :
The Urban Problems [31] “There are two main problems that

modern day cities face, viz., urban decay when parts of the city become run

down and undesirable to live in, and traffic congestion. Traffic congestion

is caused by:

a. Large number of people work in central part of the city, which may

have narrow streets.

b. Shortage of off-street parking which means people park on the roads

and so increase congestion.

c. People not using public transport – either because it is less

convenient, too expensive or not available.

d. More people own and use cars.” (www.scalloway.org.uk/sett16.htm)

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 Chapter-I

Speaking about the traffic jams, the website further says[31]:

“As an example of how bad traffic ams now are, a hundred years ago

it took about one hour to travel from Paramatta to the centre of Sydney

(Australia) by horse and cart. Today it takes longer by car.”

“A complete solution to traffic congestion needs people to be able

and willing to travel on public transport more”, the web-site opiones.

Speaking about unreliability in planning a trip, the website says [31]:

“The Planning Time Index (PTI), a measure of travel reliability,

illustrates the amount of extra time needed to arrive on time for higher

priority events, such as an airline departure, just-in-time shipments, medical

appointments or especially important social commitments. If the PTI for a

particular trip is 3.00, a traveler would allow 60 minutes for a trip that

typically takes 20 minutes when few cars are on the road. Allowing for a

PTI of 3.00 ensure on-time arrival 19 out of 20 times”. Shows the

uncertainty involved due to congestion/traffic jam

Narrating about fuel wastage, the report of 2011 says [32]:

“Congestion wastes a massive amount of time, fuel and money. In 2011:

a. 5.5 billion hours of extra time (equivalent to the time businesses and

individuals spenda year filing their taxes)

b. 2.9 billion gallons of wasted fuel (enough to fill four New Orleans

Superdomes).

23
 Chapter-I

c. $121 billion of delay and fuel cost (the negative effect of uncertain

or longer delivery times, missed meetings, business relocations –

equivalent to lost productivity and direct medical expenses of 12

average flu seasons).

d. 56 billion pounds of additional carbon dioxide green house gas

released into the atmosphere during urban congested conditions.

e. 22% of the delay cost was the effect of congestion on truck

operations.

Speaking on delays, “Suffered 6 hours of congested road conditions

on the average weekday in areas over 3 million population”, “Fridays are

the worst days to travel. The combination of work, school, leisure and

other trips mean that urban residents earn their weekend after suffering over

20 percent more delay hours than on Mondays. “Approximately 37 percent

of total delay occurs in the midday and overnight times of day when

travelers and shippers expect free-flow travel.”[33]

Pollution:
According to Pollution Control Boards report [34], 50% of air

pollution is attributed to emissions from motorized vehicles. By this, life

expectancy erodes by two days for each day of exposure to pollution. The

health effects associated with pollutants due to vehicular emission are as

follows:

Carbon Monoxide: Affects the cardio vascular system, exacerbating

cardiovascular disease symptoms, particularly angina, may also particularly

24
 Chapter-I

affect fetuses, sick, anemic and young children, affects nervous system

impairing physical coordination, vision and judgments, creating nausea and

headaches, reducing productivity and increasing personal discomfort.

Nitrogen Oxides : Increased susceptibility to infections, pulmonary

diseases, impairment of lung function and eye, nose and throat irritations.

Sulphur Dioxide : Affects lung function adversely.

Particulate Matter : Fine particulate matter may be toxic in itself or may

carry toxic (including carcinogenic) trace substance, and can alter immune

system. Fine particulate penetrate deep into the respiratory system

irritating lung tissue and causing long tern disorders.

Lead : Impairs liver and kidney, causes brain damage in children resulting

in lower IQ, Hyperactitity and reduced ability to concentrate.

Benzene : Is toxic and carcinogenic. Excessive incidence to Leukemia

(Blood Cancer).

Hydrocarbons : Potential to cause cancer.

Much of air pollution is attributed to vehicular emission (and the use

of facile fuel). The Carbon oxides, Nitrogen Oxides, Sulphur Oxides,

Hydrocarbon and suspended particular matter are the five pollutant

contribute to 90% of air pollution. They react with atmosphere and result in

Sulfuric Acid, Nitric Acid and Carbonic Acid. Carbon monoxide is

produced when organic materials like gas, coal, wood are incompletely

burnt. Vehicular exhaust is a major contributor of Carbon Monoxide, as

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 Chapter-I

they are not properly maintained. Nitrogen Oxide is found in vehicular

exhaust which results in secondary pollutant like Ozone. Hydrocrabons

pollute air are due to evaporation of fuel or when it is not burnt completely,

which when washed by rain run into surface water on reaching with acids

like Sulphuric Acid, Nitric Acid, Carbonic Acid is harmful to health.

Improved engines can control hydrocarbon exhaust to a large extent (4-

stroke engine, improved automobiles). High levels of Lead in vehicular

emission is also a cause for pollution. It is evident that incomplete burned

fuel and presence of Nitrogen, Sulphur Carbon, Lead in vehicular emission

is cause of concern. Pollutants in air cause irritation to respiratory track in

human, causing sneezing and cough. Prolonged exposure may lead to

cancer, Asthma, Chronic bronchitis.

Sulphur oxides irritates respiratory tissues; continuous exposure

cause condition cause bronchitis and reaction with water from Sulphur

containing acid, very corrosive to lungs.

Nitrogen Oxides can irritate lungs lead to Bronchitis, influenza or common

cold.

Volatile organic Compounds (Benzene and formaldehyde, lead

Cadmiumn) cause reproductive problems and Cancer.

Effects on Plants:
Gaseous pollutants enter leaf pores damage plants, Chronic exposure

breaks down waxy coating leads to damage of plants are prone to disease

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 Chapter-I

turns leaves yellow, brown or higher concentration of Sulphur dioxide turns

flower buds stiff and hard, cannot bloom.

Noise Pollution and its effects on Physical and Mental Health [36]:
Noise upto 80 dB (Decibel) are harms. “Workmen exposed to 80-

130 dB sound at work place developed temporary threshold Shift. 50% of

them faced ‘noise-induced permanent threshold shift’. Most people exposed

to 105 dB sound faced permanent hearing loss of some degree”. “Factories

with noise machinery, workers are subjected to high sound levels for

several hours a day. Exposure to 95 dB for 8 hours every day for over a

period of 10 years may suffer noise-induced permanent threshold shift”.

The excessive sound levels can cause harmful effects o the circulatory

system by raising blood pressure and altering pulse rates.

Noise can also cause emotional or psychological effects, such as

irritability, anxiety and stress, lack of concentration and mental fatigue.

High decibel sound at intersection for long duration will have significant

health hazard to commuters.

The Pollution due to vehicular exhaust at intersection and Pedestrian

crossing signals are large since they do not switch-off the engine, as they

want to move, once green signal is given. The commuters are directly

exposed to the vehicular exhaust for a large duration. It is common to see a

handkerchief, scarf tied around the face to protect themselves. Traffic

signals introduced to control traffic, to free them by accidents, has resulted

in stopping the commuters at traffic signals. Thereby, each commuter is

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 Chapter-I

stopped for duration of 3 signals, and allowed to pass in the fourth. At any

point of time commuters of 3-legs are in waiting in the area of intersection,

each idling their vehicles, leave vehicular emission. All those present at

intersection, including policemen and pedestrian are exposed to this

emission, thereby suffer cardiovascular diseases. There is every need to

minimize the intensity and duration of such exposure.

The Urban Centre consisting of road crossings and through roads,

congestion occurs at 4-leg intersections and pedestrian crossings[37].

Traffic signals are introduced to facilitate smooth flow of traffic. The signal

at In a 4-leg intersection operates in four phases and people of each leg are

forced to wait for a duration of 3 phases out of 4 phases[38]. Again, at any

point of time commuters of 3 legs of intersection will be waiting for

signal[39]. Again, each commuter is exposed to vehicular exhaust for a

duration of 3 phases of signals to the vehicular exhaust by 3 leg

commuters[40].

Review of approaches to Urban Mobility.

International agencies like World Bank, Unesco, has expressed great

concern over poor mobility conditions encountered by Urban Centres,

affecting economy and health hazard [41]. Our National Government has

also attached priority to Urban Mobility, of safe, secure and smooth

mobility, in the form of five year plans[42]. A Working Group has been

constituted for dealing the issue of increasing accidents, pollution [43].

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 Chapter-I

The problems of Traffic Management are encountered worldwide.

Both Developed countries and developing countries like India encounter

problem of accidents, loss of time due to congestion and as waiting time at

traffic signals. The Texas Transportation Institute [44], in its recent report

said “Driven Apart: How sprawl is lengthening our commutes and why

misleading mobility measures are making things worse” has also added that

“the solution to congestion problem has much more to do with how we

build our cities than how we build our roads’ means that the measures are

not resulting in sizable results. The World Bank also has examined the

problem [45]. The valuable time lost in traffic congestion, loss of lives due

to traffic accidents, pollution resulting on account of vehicular emission

was documented. The approach of road widening and construction of

flyovers at high cost, Mass mobility solutions were examined by experts.

They were assessed to bring temporary relief but not complete solution, is

due to proliferations of vehicles added to the roads, due to improved

standard for living. The created extra road space is not sufficient and the

problem of congestion, accidents are continue to occur. Recognizing the

problem, Government of India, has announced a National Urban Transport

Policy In the year 2006 [46]. A Working Group has suggested several

measures of infrastructure creation like widening of roads, construction of

flyovers, road over bridges and subways for pedestrian use. Have also

examined the methods of Mass transport measures like Multi Model

Transport System, Bus Rapid Transport System, Light Rail, followed world

wide and concluded that they have not resulting in good results, and hence

are to be adopted after careful analysis. Experts of Transportation cautioned

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 Chapter-I

that they will push the country into further debts. The World Bank in its

report ‘Cities on move’ has also considered the issue and felt that the

approaches are not bankable and discouraging financing [47]. Finally, the

Working Group has examined the matter and suggested that new methods

of Urban Mobility have to be evolved and offered some suggestions. After

the recommendations of the Working Group, the Ministry of Urban

Transportation [48]has designated four Centers of Excellence and spelt out

the areas of work:

a. IIT Delhi - Public Transit Planning, design and optimization with

special focus on BRTs, Integration of Urban Planning, Traffic Flow,
use of ITS, impact/benefits to environment including Non-Motorised
Vehicles and Road safety factors in Urban Areas.
b. IIT Chennai –ITS application in Urban Areas, Urban Transport
Systems Planning and Urban Transportation Infrastructure
Management.
c. National Institute of Technology, Warangal – Strategy for improving
Mass Transit Patronage, Modeling Urban growth Land use, Transport
Integration and development of Capacity Analysis for Urban Streets.
ITS based Traffic and Road Safety Management System and
Modeling & Mapping Environmental Pollution.
d. CEPT University, Ahmadabad – Land use –Transport Integration,
Transit Oriented Development, BRT planning and management, Fiscal
tools for Urban Transport Management, Transit Impact Assessment,
Social and Environmental aspects of urban transit and Sustainable
Urban Transport.

World over the problem of accidents, traffic congestion are tackled

by introducing infrastructure of flyovers, wider road structure and speed

mobility solutions. Imposing restraining measures viz., speed limits, traffic

signals to regulate pedestrian and vehicular traffic, exclusive lanes for

public transport, cycle lanes. The 12th Plan document of Government of

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 Chapter-I

India [49], has prepared a policy framework for a five year period of 2013-

2017, has given some recommendations, wherein it was stated that Cities

and Towns contributed to more than 60% (approximately two-third) of the

total ‘Gross Domestic Product’. Spelt out an approach to be followed,

recognizing “For the cities to remain livable, bankable and as engines of

economic growth, it is utmost important that the urban mobility issues are

effectively addressed and the present gridlock in most of the big urban

agglomerations is immediately taken care of” [50]. Referring to National

Urban Transportation Policy-2006, the Working Group has set 10 goals

giving certain guidelines :

a. To create facilities for walking and cycling (in cities with population
more than 2 lac) –with an intention of encouraging non-polluting
modes of transport.
b. To develop non-polluting mode transport network for last mile
connectivity, to improve employment potential.
c. Introduction of organized bus service (public transport) for cities with
more than 23 lac population (to control pollution).
d. Providing Bus Rapid Transport System at 20 km per 1 million
population (in 51 cities with population more than a million).
e. Provide rail transit at 10 km/million population in phased manner:
i. Provide rail transit at 10 km/million population at cities with
population more than 2 million; first in cities with population
more than 3 million.
ii. Expand rail transit in Maga cities (more than 4 million
population) at 10 km per year (50 km in 12th plan period.
iii. Provide suburban rail services in urban agglomerations with
population more than 40 lakh.

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 Chapter-I

f. To improve accessibility and mobility in cities by developing

hierarchical road network in newly developing areas; completing
major road network projects.
g. To improve and maintain road surface to the highest standard with
good drainage facility (repair work).

The Traffic Jam, loss of valuable time at traffic signals, accidents at

intersections without signals, pollution at traffic signals, cost of

infrastructure, for urban mobility are inter dependant and need careful

approaches to tackle them.

If we prevent accidents using traffic signals, valuable time of

commuters is wasted for waiting at signals, They are exposed to large

vehicular exhaust causing ailments. There average speed falls drastically

and pollution due to vehicular exhaust are encountered resulting in health

hazard. If we encourage vehicular speed, pedestrian suffer accidents.

When roads are widened to accommodate vehicles waiting at signals,

pedestrian have to walk large length of the roads, take more time, forcing

vehicular commuter wait longer. Vehicular commuters suffer more

exposure due to pollution, loss of fuel during waiting time. If we restrict

goods vehicles during day time, to control accidents, the cost of goods

increase due to increase of cost of transportation. If we encourage use of

Public Transport to discourage individual vehicles, the pedestrian crossing

the road is increasing and more pedestrian suffering accidents. The

investment on Buses and Rail is enormous and cannot be undertaken by

Goverment and people are to be taxed in the name of Use and Pay. Where it

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 Chapter-I

is not possible Public Private Partnership and levying Toll has to be

resorted to. Pleople are preferring Public Transport for lack of last mile

connectivity and lack of or costly parking fee. Lack of security to vehicle

and fuel.

In view of high density population of our cities, unplanned city

expansion, our cities are specific in the sense, there is a by-lane every 10

meters, bus stops every 500 meters and large number of pedestrian crossing

the road. Large number of intersections traffic control, in form of traffic

signals. Our cities do not have distinction of road and street, where roads

are widened, pedestrian have hell visible, the road dividers running along

the road from intersection to intersection, donot permit crossing road and

pedestrian are in their anxiety to cross the road suffer injury or death .

Where pedestrian crossings are provided, the vehicular traffic complain of

longer delays as pedestrian take long time to cross the road, since the roads

are upto 100 feet now. It is burden for both pedestrian and vehicular traffic.

The number of traffic Signals on their path, large time is wasted at the

signals and they are exposed to pollution which cause health hazard.

The large number of accidents go un recorded, pollution pose a

major problem to commuters. The signals installed to control accidents at

intersection and pedestrian crossings, are consuming large time of vehicular

commuters and they complain that signals have become invisible speed

breakers and they are put to huge pollution while waiting for the signals.

Much of fuel is being wasted during waiting time, if the same is used for

commuting it helps economy.

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 Chapter-I

On the whole I feel accidents and time loss at traffic signals are

major culprit for urban mobility problems and once it is tackled other

problems of wastage of fuel, low average speed, pollution will be solved

to a major extent. Accordingly, an analysis of Traffic at intersection and

pedestrian crossing is undertaken to simplify the signaling system.

Problem of Accidents [51]:

There has been a spectacular increase in motor vehicles has resulted

in a major social problem – the loss of lives through road accidents.

World-wide road accidents are alarming. The situation in India is more

verse In percentage terms, persons killed during a year are as follows:

Delhi USA
Thailand
(1994) (1995) (1987)

Pedestrian 42 13 47

Cyclists 14 2 6

Two-wheeler occupants 27 5 36

Four-wheeler occupants 12 79 12

Others 5 1 --

In 1968, the Government of India has set up a Study Group to assess

accident situation in India. Another Committee on Road Safety submitted

its report in 1983. The Prakash Narain Report for the Planning Commission

(2001) has recommended setting up Trauma Care Centres. Shows the

important attached to accidents suffered.

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 Chapter-I

At the International level, organizations such as World Health

Organisation and Economic Commission for Europe publish statistics of

road accidents[52]. The Road Research Laboratory (U.K.) has been

publishing figures on accidents since 1963, Smeed and Jeffcoate, have

presented accident figures of 68 countries, which include India, early in

1960-67, in their report to Organisation for Economic Co-operation and

Development, Paris, 1970. The number of persons killed per 10,000

vehicles is high for India, which is 24[53].

Traffic Signals :
Traffic signals are used to control conflicting streams of vehicular
and pedestrian traffic. The first traffic signal is reported to have been used
in Land early in 1868. The advantages of Traffic Signals are as follows:
a. They offer orderly movement of traffic.
b. Improve capacity of the intersection/pedestrian crossing.
c. Reduce frequency of accidents (right-angle type and pedestrian)
d. They can be coordinated to provide continuous or near continuous
movement of traffic at definite speed.
e. Can be used to interrupt heavy traffic, to permit others.
f. Substitute Police for control.
g. They offer orderly movement of traffic.
h. Improve capacity of the intersection/pedestrian crossing.
i. Reduce frequency of accidents (right-angle type and pedestrian)
j. They can be coordinated to provide continuous or near continuous
movement of traffic at definite speed.
k. Can be used to interrupt heavy traffic, to permit others.
l. Substitute Police for control.

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 Chapter-I

Disadvantages of Traffic Signals:

a. Excessive delay to vehicles (at peak hours).

b. Unwarranted signal installation results in tendency of signal
jumping.
c. Drivers are induced to take alternate route (less safer route) , to save
time.
d. When signals are faulty/breakdown, widespread confusion, difficulty
are faced.

Driver is the key factor in most of the accidents. He is the human

element in charge of the vehicle. He drives, steers, accelerates, decelerates,

brakes and stops, Any error in judgment results in crash. His skill in

driving, his emotional make-up, condition of the vehicle all play a vital role

in safety. Age and Sex of driver have also been found to be important

factors in safety. In the course of driving, Driver has to overtake many

vehicles and be overtaken by some, perform numerous turning, ability to

comprehend dangerous situations at intersections, deal with a number of

pedestrian who cross the streets at all sorts of odd places. He is required to

make many important decisions in a fraction of second. Drivers job

involves a great risk to self and commuters. He encounters a great stress.

There by accidents are more at intersections and when pedestrian cross the

road.

According to TRIPP (Transportation Research and Injury Prevention

Programme) report by Shri Dinesh Mohan

“There is still no clear vision among planners, policy makers and

transport experts about what cities in India need and what will make them

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 Chapter-I

better places to live in as far as mobility and access are concerned. The

prevailing mythology is that construction of metro rail systems will

somehow solve problems of the future and this remains the single one point

agenda of almost all transport consultants in India.

Unfortunately, the fact is that underground or elevated rail (or road)

systems have not solved any of the problems of congestion, pollution or of

access for a majority of city residents in any city in the world, especially

new cities”{54} The problem requires a fresh look. Accordingly, I have

decided to examine the problem afresh from Topological Graph Theory

approach to minimize accidents, control loss of time and fuel and the

exposure to vehicular pollution at Urban Centres.

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