3.

0 INTRODUCTION/THEORY

The modes of heat transfer are classified into three types which are conduction,
convection and radiation.
Conduction heat transfer is the transfer of heat by the interaction between adjacent
molecules of a material. Fourier’s Law of heat conduction is expressed in differential form.

𝑸 𝒅𝑻 𝒅𝑻
q = 𝑨 = - k𝒅𝒙 Qcond = -kA 𝒅𝒙 ----------- (1.0)

Where
q = heat flux (Wm-2)
Q = heat ransfer rate (W)
k = thermal conductivity (W/ m.K)
dT = temperature difference (K)
dx = distance across section (m)
A = surface area (m2)

Thermal conductivity (k) is a physical property of the material that measures the materials ability
to conduct heat. It varies for different materials as shown in Table A below.
Material Thermal Conductivity (Wm-1K-1)
Silver 410
Copper 385
Glass 0.78
Glass Wool 0.038
Water 0.556
Air 0.024

Convection is the mechanism of heat transfer through a fluid in the presence of bulk of
fluid motion. Meanwhile, in the region nears the walls (e.g. the heat exchanger wall), the fluid
will slow down to such an extent that no movement of the fluid will occur, and the predominant
mode of heat transfer is conduction. Heat convection can be classified into two types which are
natural (or free) and forced convection depending on how the fluid motion is initiated. In free
convection, it occurs as a result of temperature differences within the fluid caused by natural
means such as the buoyancy effect, i.e. the rise of warmer fluid and fall the cooler fluid.
Whereas in forced convection, the fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a tube by external
means such as a pump or fan.
Convection heat transfer coefficient, h (also known as film conductance), for laminar flow
is relatively low compared to the convective heat transfer coefficient for turbulent flow. This is
due to turbulent flow having a thinner stagnant fluid film layer (boundary layer) on the heat
transfer.
The rate of convection heat transfer is expressed by Newton’s Law of Cooling as

Qconv = hAs (Ts – Tꝏ) ------------- (1.1)

Where:
Q = rate of heat transfer (W)
h = convection heat transfer coefficient (W/m2. K)
A = surface area (m2)
Ts= surface/walltemperature (K)
Tꝏ = fluid/bulk temperature (K)

The value of h is depending on velocity of the moving fluid. The lower the velocity, the
lower the value of h. It results the low rate of heat transfer. To increase the rate of heat transfer,
the value of h must be higher as well as high velocity. The boundary layer must be eliminated by
applying forced convection (i.e. pump in the fluid into the system).
The Nusselt number (Nu) represent the enhancement of heat transfer through a fluid
layer as a result of convection relative to conduction across the same fluid layer. The value of
heat transfer coefficient, h must be evaluated from the Nusselt No., which is a dimensionless
number and provides a measure of the convective heat transfer, can be determined by using
the following correlation,

𝒉𝑳
Nu = 𝒌
= C (Gr. Pr) n -------------- (1.2)

Where:
k = thermal conductivity of the fluid.
C and n = the correlation coefficients given as;
1
C = 0.59, n = 4 for laminar flow
1
C = 0.10, n = for turbulent flow
3

Grashof No. (Gr) represent the ratio of buoyancy forces to the viscous forces in free convection.
In the case of a forced convection from a heated surface, the average Nusselt no. can be
calculated as,

𝒉𝑳
Nu = 𝒌
= 0.664Re0.5Pr1/3 ----------- (1.3) (Laminar Flow)

𝒉𝑳
Nu = 𝒌
= 0.0366Re0.8Pr1/3 ------------ (1.4) (Turbulent Flow)

Where Pr is Prandtl number.

𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒗 µ𝑪𝒑

Pr = = = ------------- (1.5)
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝜶 𝒌
Re is Reynolds No., ratio of inertia forces to viscous forces in the fluid.

𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒂 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔 ⍴𝒖𝑳 𝒖𝑳

Re = 𝒗𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔 = µ
= 𝒗
----------- (1.6)

Where:
⍴ = density of the fluid (kg/m3)
u = velocity of the fluid with respect to the object (m/s)
L = characteristics linear dimension (m)
µ = dynamic viscosity of the fluid (kg/m.s)
v = kinematic viscosity of the fluid (m2/s)

Radiation is transmission of energy through space without the necessary presence of

matter. Radiation is the only method for heat transfer in space. Radiation can be important even
in situations in which there is an intervening medium, for example, the heat transfer from a
glowing piece of metal or from a fire. All objects radiate energy in the form of electromagnetic
waves. The rate at which this energy is released is proportional to the Kelvin temperature (T)
raised to the fourth power.

Radiation rate = k•T4 ---------- (1.7)

The hotter the object, the more it radiates. The temperature affects the wavelength and
frequency of the radiated waves. Thermal radiation could be a type of heat transfer because the
electromagnetic wave emitted from the source carries energy far away from the source to
surrounding (or distant) objects. This energy is absorbed by those objects, causing the common
K.E. of their particles to extend and causing the temperatures to rise. During this sense, energy
is transferred from one location to a different by means of electromagnetic wave.