16001

Examensarbete 30 hp
Februari 2016

Field distribution in stator

core end packages of hydropower
generators
William Johnsson
 Abstract
Field distribution in stator core end packages of
hydropower generators
William Johnsson

Teknisk- naturvetenskaplig fakultet

UTH-enheten Hydropower has during the last century been known for
its high reliability and efficiency. To refine and develop
Besöksadress: the technology has kept engineers and researchers
Ångströmlaboratoriet
Lägerhyddsvägen 1 busy during most of the 20th century and is still a
Hus 4, Plan 0 subject of interest. With a lot of different companies
involved, widely spread around the world, different
Postadress: design characteristics exists. A matter where opinions
Box 536
751 21 Uppsala of designers and engineers can differ is what design
action to use for reduction of the end heating, caused
Telefon: by the axial magnetic flux.
018 – 471 30 03

Telefax: In this thesis the two most common design actions,

018 – 471 30 00 stepping of the stator core end and reduction of the
rotor magnetic length are investigated. The results
Hemsida: shows that both of the design features provides a
http://www.teknat.uu.se/student
significant effect of about the same reduction.

Handledare: Urban Lundin, Bo Hernnäs, Andreas Solum

Ämnesgranskare: Urban Lundin
Examinator: Mikael Bergkvist
16001
Acknowledgment
Special thanks for excellent guidance and rewarding conversations are addressed
to Dr. Urban Lundin, Uppsala University, Dr. Bo Hernnäs, Voith Hydro AB
and Andreas Solum, Voith Hydro AB. Björn Hellström, Johan Malmberg and
Marcus Svanberg of Voith Hydro AB are also acknowledged for their guidance.

3
Contents
1 Introduction 6
1.1 End effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2 Theory 8
2.1 End effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2 Sources of axial flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.1 Fringing flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.2 Stator end-winding current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 Design philosophies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3.1 Stepping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3.2 Shortening of the poles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.4 Power losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4.1 Anisotropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4.2 Steinmetz model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4.2.1 Hysteresis loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4.2.2 Classical loss (eddy current) . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4.2.3 Excess loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4.3 Rotational field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4.4 Mechanical processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

3 Method 13
3.1 Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1.1 No-load operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1.2 Saturation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.1.3 End-winding driven flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.1.4 Power losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2 Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2.1 Measuring system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.3 Cost analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

4 Results 19
4.1 Simulation results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.1.1 Fringing flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.1.2 End-winding driven flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.1.3 Effects of saturation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.1.4 Power losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.2 Experimental results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.3 Cost model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

4
5 Discussion 26
5.1 Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.1.1 Power losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.2 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.2.1 Power losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.2.2 Fringing flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.2.3 Saturation effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.2.4 End-winding driven flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.2.5 Experimental result . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.2.6 Cost analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

6 Conclusion 30

7 Future work 31

Bibliography 33

5
1 Introduction
Hydropower is today a very mature technology and by far the largest contribu-
tion to the renewable electric energy mix all over the world. Water is stored in
a reservoir and via regulation mechanisms transported to provide a flow for the
turbine. The turbine drives the rotor of the generator, that can be considered
as a large electromagnet. The rotor revolves inside of the stator (armature).
The stator is for guidance of the magnetic flux, generated by the rotor and to
keep the stator windings in place. To handle the magnetic flux in a satisfactory
way, the engineers must pay great attention to the design of the stator core.
To maintain the high efficiency of rotating electric machines of this kind, which
usually is above 98%, the engineers have to consider things like lamination, slot
width, tooth width, stator core back radius, tooth length, what kind of steel to
use and also how to reduce the end effects.

Figure 1.1: Overview of a hydropower generator.

6
1.1 End effects
End effects of the magnetic field in the stator core have been a well-known
problem since the beginning of the 20th century. Most of the previous work
has considered turbogenerators and it is not as highlighted when it comes to
generators for hydropower applications.
There are existing methods for decreasing the effects of the magnetic field distri-
bution of the stator core end, where two are more prominent than others. One
of them is stepping of the stator core, where the manufacturer is profiling the
stator core end package in a staircase pattern. The other one is shortening of
the rotor poles, where the axial distance between the top segment of the stator
core and the pole face is increased. Both of the methods forces a redistribution
of the magnetic flux. The stepping design increases the reluctance radially at
the very end of the stator core. A greater amount of the flux then travels into
the stator core further away from the end. In the pole shortening design the
increased length ratio of the stator core and the pole allows for more flux to
travel radially.

1.2 Background
At Voith Hydro AB, an operating unit within the global company Voith Hydro,
there is a need for further understanding of the two design philosophies men-
tioned above. This is because questions regarding the performance and costs of
the different designs occasionally are raised, both by customers and designers.
To be able to provide qualitative answers, this thesis contains:

• Simulations for the various designs using FEM tools

• Measurements for validation of the simulations

• Calculations of the losses
• A cost comparison model regarding the different designs

• Suggested development for design guidelines

1.3 Outline
In this thesis, two common design actions to prevent end heating are presented
and evaluated. One commercial machine, that was built with one of the de-
signs, was used as reference through out the work. In chapter 3, brief theory
is presented, necessary for the reader to understand the results. In chapter 4,
selected results that was obtained is presented. In chapter 5, the method and
the results are discussed. In chapter 6 and 7, conclusions and suggestions on
future work is presented.

7
2 Theory
2.1 End effects
When investigating the field distribution in the stator core end, it is convenient
to consider the magnetic flux density B and its effects. The magnetic flux
density is by definition, the magnetic flux perpendicular to the surface, per unit
area. The magnetic flux can then be related to B according to eq: 2.1.
ZZ
Φ= B dS (2.1)
S
If B reaches a value that is too high for the stator core, heating occurs and
local hotspots can become of a problem. This can occur during abnormal oper-
ation or if the machine is poorly designed. To prevent this, necessary cooling is
increased and the overall loss increases. If there is not enough cooling provided,
the temperatures can become of critical magnitudes and cause serious damage
to the machine.
When one look at the machine in cylindrical coordinates, the useful flux
that creates the wanted MMF is, clearly the radial component that travels
peripherally and then links back to the opposite pole. Due to the finite length
of the machine and because of the air gap in the magnetic circuit, there will
be a fringing (stray) flux due to the increased reluctance. The fringing flux,
together with the end-winding driven flux will enter the stator core axially. To
reach the rated voltage in steady state, a certain amount of radial flux has to be
linked to the stator core. This results in a value of B, that is still in the linear
area of the BH-curve, but closer to saturation. If there is additional, axial flux
present, high values of B can be reached and hot spots can occur. To deal with
this problem, without over dimensioning the stator core, the stator core end
package can be stepped or the poles can be shortened with respect to the stator
core. This increases the reluctance along the flux paths in the axial direction.
[1]

2.2 Sources of axial flux

2.2.1 Fringing flux
The largest contribution to the axial flux comes from the fringing flux. It is
considered as the part of the linked flux that is bridging the air gap axially. See
figure 2.1. This occurs when the magnetic flux travels across the air gap and
trying to maintain its MMF.

8
Figure 2.1: Simulation of the fringing flux in an axial cut. To the right of the air
gap, the two top stator core packages can be seen. On top of them, the pressure
finger is placed to distribute the clamping force on the stator core. To the left of
the air gap, one can see the pole face. To the left of pole face, the rotor winding
is represented. The magnetic flux density lines are shown. Red colored lines are
representing high densities while blue colored representing lower densities.

2.2.2 Stator end-winding current

During loaded operation, the stator windings generates a magnetic flux as they
carry the stator current. Some of this flux will travel into the stator core and
will therefore act as another source of axial flux. This is well investigated when
it comes to turbo generators [1, 2, 3].
The most critical operating conditions occur during undermagnetization of
the generator. This is because the flux from the end-windings coincide with
the pole flux and therefore also the fringing flux mentioned above. During
overmagnetization, the both sources counteract each other and some of the
axial flux is cancelled out [4].

2.3 Design philosophies

2.3.1 Stepping
Stepping is a common design philosophy, embraced by many manufacturers. It
forces the fringing flux to redistribute. The total amount of flux remains the
same but as it enters the stator core end, it relax along the staircase pattern due
to the increased airgap. This result in a increased magnetic flux density for some
part of the area but more important, a lower peak flux density in axial direction

9
[1]. There are various designs when it comes to stepping. The one considered
here consists of 3 smaller radii, where the one at the top, is decreased with the
radius of 1 airgap.

Figure 2.2: To the right of the air gap, one can see the stator core top packages
with the stepping design. To the left, one can see the rotor pole with its pole
face. The enclosed area represents the rotor winding.

2.3.2 Shortening of the poles

Shortening of the rotor poles result in decreased reluctances along the flux paths,
in the radial direction. It makes it then easier for the flux to travel in the radial
direction and the fringing contribution to the field density decreases. [1]

Figure 2.3: The same area as in fig. 2.2 is visualized, now with the stator core
top package lengthened with respect to the rotor pole.

10
2.4 Power losses
The power loss that occur in electrical steel during no-load operation can be
divided into different components depending on physical origin. Some of the
phenomenons have to be considered on a microscopic scale and some have a
macroscopic dependence. Here the most influential are briefly described.

2.4.1 Anisotropy
Losses due to magnetic anisotropy have an important influence on the loss pre-
diction. The problem origins from the atomic structure where there is magne-
tocrystaline anisotropy, meaning the iron lattice have a preferable direction for
magnetization. The crystal structure of the iron is body-centered cubic (BCC).
The paths along the cube axis of the lattice is considered to be the direction that
requires the least energy to magnetize. In literature referred to as a easy-axis.
[5, 6]

2.4.2 Steinmetz model

The loss prediction model used was a 3-component, Steinmetz equation seen
in 2.2. The 3 terms corresponds to hysteresis losses, the classical losses (eddy-
currents) and the excess losses [5]. The losses is given as the time average of
the specific loss [W/kg]. It assumes an alternating flux density waveform.

Ploss = kH B 2 f + kc B 2 f 2 + ke B 1.5 f 1.5 (2.2)

Where

• kH = the hysteresis coefficient

• B = the maximum B for each node
• f = the fundamental frequency

• kc = the classical loss coefficient

• kE = the excess loss coefficient

2.4.2.1 Hysteresis loss

The loss corresponds to the enclosed area of the hysteresis loop, per unit volume
and cycle. It is, on a more microscopic scale, a consequence of the anisotropy
where several easy-axis occurs along the cubic axis of the lattice. Also the origin
of the loss is, on a more macroscopic scale, because of movement and shape of the
domain walls. Due to the characteristics of the material such as impurities, grain
size and grain orientation the domain walls gets pinned. The domain wall then
gets snapped away from its pinning site, micro eddy currents are induced and
hysteresis occurs as heat. The hysteresis exponent is in this case approximated

11
by 2. There are improved Steinmetz models that accounts for saturation and
uses a variable hysteresis exponent as a function of B. A hysteresis exponent of
2 is a good approximation in the linear area on the hysteresis curve. [5, 6]

2.4.2.2 Classical loss (eddy current)

According to Faraday’s Law, currents are induced when a conducting material
gets exposed to an alternating magnetic field. According to Lenz’s law this
current will create a magnetic field, in the opposing direction of the field that it
origins from. This leads to heat losses. This is more pronounced considering the
axial flux. As the magnetic field enters a wider surface the circulating currents
can travel further.

2.4.2.3 Excess loss

The excess (sometimes refereed to as anomalous) loss occurs because of induced
currents that origins from changes in the micro structure of the iron. Its depen-
dency can be derived from statistical theory [7].

2.4.3 Rotational field

The conventional loss prediction models assumes a alternating flux density wave-
form as it is a function of only f and Bmax . Previous work shows that the
waveform of the magnetic flux is strongly dependent of the polarization state
and unidirectional flux is present. It is shown that a conventional loss model as
2.2 stated above, accounts for about only half of the total losses. This is mostly
due to the neglected influence of the rotational field. [8, 7]

2.4.4 Mechanical processing

In hydropower generators, non orientated steel is often used. It is processed in
some ways to reduce the losses mentioned above. To reduce eddy currents the
stator core is stacked by sheets with interlaminar insulation. The iron is usually
alloyed with some percentages of silicon, to increase the resistivity and reduce
the induction of eddy currents. [9]

12
3 Method
3.1 Simulations
The two design concepts was simulated and evaluated together with a design
where no action was performed. In this case the rotor pole was of the same
length as the stator core that was of the same radius throughout its length.
This is referred to as the no action design.

3.1.1 No-load operation

Simulations of the magnetic environment in the stator core end was performed.
3D FEM calculations of the magnetic field was carried out in a simplified model
of a reference machine, namely the ”Stornorrfors G2”. It is installed in one of
the largest hydropower plants in Sweden. The apparent power of the generator
is 155 MVA. It runs on 235 rpm, using a Francis turbine with a head of 75 m.
A cross section of the upper half with 1 pole pair and 17 slots was consid-
ered, as seen in fig. 3.1. The geometry was drawn using SolidWorks and later
imported to COMSOL Multiphysics V.5.1 for magnetostatic simulations. The
number of elements was 638434 for the pole shortening design, 855728 for the
stepping design and 637893 for the no action. COMSOL Multiphysics built-in,
default solver MUMPS (Multifrontal massively parallel sparse direct solver) was
used for all simulations.
The FEM calculations was performed in the 3D model and then the different
designs was investigated in a 2D-axial cut of the 4th tooth seen from the top in
fig. 3.2.

13
Figure 3.1: Simulation model of the Stornorrfors generator seen from above.

Figure 3.2: The cutplane considered, seen from above.

14
 The magnetization of the poles was tuned in to satisfy the average flux
density in the air gap, according to the original design criteria. The materials
was set with user defined BH-relations, supplied from the manufacturer. The
2D axial cut considered can be seen in fig. 3.3.

Figure 3.3: The full cutplane considered seen from the front, here with the no
action design.

The magnetic environment was investigated and evaluated along a stator

tooth, at the extreme core end, see fig. 3.4.

Figure 3.4: The red line along the x-axis is referred to as the extreme core end,
for the different designs.

3.1.2 Saturation
Additional simulations were carried out to investigate the different effects of
saturation in the stator core, using the different designs. This was to investigate
how the saturation will affect the magnetic flux in the stator core end. Only
the no-load operation was investigated during this simulation.
The same setup as in 3.1.1 was used except a linear BH-relation was now
considered. A relative permeability of µr = 740 was used.

15
3.1.3 End-winding driven flux
A simple 2D model, an axial cut of a stator tooth with the end-winding was
drawn in COMSOL Multiphysics v5.1. The current source (end-winding axial
cut) was directed out of the plane. This was to evaluate the effect of the end-
winding driven flux, on the different designs. The case where there was no
acion, as considered in the no-load operation, was intentionally left out. This
because there is no significant difference compared to the pole shortening case
on this matter. Rated current was considered. The penetration depth, the
average surface flux density and the average flux density at the extreme core
end along the tooth was investigated. 4250 and 5540 elements was used for
the pole shortening design and the stepping design respectively. Stationary
simulations was carried out.

3.1.4 Power losses

To calculate the power losses, equation 2.2 was used. As stated above, 2.2 is a
simplified loss prediction model and therefore underestimates the total losses.
The simulation model does not account for anisotropy, due to the use of the
same BH-relation through out the entire geometry. In this thesis though, it
is considered accurate enough for comparison of the different designs. The B-
values from the simulation data was used as input. The frequency was set to
50Hz. The loss coefficients stated below was solved from curve fitting of the
total losses of the stator iron, given by the manufacturer [10] .
• kH = 0.0130439 [W/kg]
• kc = 9.17113e-05 [W/kg]

• kE = 0.00048401 [W/kg]
Equation 2.2 was evaluated for each mesh node and multiplied with the
density of the material. The result was then integrated over the entire volume
of the stator, seen on its general form in 3.1. The result was then scaled to
represent the actual stator core.
ZZZ
Ploss ∗ ρf e dx dy dz (3.1)

3.2 Experiment
An experiment with the purpose of validating the simulation models was carried
out. The peak value of the magnetic field density in axial direction was measured
in the point shown in fig. 3.5. The measurement was carried out during no-load
operation with rated magnetic flux.

16
Figure 3.5: The red dot shows the point in the simulation, corresponding to the
placement of the sensor during the experiment.

3.2.1 Measuring system

A measuring system was constructed. The system was based on the famous
hall-principle. The hall-element of choice was ”HE1244” [11]. It requires a fixed
supply current and gives an output signal according to equation 3.2.
VO
KB0 = (3.2)
IS ∗ B
Where VO is the output voltage, IS the supply current and B the magnetic
field density perpendicular to the hall-element. KBO is a constant that varies a
bit with the supply current. According to the manufacturer it should be about
100 for a IS of 2mA, which was used.
A simple analogue circuit, based on the constant current generator LM334
was used. For the supply voltage and the logging of the VO a USB-based oscil-
loscope was used, namely the ”Pico ADC-24” [12].

3.3 Cost analysis

A simple cost model was established. The costs for the stepping design was
based on prices from a local manufacturer. It includes the following cost items:

• Laser cutting
• Gluing of the sections
• Program, fixture and downtime

17
 The additional costs of the pole shortening design was considered as the
stator length was increased, assuming the same rotor length. The cost items
is the extra laminations and the additional cost that comes with longer stator
windings.
The costs depends mostly on the number of sections and laminations. The
rule of thumb for lengthening the stator is to increase the length with 1 airgap.
This makes the number of extra laminations a function of the length of the air
gap. Due to the variance of these parameters, 11 different commercial machines
from Sweden was investigated. The design criterias and cost estimations of
Voith Hydro AB was used [13]. The features of the machines investigated can
be seen in table 3.1.

Machine Air gap [mm] Segments Diameter [mm] Power [MVA] Speed [RPM]
1 10 24 7000 16 93.75
2 12 24 8000 24 93.75
3 14.5 24 7000 25 125
4 15 24 7150 60 125
5 18 27 7950 90 166.7
6 19 24 7030 39 136.4
7 19 26 9740 100 115.4
8 20 24 8860 90 125
9 22 18 5180 69 272.7
10 23 36 11740 170 107.1
11 25 36 10380 155 125

Table 3.1: Features of the 11 different machines that was investigated.

18
4 Results
4.1 Simulation results
4.1.1 Fringing flux
The magnetic field density B is the interesting parameter of the problem. It
is later used as input to the loss prediction model. The norm of the B-field
and the axial component (referred to as Bz ) was investigated in the 2D axial
cut mentioned above. In fig. 4.4 one can see the relative differences between
the effects of Stepping and Shortening of the poles, about 0.5mm from the top
sheet. As one can see the shortening of the pole case starts of a bit higher
but reaches lower values out through the tooth. In fig 4.5, one can evaluate
the simulated values of Bz along the chosen line. It clearly shows on a great
reduction for both designs compared to the no action case. The stepping starts
of a bit higher. The average values can be seen in table 4.1.

Bavg [T] Bz,avg [mT]

No action 0.997 117.4
Pole shortening 0.774 60.60
Stepping 0.848 58.50

Table 4.1: Magnetic field densities along the tooth, at the extreme core end.

Figure 4.1: Surface- and streamline plot of B, no action. The grading to the
left corresponds to the surface plot while the one to the right corresponds to
the streamlines. Values are given in Tesla [T].

19
Figure 4.2: The same setup as in fig. 4.1, now with the pole shortening design.

Figure 4.3: The same setup as in fig. 4.1, now with the stepping design.

20
 1.2
No action
Pole shortening
1.1 Stepping

Magnetic flux density, B [T] 1

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4
0 0.05 0.1 0.15
Tooth length [m]

Figure 4.4: Line plot of B along the tooth at the extreme core end. The line is
illustrated in fig. 3.4. Plot from the air gap to the stator back.

0.7
No action
Pole shortening
0.6 Stepping design
Magnetic flux density, B [T]

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15
Tooth length [m]

Figure 4.5: Bz plotted along the same line as in fig. 4.4.

21
4.1.2 End-winding driven flux
Simulation results, from the investigation of the end-winding driven flux can be
seen in fig. 4.6 and 4.7. In table 4.2 and 4.3 the average and maximum magnetic
flux densities can be seen in the stator top package and at the extreme core end
respectively.

Bz,avg [T] Bmax [T] Bavg [T]

Pole shortening 1.7600 ∗ 10−4 0.0133 0.0069
Steppping 3.8000 ∗ 10−4 0.0124 0.0065

Table 4.2: Flux density at the surface of the top package. Considering only the
contribution from the stator end-winding, during rated operation. Obtained
from stationary simulations.

Bz,avg [T] Bmax [T] Bavg [T]

Pole shortening 0.0020 0.0121 0.0079
Steppping 0.0015 0.0106 0.0075

Table 4.3: Flux density at the surface of the extreme core end, along the stator
tooth. Considering only the contribution from the stator end-winding, during
rated operation. Results obtained from stationary simulations.

Figure 4.6: The contribution from the end-winding driven flux on the stepping
design. The enclosed area in the top of the picture represents the end-winding as
a current source, directed out of the plane. The grading to the left corresponds
to the surface plot while the one to the right corresponds to the streamlines.
Values are given in Tesla [T].

22
 Figure 4.7: The same setup as in 4.6, here with the pole shortening design.

4.1.3 Effects of saturation

In table 4.4 one can see the magnetic field densities with a linear BH-relation.
As one can see the difference between the two designs decreased.

Bavg [T] Bz,avg [mT]

No action 0.7460 119.11
Pole shortening 0.7847 43.633
Stepping 0.8933 45.924

Table 4.4: Magnetic field densities along the tooth, at the extreme core end
with a relative permeability of µr = 740. Considering only the fringing flux.

4.1.4 Power losses

The results from the calculation of the power loss, from the simulations can be
seen in table 4.5. The corresponding results from a simulation with a linear
BH-relation can be seen in 4.6.

Average surface loss density [W/kg] Total loss [kW]

No action 1.0686 215.00
Pole shortening 1.0348 209.46
Steppping 1.1456 224.32

Table 4.5: Iron losses in the stator core. Actual BH-relation.

In fig. 4.8, 4.9 and 4.10 one can see the streamlines of B and the correspond-
ing power loss density [W/kg].

23
 Average surface loss density [W/kg] Total loss [kW]
No action 1.0283 229.22
Pole shortening 0.9769 221.23
Steppping 1.1160 247.09

Table 4.6: Iron losses in the stator core. Relative permeability of µr = 740.

Figure 4.8: Surface plot of the Steinmetz equation and the streamlines of B for
the no action design. The grading to the left corresponds to the surface plot,
values are given as loss density [W/kg]. The grading to the right corresponds
to the streamlines, values are given in Tesla [T].

Figure 4.9: Surface plot of the Steinmetz equation and the streamlines of B for
the pole shortening design. The grading to the right corresponds to the surface
plot, values are given as loss density [W/kg]. The grading to the left corresponds
to the streamlines, values are given in Tesla [T].

Figure 4.10: The same setup as in 4.9, here with the stepping design.

24
4.2 Experimental results
The peak value of the Bz was measured to be 80.0mT at the given point during
no-load operation. At the same point in the simulation data set, Bz was about
100mT.

4.3 Cost model

A trend among the selected machines could be spotted when it comes to the
cost comparison. The costs for the stepping design had a higher initial cost but
coincided with the pole shortening design for machines of a certain size. This
is mainly because the high costs that comes with gluing of the top layers in the
stepping design. Each segment and radius are glued. The number of segments
among the selected machines ranged between 18-36, this is the dominant cost
item when it comes to the stepping. The air gap length ranged from 15-25mm,
this is the parameter that says how much the length of the stator should increase
in pole shortening case.
Among the investigated machines it showed that the costs coincide from
the machine that had an airgap of 19mm and 24 segments. As the number of
segments increases with the outer diameter of the stator core, the price for the
stepping design could be considered as a function this.
1
Stepping design
0.9
Pole shortening design

0.8

0.7
Price [p.u]

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1
5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000 12000
Stator core outer diameter [mm]

Figure 4.11: Relative costs for the two design actions considered for the machines
investigated. The plots are normalized, using the costs of the stepping design
action as base.

25
5 Discussion
Through out the process simplifications and assumptions was made, as men-
tioned in the method. The method and the results are discussed here. A lot of
the references used include previous work that considers turbogenerators. There
are a lot of differences, most of all the speed and the shape of the machine. It is
still assumed that trends of the problems are the same. In turbogenerators it is
more of a problem and it has therefore been of greater interest in the industry
and academia [2].

5.1 Method
Due to limited computer capacity, lamination of the stator core was neglected
and only solid stator packages was considered. With laminated sheets the mag-
netic field would probably correspond more accurate to the actual machine.

Non-magnetic pressure fingers were assumed. This is probably not the case
in the actual machine. This can underestimate the amount of axial flux enter-
ing the stator core due to its shielding effects [14]. Also some of the remaining
pressure details such as the clamping plate was neglected.

The same BH-curve was used for all directions in the materials specifications.
In this manner magnetic anisotropy is neglected. This gives a bit inaccurate
results when it comes to the amount of flux entering the stator core axially.

Since the no-load and the loaded case is investigated separately, the effect of
them both coincide is not investigated in the simulations but in theory.

Due to a smaller radius in the stepping design, the data sets are not exactly the
same when investigating the area of the extreme core end, during the no-load
operation. They are chosen because they are considered to be the most critical
areas and therefore comparable for the different designs.

5.1.1 Power losses

The power losses were calculated to get comparable results from the different
designs. One should know that it is not the main point to reduce the power loss
of the entire stator with these actions, but to prevent axial magnetic flux and
hence end-heating.
A conventional Steinmetz loss prediction model was used. It assumes a
alternating magnetic flux wave form, without rotation in the stator core. This
underestimates the losses from about 1.5 to 2 times the actual values [8, 14].

26
As mentioned above anisotropy was neglected, also mechanical processing was
not taken into account. There are improved loss prediction models based on
the conventional Steinmetz that accounts for both rotational flux, anisotropy
and mechanical processing. These models often come from the industry and are
derived from statistical methods and experimental results.

5.2 Results
5.2.1 Power losses
The pole shortening design showed reduction in the power loss meanwhile the
stepping design showed on somewhat increasement. The pole shortening design
had a slightly lower total power loss than the stepping design. This is, clearly
because of the overall lower B-values through out the stator core. The Bavg
for the pole shortening design was about 11.5% lower than the stepping design
meanwhile the total power loss was about 6.62% lower.
Since the power loss is based on the Bmax in each domain, the effects of the
different designs becomes a bit misleading, only considering the power loss. Be-
cause of the axial lamination, axial flux cause more eddy-currents than in-plane
flux. Using the conventional classical-loss coefficient, derived from an Epstein-
test, this is not accounted for.

Because of the simplifications made due to limited computer capacity and possi-
ble unphysical effects close to the extreme edges, the results should be considered
with caution.

5.2.2 Fringing flux

The simulation results says that stepping of the stator reduces the average axial
flux density Bz,avg , along the tooth at the considered height with about 50%.
The reduction of the average axial flux density Bz,avg for the comparable data
set was about 48% in the pole shortening design.

In the pole shortening case, Bavg decreased with about 22%. In the stepping
case it decreased with 15%. This resulted in that Bavg ended up higher in the
stepping case while Bavg,z became slightly lower.
This is probably due to different saturation conditions in the stator core and
a redistribution of the field, this is further discussed below.

27
5.2.3 Saturation effects
Due to a redistributed magnetic flux in the stator core, the different designs
reduces the saturation. This makes it easier for the axial flux to turn into the
plane and travel towards the stator back. This isolate the effect of the axial flux
towards a more narrow area of the stator core end. This is considered by some
authors, to be the largest benefit from from the designs.
As one can see from the results in section 4.1.3, there was no significant
difference in Bavg meanwhile the Bz,avg increased in both cases. One can assume
that this is because of saturation effects at the extreme core end. Using a linear
BH-relation would then allow for more axial flux.
This could be considered as a trade-off. With increased saturation in the
stator core end, the amount of axial flux seems to be reduced. Previous work
[1] shows also that a lower degree of saturation makes it easier for the axial flux
to turn in-plane and hence reduces the negative effects of the axial flux.

5.2.4 End-winding driven flux

As one can see from the results in section 4.1.2, the end-winding driven flux
caused a higher Bz,avg at the extreme core end with the stepping design. The
opposite effect occurred when one looked to the entire top stator core package.
This may be an effect of the smaller surface, the end-winding is facing when
the radius of the extreme core end is decreased. In [1] similar behaviour is
discovered on turbo-generators. The values from the 2D-simulations was very
low though, making it difficult to come up with a conclusion. The part of the
end-winding investigated during the simulations, was the very top. This was
because the current in this part, is directed straight out of the 2D-model. This is
the part of the end-winding that is on the longest distance from the stator core
end though. Closer to the stator core end, the end-winding is no longer parallel
to the stator core but the distance is smaller. This part will give a higher
contribution because B will increase with the inverse square of the distance.
This can be expressed with Bio-Savart law on the form seen in eq. 5.1.

µ0 Idlsin(θ)
dB = (5.1)
4π r2
In eq. 5.1 an element of the magnetic field density dB is axpressed as the
relation between an element of the current Idl and the position r where dB is
determined. The angle θ is between Idl and r.

28
5.2.5 Experimental result
The experimental data deviated with about 20% from the results obtained in
the simulations. It can depend on a lot of different reasons, some mentioned
below.

• The hall-element was not satisfactory mounted on the stator core end.
It was not completely flat against the surface because of the attachment.
This results in measurements of not only the axial component.
• The wiring that was used for measuring the hall-voltage was to long. This
resulted in a voltage drop over the wires that weakened the signal. Using
this long wires needs some kind of amplification device, such as a repeater.
Because of this, the peak of Bz was underestimated.
• The wires had no screen for grounding. Measuring a signal of this ampli-
tude makes it very sensitive to external signals. With no screen and weak
insulation, the signal will be distorted.

5.2.6 Cost analysis

The increased costs for the two different designs are estimations. The costs for
the stepping design are based on prices from one local manufacturer. It should
correspond to the prices on the market, good enough for this issue. If one should
do a more thorough investigation, for a large scale production, several suppliers
had to be taken into account. The costs for lengthening of the stator are based
on in-house guidelines, neglecting some cost items that is hard to predict.
Based on this, it seems that it would be more beneficial to increase the stator
length than stepping for a slowly rotating machine with a large outer diameter.
This is a typical northern machine, because of sites with low head and high flow.

29
6 Conclusion
Literature-studies has been carried out. It was concluded that very little previ-
ous work had been published. The necessary theory are presented. The method
of choise and the results has been thoroughly described.

FEM-simulations have been performed for understanding of the magnetic envi-

ronment and the behaviour of the different designs.

Experiment was performed on the reference machine for validation of the simu-
lation models. The deviation of the measured values compared to the simulated
says that the simulation can be considered as good enough.

A simplified cost analysis was performed. The result depended strongly on

the shape of the machine.

The drawbacks of the method and possible sources of errors have been dis-
cussed.

30
7 Future work
To really be able to make some general conclusions about which design is more
effective, extended studies has to be made. Time dependent FEM-calculations,
considering a variety of machines, running on all possible operation points has
to be investigated. Fully coupled 3D models This should also, to some extent
be verified with experimental data.
To be able say more about the costs, one need access to data from several
machines, using the different designs. It is hard to estimate and make any
general conclusions because of the fact that every machine is custom made.

31
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