Interim Guide On Identifying

Interim Guide On Identifying, Priortising And Treating
FOR INTERNAL USE ONLY Hazardous Locations On Roads In Malaysia
FOREWORD
Road accidents have now become a major concern in Malaysia. The latest accident figures from
the Royal Malaysia Police show that the numbers have increased by 23% and 15% over the last
two years alone, with 135,995 cases recorded for 1993. Malaysia's rapid economic growth may be
partly responsible for this worrying trend as the country is currently seeing registered vehicles
increase by over 7 % per year. In order to sustain high rates of economic growth, utilisation of the
skills of our people is of paramount importance, and the nation can ill afford to waste such
valuable resources in road accidents. Many would argue that to minimise human suffering in any
way possible is sufficient justification in itself to devote greater efforts to reducing the road
accident casualty toll.
Realising this, the Government set a reduction target in 1991 to reduce road accident fatalities by
30 per cent by the year 2000 with 1989 chosen as the base year. To achieve this target, all relevant
Government Departments and Agencies need to contribute to this effort. The approach to be taken
follows the 3 E's concept: Engineering, Education and Enforcement. Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR)
being the main Engineering arm of the Government can play a major role in this respect.
In line with this, Institut Kerja Raya Malaysia (IKRAM) has undertaken a road safety research
programme in collaboration with the Transport Research Laboratory (TRL) of the Unite Kingdom.
As part of this initiative, IKRAM is now able to provide a reference guide for use by all practising
road engineers in Malaysia. I am very pleased to be able to introduce this document, entitled
Interim Guide on Identifying, Prioritising and Treating Hazardous Locations on Roads in Malaysia
and am grateful to the Overseas Development Administration, U.K. for their contribution to the
funding of this project.
This interim guide provides information specifically for Malaysia and sets out a standard
methodology for analysing accident data to help identify the most hazardous locations, select
appropriate remedial measures, and evaluate this action. It is my hope that this Guide will be
useful to all who are involved in the road safety field, helping them to channel limited resources in
a more efficient manner, and thereby ensuring that our road network is as safe as it can possibly be
made.
(Tan Sri Dato’ Ir Wan A Rahman Yaacob)

Director General of Public Works
Jabatan Kerja Raya Malaysia
1995
Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This Guide has been prepared within the Road Safety Group of the Institut Kerja Raya
Malaysia (IKRAM) in association with the Transport Research Laboratory (TRL), United
Kingdom. The author of the Guide is:
Mr. Chris Baguley - TRL.
As its intended users are all road authority engineers in Malaysia, the Guide was reviewed at
various stages of its production by the following representative Committee:
Ir. Mohamed Shafii Mustafa - IKRAM -Chairman
Pn. Subiah Sulaiman - IKRAM -Secretary
Pn. Norliah Saidin - Highway Planning Unit, Min.of Pub Works
Ass. Prof. Radin U R Sohadi - Universiti Pertanian Malaysia
P/PPP Ruslan b. Khalid - Polis Di Raja Malaysia
PPP Ooi In Boo - Polis Di Raja Malaysia
Ir. Sabudin Mohd Salleh - Dewan Bandaraya Kuala Lumpur
En. Sanusi b. Ismail - Jabatan Kerja Raya Daerah, Hulu Langat and
representatives from Jabatan Perumahan & Kerajaan Tempatan; Majlis Keselamatan Jalan
Raya; and Cawangan Jalan, Jabatan Kerja Raya.
The author is indebted to the above committee members for their valuable contributions, and
to En. Othman Hussin of IKRAM for his assistance in preparing some of the material.
Gratitude is also extended to Doncaster Metropolitan Borough Council and Berkshire
County Council/Babtie Group for permission to reproduce parts of their Road Safety Plans,
and to the Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents (UK) for various extracts from their
Road Safety Engineering Manual.
Finally, the author would also like to express his gratitude to the Director General of Public
Works Malaysia for his permission to publish the Guide.

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 PURPOSE AND SCOPE country.
This Guide is intended for use by traffic
engineers and road safety officers in the Public This Guide is designed to be an easyto-
Works Department (JKR), Ministry of assimilate outline of procedures that have been
Transport (MoT), and all Local Authorities of found to be effective in many countries of the
Malaysia. world. It is hoped that this is achieved in as
concise a manner as possible, and it is therefore
It has been estimated that about 350,000 people recommended that for more in-depth
die in road accidents in developing countries discussions of the various topics the reader
each year. This represents 70 per cent of those should make use of the References listed.
killed on the roads throughout the world. In
Malaysia there are about 4,500 fatalities and Indeed the Guide has been based on several of
over 36,500 injured per year. This means that these publications, particularly the Indonesian
more than 1 person in every 450 of the country Accident Investigation Procedures Manual, the
will suffer injury or death in a road accident Institution of Highways and Transportation
each year. (UK) Guidelines for Accident Reduction and
Prevention2, UK Department of Transport's
This situation is worsening, and traditionally Accident Investigation Manual3, and RoSPA
the "three E's" have invariably been quoted Road Safety Engineering Manual4.
when discussing ways of tackling the
problem namely 1:1.1 Summary of contents
Education, Chapter I as an introduction, highlights the
Enforcement and scale of the accident problem of Malaysia and
Engineering introduces the types of strategies generally
A fourth "E", Encouragement (by setting applied in many other countries to reduce
targets, support for initiatives, publicity accidents. The national accident reduction
material to promote positive attitudes, etc) has target is quoted and the need to manage road
now also been added. safety stressed.
Although the most effective approach Chapter II is devoted to the accident database
for many road safety initiatives will be a of Malaysia, its production, and the
combination of these elements, it is the responsibilities of all those agencies
Engineering approaches on which this Guide is contributing to its content.
focused. It is likely that some aspect of
highway design, layout, state of road or traffic The third and subsequent chapters include a
control is a contributory factor in most accident step-by-step approach (totalling 10 steps) to
occurrence. It is well established that tackling the safety problems within a road
considerable safety benefits may result from authority's area. These steps are illustrated in
the application of appropriate road engineering the flow chart shown in Fig. 1.1.
or traffic management measures at hazardous
road locations. In order to reduce accidents The three steps of Chapter III comprise the
effectively and help to achieve the nationally investigation process. A list of the worst
set reduction targets, it is essential that a blackspot sites needs to be produced first from
systematic approach to the identification of the computerised database. Preliminary
hazards and selection of appropriate treatments analysis is described and early initial site visits
be carried out at the local level throughout the are also recommended.


Chapter IV (Steps 4 and 5) deals with points in the network. For example, even at
diagnosis of the problems, including the a “high risk” junction in Malaysia having
collection of sketch diagrams and other 42,000 vehicles (16-hour count) passing
available data together with the likely need through it and where 53 accidents occurred
to carry out specific site studies. Detecting in one year with 10 involving injury, the
accident patterns (a skill to be acquired) is actual accident occurrence rate is still
introduced. relatively low. These accidents occurred
during about 18,300,000 vehicle
The two steps (6 and 7) of Chapter V are movements. That is, one damage-only
concerned with the selection of possible accident every 425,000 movements and one
countermeasures and prioritising both these injury accident every 1,830,000 movements.
and the sites to be treated. Lists of the most
common problems and treatments are The precise moment when an accident will
included. A method of carrying out cost- occur can never be predicted, and even if
benefit estimates to assist in the decision- long periods such as a year are considered
making process for the most effective the numbers will fluctuate randomly about a
measures is also described. longer term average. Statistical tests can
show whether, during one particular ‘high’
Chapter VI discusses the implementation year, a real change has occurred. The
stage (Step 8), that is detailed design and occurrence of accidents along the network
installation, briefly, and emphasises the need tends to be less random as accidents are
for safety audits and for carrying out all often clustered at so-called "hazardous
roadworks as safely as possible. locations" or "blackspots".
The final two steps (9 and 10) in Chapter

VII cover evaluation of the completed
works. Some observational measurements
for monitoring the sites are described in
brief. Simple statistical techniques are
outlined to estimate the size of the effect of
the measures introduced. All necessary
statistical tables are contained in the
Appendices, as are examples of the Police
POL27 accident report form and UK Road
Safety Plans (see 1:5.1).
1:2 WHAT IS A ROAD ACCIDENT?

A full definition of a road traffic accident is:
"a rare, random, multi factor event always

preceded by a situation in which one or
more road users have failed to cope with
their environment, resulting in a collision on There is rarely an accident situation in
the public highway which should be which only one "thing" or person is truly the
recorded by the police". sole cause of the accident: hence accidents
are multi-factor events. There are three basic
Although, from the previous section, it may categories of factors:
be concluded that road accidents are far too
common in Malaysia (see Section 1:5), they Road user errors
are comparatively rare events at specific

Road and environment faults 1:3 APPROACHES TO IMPROVING

ROAD SAFETY
Vehicle defects The main objective of improving road safety
through road engineering and traffic
It has been shown that road user errors are management simply means measures taken
by far the most prevalent factor but often primarily to avoid some accidents happening
another factor(s) is present. For example, in the future, or at the very least, reducing
“adverse environment” implies a situation the severity of future accidents.
where a driver has had difficulty
manoeuvring a vehicle safely; drivers are This may be achieved by following two dis-
frequently provided with insufficient or tinct approaches:
unclear information with respect to signs
and markings; sometimes poor design can (i) ACCIDENT PREVENTION
cause a driver to have a misleading visual (ii) ACCIDENT REDUCTION
impression; and occasionally defective tyres
and brakes can contribute significantly to an ACCIDENT PREVENTION
accident occurring. Involves the application of safety principles
in the planning, design, upgrading and
The chain of events leading up to an maintenance of roads. (See ref 5: The safety
accident include people’s experiences on audit of highways).
that day which can lead to stress or lack of
adequate concentration on the driving task, ACCIDENT REDUCTION
and ultimately mean that one or more Involves the application of appropriate road
persons failed to cope with their engineering or traffic management schemes
environment. An assessment of the factors in at hazardous locations on the existing road
the chain could indicate which road and network. Such applications, particularly
environment factors may benefit from safety those of relatively low-cost, at known high
engineering remedial measures. accident locations or “blackspot” have
yielded very high returns in many of the
Consider the example of a junction where more industrialised countries of the world.
skidding on a wet road surface has been
recorded in several accidents by the police. Although accident prevention plays an
Care in analysis is needed as an extremely important role in maintaining a
inexperienced investigator may immediately safe environment, this Guide concentrates
recommend that the skid resistance of road on accident reduction and is aimed at
surfaces on the approaches to the junction engineers and technicians who have
need to be upgraded. responsibility for safety on the existing road
network. It is recommended that for more
Careful study of the site (during similar information about accident prevention the
conditions), however, may reveal that tree reader refer to ref.6: ‘Towards safer roads in
branches weighed down by rainwater tend to developing countries - a guide for planners
obscure road signs and advance warning and engineers’.
signs. The drivers thus failed to cope
primarily because of obscured signs rather 1:4 THE FOUR BASIC
than the wet road surface itself. Treating the STRATEGIES
road surface may still be necessary but The four basic strategies for accident
would be much less effective if the trees reduction through the use of
were not cut back or the signs not re-sited countermeasures are:
for improved visibility.

Single sites/Blackspots effective and straightforward as a starting

the treatment of specific types of accident at point, the road authority perhaps moving to
a single location the other wider types of application as expe-
[Eg. usually junctions, but could be areas rience is built up.
200-400m in diameter, 300-500m stretches
of road] All these strategies rely on the availability of
data which contains full information about
Mass action schemes accidents and their locations so that common
The application of a remedy to locations features which have contributed to the
with a common accident problem. accidents can be identified. Accident data
[Eg. skidding on wet road surface, head-on and the use of collision and stick diagrams,
collisions, excessive speed approaching key analysis tools for the traffic engineer,
roundabouts] are discussed in Chapters II and III.
Route action plans 1:5 SAFETY MANAGEMENT

The application of remedies along a route One of the most effective initiatives in
with a high accident rate. improving safety has been found to be the
setting of realistic accident reduction targets
Area-wide schemes around which all authorities can properly
The application of various treatments over a plan reduction programmes.
wide area of town/city.
[Eg. including traffic management and In 1991 the Government of Malaysia set a
traffic calming (speed reducing devices) in national target:- to reduce the number of
areas bounded by links on a network, fatalities resulting from road accidents by 30
housing areas or l km squares having higher per cent by the year 2000. This was based
accidents than a preset level]. on the year 1989 which means, in practise, a
reduction from 3773 to 2641 deaths per year
Blackspot treatment is likely to be the most (fig. 1.3).

This was expressed by the special Cabinet national target (which needs to be
Committee for Road Safety in 1990 in terms disaggregated into State and local targets) to
of a fatality rate reduction from 7.12 down be reflected in safety initiatives for each
to 3.14 deaths per 10,000 vehicles registered local area.
to be achieved by the year 2000. The
somewhat larger percentage reduction For example, Fig. 1.5, from the U.K.’s
expressed in the form of fatality rate is due Institution of Highways & Transportation’s
to the fact that this takes some account of (IHT) road safety guidelines, illustrates the
the fairly substantial, steady increase in large number of policy initiatives which can
vehicular traffic in Malaysia. The be input into each local area scheme, ie. the
assumption was that of continuing linear integrated approach where agencies need to
growth in the number of vehicles registered co-operate in agreeing targets and plans, and
as that experienced during the past ten years. need to monitor the effects of the safety
(see fig. 1.4). work.
It can be seen from fig. 1.3 that there is a 1:5.1 Road Safety Plans
generally increasing trend in deaths which is It is recommended that each highway
particularly marked in more recent years. authority produces an annual Road Safety
This disturbing feature makes it more Plan in which the local casualty reduction
important than ever for all authorities to target is stated and a strategy for achieving
work hard to achieve their particular target. the targets is developed.
Although aimed at fatalities, it is likely that Sample contents of some annual Plans
the accident countermeasures employed will published in the U.K. are included in
also help to reduce the levels of severely Appendix A. Before producing such a
injured casualties. document, the following will be required:
Safety management should allow the

Review of existing highways and Summary of proposals planned

transportation policy (including major capital schemes,
smaller remedial engineering work,
Investigation of accident trends for safety audit, maintenance, costs,
various road user groups in the relationships with other agencies,
authority’s geographical area safety publicity, traffic law
enforcement)
knowledge of the working structure
of the authority (relationship Methods for monitoring and
between departments, committees evaluation
external agencies concerned with
safety). Report of previous year's work and
effect on accidents
The key to success lies in setting a series of
achievable casualty reduction targets (short The Plan should be a comprehensive
and long-term) that can be monitored, and document containing photpgraphs, graphs
being able to acquire the increased resources and figures and should be made available to
that will inevitably be required. the public.
The Plan should include:
Background to the road accident

situation in the authority area
(accident trends with respect to road
user groups, road features etc)
Aims of the Plan (casualty reduction

targets)

REFERENCES
1. TRANSPORT AND ROAD RESEARCH LABORATORY. Interim manual on

accident investigation procedures and the development of low-cost engineering
improvement schemes. TRRL, Pusat Litbang Jalan, Ministry of Public Works
Indonesia, Jalan Raya Timur No. 264, Bandung - 1993.
2. INSTITUTION OF HIGHWAYS AND TRANSPORTATION. Highway safety

guidelines: accident reduction and prevention. International edition. IHT, 3 Lygon
Place, Ebury Street, SWIW OJS, London - 1990.
3. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORT. Accident Investigation Manual. Royal Society

for the Prevention of Accidents, Cannon House, The Priory Queensway, B4 6BS,
Birmingham - 1986.
4. ROYAL SOCIETY FOR THE PREVENTION OF ACCIDENTS. Road safety

engineering manual. RoSPA, Cannon House, The Priory Queensway, B4 6BS,
Birmingham - 1992.
5. INSTITUTION OF HIGHWAYS AND TRANSPORTATION. Guidelines for: the

safety audit of highways. IHT, 3 Lygon Place, Ebury Street, SWlW OJS, London
- 1990.
6. TRANSPORT & ROAD RESEARCH LABORATORY. Towards safer roads in

developing countries: a guide for planners and engineers. TRRL & Oversea’s
Development Admin., Old Wokingham Road, RG11 6AU, Crowthorne - 1991.

CHAPTER II
ACCIDENT DATA
2.0 INTRODUCTION several pages are repeated (for reasons given
An essential element of any accident below): see copy of the form included in
reduction and prevention strategy is the Appendix B.
collection and investigation of road accident
data. Accident investigation procedures in The first page contains some brief general
the context of this Guide depend on the instructions on filling in the form, though
existence of a reliable database. full instructions are contained in a separate
booklet (Panduan Mengisi Borang POL271).
This chapter outlines the database which is Data entry begins on page 2 which includes
now being established in Malaysia with the information of a general nature, such as the
microcomputer system that can be used for police station, accident reference number,
analysing this data. time and date of the accident, number of
vehicles and casualties, road type and
2:1 PRODUCTION OF THE condition, road geometry, collision type,
ACCIDENT DATABASE weather and lighting conditions, etc.
All accident data originates with the
recording of details by the police either at This page also contains a small section for
the scene of an accident or as subsequently information on the closest kilometre post to
reported to them at the local police station the accident. This important page of the
by those involved. There will inevitably be a POL27 form is repeated twice (on pages 3 &
substantial number of road accidents that are 4) such that carbon paper can be inserted to
not reported to the police at all. produce copies for the Police District and
also the local JKR office or local
The accident details are first recorded in the government department (see Section 2:3).
police officer’s notebook and a simple
record is made in the 24-hour incident book The second main page (page no. 5) provides
at the police station in which a unique space for details of the vehicles involved in
reference number is assigned to the accident. the accident including their type, model
If human injury has occurred and/or a registration number, damage suffered,
prosecution is likely, an accident defects, and their movement prior to the
investigation file is opened, again having a collision. The details of the vehicle’s driver
reference number. This contains all or rider are also included on this page. These
documents associated with the accident, eg. include his or her age, sex, licence, injury
witness statements, photographs, description (if any), whether any driving errors were
and sketch diagram of the scene as found by made and whether they were wearing a seat
the police reporting officer. This file is belt or crash helmet.
required in the law courts in the event of a
prosecution. This page of the form is repeated for up to
three vehicles involved in the accident with
The traffic accident report form, POL27 an additional carbon copy of each for the
(Pin. 1/91), is a pre-printed standard form Police District. If more than three vehicles
and is the basis of all computerised data. It are involved then the reporting officer
is also completed by the police accident simply needs to attach additional pages, as
reporting officer. necessary. The next new page (page 11)
deals with any passengers or pedestrians
The form comprises 15 pages, though involved in the accident, where again

simple details such as age, sex, severity of recording the coding for both systems for
injury, are recorded. The remainder of this each accident also serves as a cross-check
page contains estimates of the cost of on the accident location (it has been found
damage to vehicles and/or property, and also elsewhere that errors are often made in the
codings for the location of the accident recording of grid coordinates).
(see Section 2:2). Space for up to twelve
injured passengers and six pedestrians is Roads in Malaysia are one of five
included on this page, where a carbon copy categories: -
is again provided for Police Headquarters. i) Expressway (Toll)
ii) Federal
The final page (page 13) includes a short iii) State
space for the reporting officer to describe iv) Urban
how the accident happened. Another box is v) Other (District Council or private)
provided for a sketch of the accident
including the position of the vehicles prior 2:2.1 Rural Areas
to the collision, and the collision point in For rural roads (types i,ii,iii or v above),
relation to the road layout. Separate space is kilometre posts should be used as the
provided for a location sketch where a network coding system. The Police reporting
simple map should be drawn showing officer should estimate the position of the
clearly where the accident occurred on the accident (to the nearest 100m) from the
road network. closest kilometre post. On Expressways this
task is made easier as 100m posts have also
Two carbon copies of this last page are been installed.
provided for both the Police District and the
local JKR District Office or Local The national grid coordinate system should
Government Department. The original/top be included on all maps used such that the
copy of the form is sent to Police position of the accident can be read off
Headquarters in Kuala Lumpur. easily.
2:2 LOCATION CODING 2:2.2 Urban Areas

Location coding is a very important feature For urban areas (types iv or v above), a
of the accident data as it provides the only Node system needs to be devised where
way in which an engineer can obtain a true each major road junction is given a unique
picture of where his safety problems exist. number (for that particular map).
Two methods of location coding have been
adopted in Malaysia and these are: Sections of road between junctions are
known as Links and can be uniquely defined
1. Network coding by the node numbers on each side of the
2. Grid coordinate coding accident.
The function of the Network coding is to Where an accident occurs off the main road
provide a means of examining easily and network the location can be approximately
reliably a particular route or junction, or defined by a unique Cell number. Cell
listing those with the worst accident records. numbers are simply areas containing smaller
The Grid coordinate coding provides an roads (eg. housing areas) which are
absolute location reference and means of normally bounded by the main road net-
plotting accident maps (essential for work, and should be assigned a different
Geographic Information Systems). numerical sequence (eg. 900-999).
As well as facilitating both analysis feature, Again, the national grid coordinates must

also be recorded by reading off values on of each accident and complete the coding of:
the appropriate map.
Route number
2:3 RESPONSIBILITIES WITH
RESPECT TO ACCIDENT DATA Lowest Section number of km posts
The production of the accident database for on either side of accident
Malaysia is shown diagrammatically in Fig.
2.1. and the responsibilities of various Nearest 100m from the above post
authorities are outlined in the following
sections. Relevant map code and series
2:3.1 Police X-coordinate (easting)

As mentioned above, when the local police
station has completed a POL27 form Y-coordinate (northing)
according to their coding instructions1, the
top copy is sent to the Police District Office, Direction in which vehicle at fault
where it is checked, and then sent on to was travelling
Police Headquarters at Bukit Aman, Kuala
Lumpur. In practise, this tends to be done in In order to provide this data the JKR Office
batches, normally each week. At the same will first need to acquire 1:25000 scale
time pages 4 and 15 of the form are sent out topographical maps of their area. Ideally
to either the local JKR District Office or the with the use of a calibrated measuring wheel
Local Government Office, as appropriate. attached to a car, all State and Federal roads
in the area need to be driven along slowly
The forms are further checked for and logged; ie. the position of kilometre
completeness at Bukit Aman and then posts and other landmarks in relation to
processed (with other crime records) for reference points already marked on the map
entry onto the mainframe computer. At the (eg. road junctions) are noted as accurately
end of each month, the accident file is as possible. On average, a feature or
downloaded to a microcomputer diskette and permanent land-mark should be noted at
the data-file converted into the Transport least every 1/4km.
Research Laboratory's Microcomputer
Accident Analysis Package2 (MAAP), which This information can then be transferred to
has now been adopted as the standard the maps: an example of part of such a map
accident analysis tool for Malaysia. is given in Fig. 2.2. If not already shown,
one kilometre squares also need to be
2:3.2 JKR accurately drawn on the maps corresponding
The responsibility for precise location to the position of the national grid
coding for each accident now lies with the coordinates.
various road authorities, as this is of primary
importance to them. This is why copies of With the additional landmark information
pages 2 and 13 (ie. pages 4 & 15 containing and using the Police descriptions and
road number, kilometre post and collision location sketch on the POL27 form, it
sketches) of each accident are either should now be possible for the JKR engineer
delivered to or collected from the JKR to pinpoint accidents much more easily on
District Office or Local Government Offices the appropriate map, and thus fill in the
for completion of the relevant sections. aforementioned location data.
The appropriate officers at the JKR District

Office are required to check location details


At the 1:25000 scale, it should just be Node number on other side of

possible to record the X and Y coordinates accident (if not at junction)
for each accident location to the nearest 10m
(though the error may be ±25m). Direction in which vehicle at fault
was travelling
All completed forms should be sent to the
Highway Planning Unit (HPU) of the Again this requires the production of special
Ministry of Works in Kuala Lumpur every maps, in this case producing a standard node
month. system. For town/city maps a scale of
1:5000 (or at most 1:10000) is
2:3.3 Local Government recommended. The Local Government
For towns or cities it has been found to be Department should then assign a unique
more practical to use a node system. The node numbering system preferably to all
Local Government Department are thus junctions in the' city. An example of part of
required to complete the following such a node map is shown in Fig. 2.3.
information on the POL27 forms sent to
them: Again, if not already shown, squares
corresponding to the national grid should be
Route number (where one exists) accurately drawn on the maps. (preferably
100m grid squares). This will enable X-Y
Relevant map code and series coordinates to be noted easily to an accuracy
of 10m.
X-coordinate (easting)
All completed forms should again be sent to
Y-coordinate (northing) HPU on a monthly basis
Node number of accident or nearest

node (if not at junction) or cell


2:3.4 Ministry Of Public Works and safety improvements).

On receipt of the completed parts of the
forms (pages 4 and 15) the location For larger scale safety improvements it is
information is further checked by HPU and recommended that central government
entered with the accident identifying provide a Special Road Safety Fund from
parameters onto computer. which road authorities can apply for grants
supplementary to their annual budget. The
This will eventually be merged (once per application will, of course, need to be
month) with the corresponding accident justified for each scheme in terms of
records received from the Police (see Fig. expected accident reductions which will
2.1). In theory, the database is now complete contribute to achieving the local target.
and can be sent out in the form of relevant
MAAP data files for use by the road
authorities or analysis by other interested
groups.
2:4 RESOURCES REQUIRED

In order to be successful in not only
maintaining the accident database but
achieving the local casualty reduction
targets, resources will be required for both
capital expenditure and staff time.
Both the Institution of Highways and

Transportation (IHT)3 and Local Authority
Associations4 in the UK strongly
recommend that a local road authority
should establish a specific Accident
Investigation Unit for this data maintenance,
analysis and engineering side of accident
reduction and prevention. The advantage of
such a group is that it can dedicate its time
to the task and not be diverted onto other
traffic or highway matters.
The IHT Guidelines suggest a staffing level

of one engineer or technician for each 400-
1000 reported accidents per year, depending
on whether the Unit can pass detailed design
and implementation of schemes to another
section. The staff must be trained as safety
engineering is a specialised area of work.
Adequate capital resources are also required

in order to implement the extensive remedial
work necessary to meet the local targets. It
is therefore recommended that a set amount
be specified in each annual budget of the
road authority which is reserved solely for
safety expenditure (maintaining the database

REFERENCES
1. POLIS DI RAYA MALAYSIA. POLIS 27 (Pindaan 1/91) - Panduan Mengisi

Borang. Cawangan Trafik, Ibu Pejabat Bukit Aman, Kuala Lumpur - 1991.
2. HILLS, B L, G J ELLIOTT & D CLARKE. Microcomputer Accident Analysis

Package v5.0 (MAAPfive) User guide. Transport Research Laboratory, Overseas
Centre, Crowthorne - 1994.
3. INSTITUTION OF HIGHWAYS AND TRANSPORTATION. Highway safety

guidelines: accident reduction and prevention. International edition. IHT, 3 Lygon
Place, Ebury Street, SWIW OJS, London - 1990.
4. LOCAL AUTHORITY ASSOCIATIONS. Road safety code of good practice. C/o

Hertfordshire County Council, Highways Dept, North Road, Hertford, SG14 2PY,
U.K. - 1989.

CHAPTER III
INVESTIGATION
3:0 INTRODUCTION This Guide assumes that a microcomputer,
The following chapters contain a stepby-step the MAAP software (see 2:3.1), and relevant
approach to tackling the problem of datasets are available to the investigator
hazardous locations on a regular basis.
3:1.1 Ranking blackspot sites
The main objective of this engineering
safety work is to change the road The first stage is to study the data in a
environment in the most efficient manner logical manner to rank problem sites. It is
(ie. within a specified budget) such that the important to note at this stage that the initial
maximum benefit in terms of accident listing will need to be modified to produce
savings is gained. This chapter is concerned one of ‘treatable’ sites. For example,
with finding out where problem locations consider Fig. 3.1 (a) and (b) summarising
exist and the preliminary investigation accident data types for two roundabout sites
required to try to determine the nature of the with similar accident numbers. In (a) there
safety problems. are a large number of similar accidents
involving loss of control or skidding during
Step 1: Identifying And Prioritising the hours of darkness. This may well be
Sites treatable by improved skid resistant surface
or drainage, improved signing and lighting.
3:1. ACCIDENT DATA SEARCH However, at site (b) there is no obvious
It is necessary to identify high accident sites dominant pattern; thus only site (a) can
in the network for which the road authority therefore be classed as a treatable site.
has responsibility. Ideally, a period of 3 to 5 It important to try to define a “reaction
years of accident data should be reviewed. level” * , ie. the number of accidents or
This is because accidents, even at very points above which the investigator takes
hazardous locations, are relatively rare some action. The reaction level is set based
events having a considerable random on the following three variables:
element, particularly in the time at which
they occur. Statisticians tend to agree, Number of accidents:
therefore, that as a general rule, three years a) all injury accidents
is really the minimum period needed to b) severity points weighting
smooth out any abnormally large random c) all pedestrian injury accidents
fluctuations, to produce a reliable ranking of
hazardous sites, and eventually to make Type of highway unit:
evaluations of the treatments (ie. compare a) kilometre length
with a 3-year ‘after’ period). b) within 50m of junction
c) links or mid-block accidents
However, if such a long period is not yet d) all roads in a defined area
available on the local computer database,
rather than wait for this time to elapse, Time period:
shorter periods can be investigated as long a) 12-month periods of consecutive
as caution is exercised over the conclusions months, (not necessarily a calendar
made. year) are the normal periods used.
*The Highway Planning Unit's current accident points weighting system is accidents involving
fatality= 6 serious injury = 3
slight injury = 0.8 damage-only = 0.2


An example of a reaction level criterion 417 (includes 2 fatal accidents)

could be a blacksite definition of: 419
422
9 or more injury accidents, 415
[or 15 points or more], 420
within 50m of a junction, 409 (includes 1 fatal accident).
[or on a 200m road section],
over the past 3 years. If the reaction level for this particular road
authority was set at 9 injury accidents in a
It is probably better to focus on injury 100m section in 3 years (ie. as in Fig. 3.3),
accidents in setting a reaction level as these the first 7 locations are included in the
tend to be more reliably reported than above list (Table 3.1), though in a slightly
damage-only ones. The following sections different ranking order.
explain how sites can be ranked according to
the four approaches to accident reduction Taking this a step further, if the severity of
mentioned in Chapter 1. accidents is further taken into account by
weighting factors (which are normally
3:1.1.1 Route action sites related to the average accident cost of each
The simplest way of ranking sites, and the severity level), and damage-only accidents
one currently recommended for use in are also included (having a real cost), this
Malaysia, is to list them in descending order results in the ranking shown in Table 3.1.
of accident totals for either sections of road,
nodes, or grid referenced cells. Highway It can be seen that in this particular case,
authorities elsewhere sometimes use which considers a small 27km length of
accident rates but these necessitate traffic road, the same seven sites appear at the top
flow counts to be available at all points on of the list irrespective of the ranking method
the network, and also tend to give lower used. However, the priority order varies
rankings to the high-flow, high-accident somewhat, and is likely to change again
where potentially more accidents could be when more indepth investigation is carried
saved. out to determine treatable sites.
To produce a list using MAAP, select the 3:1.1.2 Single sites

Location option from the main menu bar and The priority listing for single sites in a town
select Kilometre & Link/Node analysis. If a or city can be handled in much the same
particularrural road is being studied, select way as in the previous section once a node
either the 1km or 100m analysis option, and numbering system has been established and
then set any Conditions, such as, to include data entered onto computer.
only those accidents involving personal
injury accidents. For a particular town, MAAP can produce a
list of the worst nodes or links (mid-block
An example of a kilometre plot of accidents accidents between adjacent nodes) as in the
for a 27km stretch of Federal Route 1 over a example shown in Fig. 3.4.
period of three years is shown in Fig. 3.2
(using the Zoom option to specify lkm To produce such a list, select the Location
lengths). A list of the worst 100m sections of option from the main menu bar and select
this stretch is shown in Fig.3.3 (using the Kilometre & Link/Node analysis as above.
Worst button which will prompt for the Now select Worst node. Set any Conditions,
number of sites to include in the analysis). such as, to include only those accidents
With reference to Fig. 3.2 it can be seen that involving personal injury accidents. Finally
the worst kilometres are: Select data files to be included in the

analysis. It is often more difficult to rank mass action

sites because a particular accident type
Once a pass has been made through the data normally only represents a sub-set of the
files, the user will be prompted for the data at any one site. Thus smaller numbers
number of nodes to include in the list. are usually involved. However, the simplest
approach is to try to assess the likely
Again weighting factors can be applied to accident saving for each mass action plan
the different severity levels to obtain a and rank these, producing a list with the
cost-related ranking of sites. greatest potential for accident savings at the
top of the list.
3:1.1.3 Mass action sites
In order to determine sites for mass action 3:1.1.4 Area wide action
treatment it is necessary to relate a selected As single blackspot sites are gradually
type of accident feature to individual sites treated accident occurrence can be rather
and to initially rank the latter according to scattered, and so attention generally tends to
the numbers of accidents of the selected turn to wider areas, particularly urban
factor. residential areas. In urban areas in Malaysia,
it is not uncommon for parts of towns to
Some examples of these would be as have well over 100 accidents (and some-
follows: times over 50 injury accidents) per square
kilometre per year.
Locations with the worst records of:
Accidents on bends Again, ranking areas for treatment is not a
Right-turn accidents simple matter and an assessment of the
Overtaking accidents potential accident savings for each action
Nighttime accidents plan should be made. Those yielding the
Pedestrians crossing road accidents best returns in terms of accident savings
Bicycle/motor-cycle accidents related to cost of implementation should be




made. Those yielding the best returns in STEP 2: Preliminary Accident Analysis
terms of accident savings related to cost of
implementation should be placed at the top 3:2. REFINING THE RANKING
of the list. BY STATISTICAL
TECHNIQUES
MAAP can also be used to produce counts Before embarking on an in-depth
of accidents in grid squares or irregularly investigation at any site, it is advisable to
shaped areas if a digitised or scanned map check that the site has higher numbers of
(to national grid coordinates) is available accidents than might be expected, and that
and accident locations have also been this difference is statistically significant. The
recorded by coordinates on the database following sections outline some simple
(see Fig. 3.5 example). It is probably best to statistical techniques which may be used.
initially use MAAP to produce a grid square
count and then consider, say, ten areas which 3:2.1 Averages or "Norms"
could possibly each be treated as a package, It is important to know whether the level of
that is, bounded by roads, railway lines, accidents is higher than expected, for
rivers or other geographic features. example, whether the number of skidding
accidents at a site is worse than average.
This type of ranking is normally carried out
by focusing on the vulnerable road users. If a particular route is under consideration,
For example, total accidents involving some this can be divided up into equal lengths
or all of the following groups could be plot- (eg. kilometres) and the average number of
ted: accidents per section calculated. This is
All motorcycle riders all pedal referred to as the arithmetic mean or norm.
cyclists
Child pedal cyclists (under 16 years) To determine whether particular sections
All pedestrian casualties warrant further investigation, the standard
Child pedestrians (under 16 years) deviation (measure of the variability in the
data) is normally calculated. The coefficient
of variation Cv is a simple measure of how a
set of data varies from its mean, with values
of Cv > 1 regarded as very substantial
deviation.

Those sites that have more accidents than It is used to calculate the probability of a
the mean plus 1 standard deviation particular frequency of accidents occurring
should be the first to be singled out for in a year when the long term average is
investigation. known.
Example Example
Consider the example stretch of Federal Let us assume the injury accident figures for
Route 1 shown in Fig. 3.2 and take x as the a site are as follows:
frequency of injury accidents in three years.
1991 = 2 accidents
1992 = 0 accidents
1993 = 1 accident
1994 = 5 accidents
If this site is selected on the basis of the last

year, it is better to confirm that some change
has happened at the site such that the next
year will also be high, and not that the
apparent increase has occurred by chance.
Long term average = (2+0+1+5)/4 =2
Using the Poisson Probability (Single factor

values) tables given in Appendix C, look for
the high year value of 5 in the left hand
column (k=5) and across to the column of
λ(mean) =2. The value here is 0.0361 which
means that the probability of 5 accidents
occurring where the long term average is 2,
is 0.0361 or 3.61 %.
However, the likelihood of 5 or more

accidents occurring at the site should be
Thus there is considerable variation between quoted. To do this simply add the
1km sections along this road in their probabilities of k=5, k=6, k=7, k=8 etc.
accident occurrence. Those sections with
more than 12 accidents (ie. 6.22 + 6.62) are That is:
certainly worthy of further investigation, ie: 0.0361 + 0.0120+ 0.0034+ 0.0009+ 0.0002
Section: 417 = 0.0526

419
422 Thus the probability of 5 or more accidents
419 occurring due to random fluctuation is
5.26%
3:2.2 The Poisson Test
This test (for randomly occurring events) is ie. about a 1 in 20 chance that this is
commonly used to determine whether a random,
recent increase in accidents at a site was due or a 94.74% (100-5.26) chance that this is a
to random fluctuation only (and will return real increase.
to previous levels).

3:2.3 Chi Squared test

This test is normally used for two purposes:
To determine whether the number of

accidents of a particular type is
"significantly" higher than at similar sites
To check whether there has been a

"significant" change in the number of
accidents at a site after treatment has
been carried out.
Example In the Chi Squared Distribution Table

A particular junction is suspected of having (Appendix D), looking along the line with
a poor skid resistant road surface, and has one degree of freedom (v=1), the value just
the following accident record: below the 9.81 calculated above is 6.64
which is the 0.01 “significance” level, ie.
‘Skidding’ accidents =7 1%.
No skidding reported =5
This means that the chance of getting 7
For all other similar junctions along this skidding accidents at a site with a total of 12
road the accident record over the same by chance is only 1 % (one in data is
period was: interrogated. 100 chance). Thus it seems
fairly certain that there is some reason why
‘Skidding’ accidents = 37 the skidding accidents are occurring at this
No skidding reported = 178 site
We need to test whether the skidding 3:2.4 Interpretation of “significance”
accidents are significantly different from The significance or confidence levels of
what might be expected. The following results from the above statistical tests can be
(2x2) table should be set up: interpreted with the following practical
meanings:
* N.B. The above formula allows for Yates' correction which overcomes the inaccuracies which
could occur with the test when using whole numbers - as with accident frequencies. Also,
note that the test becomes less reliable if any cell has a value less than S.

it is generally agreed that only results solution can be devised. The factors leading
significant at (or better than) the 5% level to accidents will be dealt with in more detail
can be regarded as conclusive. in Step 5, but at this stage the stick diagram
gives investigator a “feel” for the types of
3:2.5 In-depth analysis - initial stage accidents occurring and provides an
Having now obtained a priority list of sites indication of what to look for during the
for investigation, it is advisable to produce a preliminary site visit.
“working file” of accidents for each site.
This can be done easily on MAAP and Select Stick from the main menu bar and set
means that all subsequent analysis can be any conditions if necessary. It is possible to
carried out of the working file, without set up a number of different stick formats if
having to search the whole database each required. An example of a stick diagram from
time the data is interrogated. MAAP is given in Fig. 3.6, where each
accident is represented symbolically by a
Use the Find Records option from the main column (or stick) of key information.
menu bar and choose Find Selected Records.
In this menu select Create Working file and In this example, a T -junction (and one of the
then Set Conditions to extract all accidents worst blackspots in Seremban), only injury
for the site under investigation. accidents have been included; though it
should be noted that there were also 74
The conditions to be set may be of the damage-only accidents recorded in the 3
following types: year period. It can be seen immediately from
the stick diagram that the injury accidents all
i) Kilometre (Section) No. included the vulnerable road users:
also set: Road Number Nearest 100m motorcyclists and/or pedestrians.
(if possible)
ii) Node No. Five of the six pedestrian casualties were in
also set: Map code or State and fact struck by a motorcycle. Most of the other
District and PoliceStation No motorcycle accidents (75 %) were side
impacts or side swipes involving cars
iii) X-coordinate range and Y-coordinate emerging from the side road and apparently
range not noticing or misjudging the motorcycle on
the main road. Only two of the 13 injury
The working files should include as accidents were in darkness, thus poor
many years data as available. Clear, lighting is unlikely to be a particular problem
meaningful names should be given to these at this site.
working files so that they can be easily
identified at a later date or by other users. The initial site visits should therefore
concentrate on the turning manoeuvre
A stick diagram of each site can now problem particularly with motorcyclists, and
be produced using these files. This is also the pedestrian problem.
produce a “working file” of accidents simply
a way of displaying each accident record as
a column of data. The purpose of the stick
diagram is toassist the investigator to look
quickly patterns of similar types of accident
for which some appropriate engineering
solution can be devised. The factors
leading to accidents will be dealt with in
more detail in Step 5, but at this


STEP 3: Initial Site Visit capital works programme for the area.
3:3 PRELIMINARY VISIT For operational purposes, the easy sites

The site visit is a very important element of should be tackled first as they should
any accident investigation. The main provide:
purpose of the first site visit is to become
familiar with the site and to ensure that good return on money spent;
available plans are up to date and detailed
enough to identify specific features which an immediate improvement in the
may be contributing to accidents; for accident record (- useful argument
example, visibility sight lines, street furni- for allocation of funds for future
ture, buildings. yes);
The investigator should identify the an important psychological boost to

manoeuvres indicated in the accident reports staff to see successful results from
and try to visualise the accidents, implementation of schemes
particularly those with common
characteristics. It might be necessary to
make visits at different times of the day, or
in dark and/or wet conditions, in accordance
with the factors revealed in the stick
diagram.
It is often possible at this early stage to

make a preliminary assessment of the likely
causes of certain accident types.
The use of photographs taken at

driver/pedestrian eye height or an overall
view can be an invaluable aid in the office
or at presentations to committees.
3:3.1 “Easy” & “Hard” sites

It may now be possible to attempt to further
rank sites even at this stage into whether
they will be easy or hard to treat. This can
be done more accurately later when costs
and benefits are estimated.
Easy sites are those where effective remedial

measures can be readily identified and are of
low-cost.
Hard sites are those which do not provide a

clear indication of appropriate treatment or
where this is likely to be very costly. In the
former case the site should be selected for
further, more detailed investigation if it has
high numbers of accidents. In the latter case
it may be necessary to include the site in a

CHAPTER IV
DIAGNOSIS
4.0: INTRODUCTION Accident Reference no.
This chapter is concerned with collecting
further data about the sites now selected for Copies of the sketch plans of accidents
study, and using these to diagnose what are referenced by the above numbers from 1992
the common prime contributory factors that onwards can currently be obtained on
help explain how the road users involved in application from:
the actual collisions.
Accident Research Unit,
This in-depth analysis of an accident site, Fakulti Kejuruteraan,
area or group of road users is necessary in Universiti Pertanian Malaysia,
order to formulate an appropriate remedial 43400 Serdang,
measure. The following sections consider a Selangor Darul Ehsan
single site analysis, the principles applying
also to mass and route action approaches. Having obtained these and printed out
the computerised record for each accident
STEP 4 Collection Of Further Data using MAAP, the next step is to produce
And Analysis collision diagrams at each site by drawing
an approximate plan, preferably to about
4:4.1 Collision Diagrams 1:500 scale showing the main site features
Having produced a working computer file (eg.kerb lines,street furniture, trees and
for each site, inspection of all this accident buildings,and road markings. Details for this
data and relevant police records is essential. should have been noted/drawn during the
It should be related to a plan of the area initial site visit (Step3).
showing all on-site features relevant to the
study period. On this plan, the POL27 sketch plans for
each accident should be referred to in order
It is suggested that attention should first be to mark the positions of the accidents, and
focused on injury accidents (the most also the approach and intended departure
reliably reported) unless these are very small paths of the vehicles immediately involved.
in number.If accident An example of such a collision diagram for
pattems are not obvious from these a crossroads where there were 10 injury
accidents (discussed below),then it accidents is shown in Fig.4.1. It is
may be helpful to include the damage- suggested that standard symbols be used
only accidents where available. for this as given in Appendix E
It is strongly advised that the POL27 The most important use of the collision
sketch plms and accident description are diagram is toprovide a starting point
retrieved by using the accident reference for the classification of each accident
numbers for each accident.The values of into clusters.
data items which will uniquely define a
particular accident record are: 4:4.2 Classiflcation Of Accident Types
As was stated in Chapter 1,accidents
State code are generally multi-factor events and it
District code is thus important not to try to assign a
Police Station no. single cause to each accident during the
Year initial examination of data.To do this

could mask underlying factors which can thus the aim should be to assign accidents to
often be treated by simple low-cost remedial a class for which there is a remedial action.
action.In practice an accident can be Unfortunately, many of these underlying
assigned to many underlying factors. For factors will not appear in the accident report
example, depending on circumstances, or original police file.
the basic single collision type shown in
Fig.4.2 might be assigned to any of the Let us consider again Fig.4.l where the
following accident factors: accidents could be classified as:
2 double cross-overs (crossing both main
Approach visibility restricted road streams), a right turn, a left tum off (or
Violation of mandatory sign nose-to-tail), and a pedestrian accident. At
Overshooting give way line first sight no distinct accident pattern is
Collision on restart from give way revealed and thus no indication of my
line remedial action that would help. If left here
Obscured give way sign no improvement to the junction would be
Give way line worn away or made.
conceaIed by uneven road surface
Junction ahead not apparent from However, after reading the written
side road description of the POL27 form it was
Excessive speed of main road traffIc discovered that all 4 drivers pulling out of
Uneven lighting concealing main one minor road (fig 4.2) stopped first but
road vehicles collided with a main road vehicle on restart,
because their “view to the right was
This list is not exhaustive, but illustrates the obscured by street furniture or parked
fact that a single collision type can be vehicle”. The rear-end collision in fig.4.1
classified according to many factors or occurred when the first vehicle braked for a
accident types. Some of these may suggest a third vehicle emerging from the side road
suitable treatment whereas others may not but whose vision was masked by street

furniture. Similarly the pedestrian stepped always necessary to verify and add data to
out from behind the same street furniture. the computer grid. In Fig.4.5 additional
Hence all 6 accidents could be assigned to information obtained by reading the text
the class: “view to the right obstructed”, and description, looking at the sketch diagrams,
thus the necessary remedial action is clear; and observations during the site visit, has
ie. remove the obstructions. been incorporated by adding additional
items and symbols (such as the “obscured
4:4.3 Searching For A Dominant Accident vision” and “double cross over” taking into
Pattern account main road direction).
Consider the collision diagram in Fig.4.3
where again on first viewing there does not To help reveal common factors a useful
appear to be any pattern which indicates a technique is to cut up the grid to produce
treatment. There is a need to re-classify the individual sticks for each accident. These
accidents to produce a dominant accident can be rearranges repeatedly on a new sheet
type in which there is at least one common of paper until a pattern is noticed. An
factor which could be treated. The simplest example of one rearrangement (by main
way is to produce a stick diagram and, road direction and collision type) is shown
because every accident cluster is unique, in Fig.4.5). Pattern recognition is a skill
using a standard stick format may be too which improves with use.
restrictive. Such a stick diagram has been
produced manually in Fig.4.4. In the example it can be seen that the
eastbound and westbound accidents reveal
Note that although other sticks can be different characteristics. The westbound
produced and automatically sorted using direction all possess “visibility obstructed by
MAAP, the investigator is restricted to using parked vehicles and trees” and the remedial
only the computer coded items of POL27. action may involve new or enforced parking
Even if MAAP or other software packages restrictions and tree lopping.
were used, manual checking is almost


On the eastbound approach, all accidents junctions they will increase speed, and
occurred on a wet road surface, the wet they may use a line of trees or telegraph
surface condition for the whole site being poles to gauge the sharpness of a bend ahead
statistically no worse than the ‘norm’. The and so judge how much to slow down.
further data required in this case are skid
resistances and any reasons why the Sometimes, however, the environment
eastbound approach may be wetter than gives false visual cues. These are known as
westbound. In the subsequent site visit it “perceptual traps” and are where some
was found that skid resistance was indeed drivers are misled by the visual appearance
considerably lower on this side due to of the road, commonly failing to recognise
reinstatement of the west side following the presence of a give way junction ahead
extensive utility works. Also, lorries leaving or a bend.
a nearby plant were regularly depositing
water on the road on the eastern side. Unfortunately, the road engineer is unlikely
Furthermore the “Give way” line on the to have the opportunity to interview drivers
minor road southern approach was worn involved in accidents at a problem site. But
away and partly concealed due to a surface by relating the dominant factors from the
depression. police reports to his own site observations it
is often possible to identify contributing
4:4.4 Human Factors Need To Be defects in the road system.
Considered
Human factors are important to the 4:4.5 Example
road engineer as the roadside environment A major-minor cross-roads had recently
constantly presents visual cues to the driver been improved on the major road arms
as to the nature of the road ahead. Drivers by local widening and installation of
tend to drive on expectancy in that when clearly-marked right-turn bays.
they see a wide, straight road ahead with no However, concern was expressed over the

the number of accidents which were right-angle collision. Ideally, the police
still occurring. accident descriptions should also be read (as
should witness statements, if available) to
Only one year of accident data were determine whether any other factors could
available, and Fig.4.6 gives a MAAP stick be added to the stick. It is clear that many
diagram for this period which in this case drivers in these accidents were failing to
includes all recorded accidents. It can be give way to oncoming traffic at the stop
seen immediately that most (>90%) of the line, and as no further information could be
accidents were either right angle, side or obtained from POL27, the essential site
side swipe impacts which implies collisions visit should now be carried out.
between one vehicle approaching the
junction on the major road and another STEP 5: Site Studies And Analysis
along a side arm.
4:5 RELEVANT DATA FROM SITE
Most vehicles classed as “at fault” were Before embarking on expensive new data
travelling westbound (DIR=7), though four collection studies it is important to ensure
of the sixteen accidents involved eastbound that all existing data about the site has been
vehicles. There does not appear to be any obtained. Having studied this, together with
pattern to the time of day or day of week on the accident analysis above, it should then
which the accidents occurred. Also there be possible to decide on studies which are
were only four accidents during the hours of relevant to the actual safety problems at the
darkness (the junction is lit) and only one site.
accident on a wet road surface.
4:5.1 Simple Observation
Fig.4.7 shows the sorted stick diagram It is possible that obvious difficult features
after viewing the POL27sketch diagrams to of the site may have been observed at the
determine primarily which direction the initial site visit. However, with a more
main road vehicle was travel1ing prior to the detailed knowledge of the types of accident

that have occurred, and also by driving e) Would accidents be prevented by the
through the site making the same prohibition of any single movement such
manoeuvres, the investigator is now likely to as a right turn at a minor road?
be able to notice new features.
f) Could some of the traffic be diverted to
Some of the most useful questions an other (safer) streets where problems are
investigator should ask are: unlikely to be transferred?
a) Are accidents being caused by the g) Are night time accidents out of proportion
physical condition of the road or adjacent today time ones thus needing special
property, and cm the problem be night time protection, eg reflectorised
eliminated or corrected? signs, street lighting or traffic signals?
b) Is a ‘blind’ corner or restricted sight-line h) Are there any particular times of day, year
at a junction responsible? If improvement or weather condition when accidents are
is impossible, have steps been taken to common?
warn drivers?
i) Do conditions indicate the need for
c) Are the existing signs, signals and additional levels of law enforcement?
markings performing the job for which
they were intended? Have conditions at 4:5.2 Example
the site changed since the devices were Continuing the previous cross-roads
installed? Are replacements needed? example, figs.4.8 and 4.9 show views of the
Could the devices be causing accidents approach to the junction fromeach minor
rather than preventing them? road arm. The minor road is long and
straight and relatively wide such that
d) Is traffics properly channelled to approach speeds of some drivers are
minimise accident occurrence? probably quite high.

Despite the fact that there are stop signs, the To improve this cross roads the engineer
visual cues to the driver provided by the should concentrate on breaking up the long
kerb lines, line markings and light columns distance view, such that the illusion of a
suggest that the road is continuous without a continuous road is removed. A relatively
break, whereas it is, in fact, crossed by a low-cost method of doing this would be to
major road. It is possible that even if a construct new offset traffic island in the
driver is a regular user of the road, the fact centre of each minor arm carriageway with
that he has been travelling a considerable suitable chevron ghost islands and arrow
distance in a fairly straight line could mean signs. There is also likely to be a need to
that he is not paying full attention and may shave some area off the existing splitter
thus fail to stop at the junction :there is then islands to maintain adequate road width in
obviously the chance of a collision with a the curved chicane created (see Fig.4.10).
major road vehicle of the side impact type The carriageway's intersection by the major
which can often result in injury. road should then be much more obvious to
approaching drivers.

As the junction carries relatively low Nevertheless, some of the following

volumes of traffic (including motorcycles), measurements or techniques would be
an alternative treatment could be the worthwhile in certain circumstances to
installation of aroundabout on which are provide justification for decisions on
mounted chevron boards opposite each remedial action.
approach arm. This would also have the
additional benefit of slowing down traffic Table 4.1gives a list of the more
approaching on all arms of the junction common types of accident problems
(eg.see Fig.4.11). with studies that are likely to be
appropriate. However, it must be noted
studies will not be essential in every case.
Further details of site studies can
be obtained from ref.1
4:5.3.1 Traffic Flow
A range of traffic data can be collected to

assist with analysis, and this needs to be
appropriate to the task in hand and
comparable with the accident data, eg. same
year or particular day of week.
To help decide on the most appropriate

provision for a particular manoeuvre
(eg. right turners)at a junction, it is
necessary to know the numbers of drivers
normally making this manoeuvre.
Comparing previous counts with more
recent ones may reveal some changes in
traffic pattern that could help to explain
changes in the accident pattern.
Although automatic axle counters can be

used to measure straight road flows quite
accurately, manual counts will probably be
required to obtain turning manoeuvres at
junctions. Although time-consuming to
obtain, this method has the advantage of
providing more accurate vehicle
classifications (eg. for motorcycles, buses).
4:5.3 Other Observational Measurements If pedestrian accidents are a problem

then the engineer will need to know
It is obviously desirable to have as much how many pedestrians are crossing the
information about a site as possible when road and where they do s.
making decisions about how best to improve
its safety. It is, however, recognised that Guidance on carrying out vehicle flow
additional observation studies may be counts is given in ref.2.
difficult for some road authorities to carry
out for reasons of cost and manpower.


4:5.3.2 Speed Measurements 4:5.3.3 Photography And Video.

Excessive speed is frequently reported as The use of still photography or video taken
being a major contributory factor in from various positions (eye height, side or
accidents, and there can be no disputing the plan view) can be invaluab1e for
fact that safety margins are reduced and the presentations or measurements made in the
likelihood of escaping injury in a collision is office.
reduced with increasing speed.
Using colour video with a tenth second time
However, to provide evidence for a display facility taken at various times of day,
suspected speed problem at a particular site, the movement of vehicles and pedestrians
speed measurements need to be taken. Road can be studied repeatedly in the office.
surface vehicle detectors linked to electronic Studying the road user behaviour in this way
timer counters provide accurate spot speed can sometimes provide valuable clues as to
measurements if installed correctly, but why accidents are occurring and whether
hand-held radar guns have perhaps proved to there are any deficiencies in the site
be more popular a method due to their ease geometry which could be improved. If there
of use. However, care needs to be exercised are indications from the accident data of,
in the use of radar guns to avoid secondary say, a peak hour or wet weather effect then
reflections from oncoming vehicles which filming should be made in the same
can cause incorrect readings. For example, conditions.
they are usually impractical for busy dual
carriageways unless used from an overhead 4:5.3.4 Traffic Conflict Studies
bridge. It is often difficult to establish the factors
that lead to accidents from accident data
accidents, and there can be no disputing alone due to incomplete or unreliable
the fact that safety margins are reduced information. An additional measure which
and the likelihood of escaping injury in can assist in the diagnosis of problems
a collision is reduced with increasing involves the observation of conflicts or
speed. “near-misses”. Conflicts are those events
where there is a possibility of an accident,
The siting of a radar meter is very but where a collision does not occur because
important. It must be as inconspicuous as one or more of the parties involved takes
possible so as not to affect drivers, choice of avoiding action.
speed and away from bus stops, parked cars,
junction mouths etc. The meter should be A conflict study is simply a formalised
pointed as straight as possible along the road method of observing the interaction of
(in line with traffic movement):an error of traffic at a location and recording the more
10 degrees either way will cause the meter hazardous events. There is obviously
to under-read by 1 1/2 %. subjectivity involved in the identification of
conflicts, and observers do need to be
A sample of at least 100 (preferably 200) carefully trained to maintain conformity of
should be taken comprising all freely results. Several slightly varying techniques
-moving vehicles (or platoon leaders) to have evolved in different parts of the world3
obtain a good estimate of the true mean and and a relatively easy-to-learn and reliable
85th percentile speeds. The standard technique has been developed over a number
deviation of the sample should be about one of years by TRL3,4.
sixth of the mean. If it is much higher than
themean (say, one quarter) or much lower In a conflict study the numbers of conflicts
(say, one tenth), then the measurements are recorded and graded according to a scale
should be regarded with suspicion. of severity. This ranges from controlled

Fig. 4.13 Collision diagram (accidents

over 2-years) for junction in
Seremban
slight braking to extreme emergency evasive involved injury and all 6 injuries were
action. The resulting data, usually expressed suffered by motorcyclists. These collisions
in the form of daily rates of particular types were chiefly between vehicles turning right
of conflict, should be used in conjunction out of the side road, Jalan Sheikh Ahmad,
with accident information to identify and merging with main through traffic.
particular manoeuvres, road user groups, or
site factors which contribute to a poor safety It is also likely that the 12 rear-end
record. accidents were as a result of vehicles
braking for these merging vehicles further
Conflict studies do have limitations to their upstream. The other main type of injury
use, and advice on the choice of sites, accident, comprising one fatal and four
numbers of observers, length of study injury, that occurred at or near the junction
periods, etc .is given in ref 4. were between pedestrians and motorcyclists.
Pedestrians frequently do not notice the
4:5.4 Example Of A Site Study smaller visual area that a motorcyclist
Fig.4.13 (from ref.5) shows the collision presents compared with a 44 wheeled
diagram over a period of two years for an vehicle.
urban T- junction between two one-way
roads in Seremban. There does not appear to be any noticeable
time of day or darkness effects in the
The stick diagram produced by MAAP accident pattern. Owing to various tune
is shown in fig.4.14 and this has been sorted constraints, only a one day study could be
according to collision type and severity of carried out at this junction, but it was
accident. decided that this should include collecting
data on traffic conflicts, approach speeds,
It can be seen that the majority of collisions vehicle manoeuvre now and pedestrian road
(33 out of a total 68) are side swipes crossing flows. The traffic flows are shown
(including all side impacts). Six of these in Fig 4.15 and main conflict counts in Fig
4.16.

It can be seen that the merge type of conflict The proposed accident countermeasures
with vehicles from Jln. Sheikh Ahmad was at this example site will be discussed in
the most common due to relatively high the next chapter.
merging flows. Drivers making this
manoeuvre, particularly motorcyclist,were
frequently observed relatively high merging
flows. Drivers making this manoeuvre,
particularly motorcyclist, were frequently
observed as possible in order to use either
the access road on the left (Jalan Khalsa
see Fig.4.11) or adjoining petrol station.
From Figs.4.15 & 4.16 it can also be seen
that the frequency of pedestrians crossing
the road is very high with a maximum of
890 in one hour. Conflicts with vehicles tend
to occur mostly when business activity is
high particularly in the morning.
Approach speeds of freely-moving vehicles

were also measured using radar (see
Fig.4.17) with a mean speed of 30km/h and
85th percentile of 37km/h, vehicle speeds
were not considered to be excessive.


REFERENCES
1. RADIN UMAR R S. Panduan Diagnosis dan Rawatan Kemalangan Jalan Raya.

To be published by Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur - 1995
2. CHE MAT BAHRI BIN HJ KASRI. Traffic Survey and Studies. Institut Kerja Raya
Malaysia training reference: JLN/RA/201/1 IKRAM, Jalan Serdang, 43000 Kajang-
1989.
3. ASMUSSEN, E. International Calibration Study of Traffic Conflicts Techniques.

NATO ASI Series F: Computer & System Sciences. Springer-Verlag, Berlin,
Heidelberg, New York, Tokyo - 1984
4. TRANSPORT & ROAD RESEARCH LABORATORY. The Traffic Conflict

Technique Guidelines. TRRL. Institution of Highways and Transportation,
3 Lygon Place, Ebury Street, SW1W 0JS, London - 1987
5. BAGULEY, CJ, & RADIN UR SOHADI. The improvement of accident data quality
in Malaysia. In: Proceedings of First Malaysian Road Conference 1994. JKR, Roads
Branch, Jalan Sultan Salahuddin, 50582 Kuala Lumpur - 1994

CHAPTER V
SELECTION
5.0 INTRODUCTION between RM250,000 and RM500,000.
This chapter discusses the steps of se1ecting
a package of possible countermeasures for a 5:6.1.2 Mass Action Objectives
site and of prioritising the potential
treatments and sites. This is done by simply To achieve an accident reduction of
deciding on appropriate objectives of tile at least 15% at treated sites for each
various safety strategies based on achieving plan.
satisfactory accident reductions which To obtain a FYRR of not less than
match or exceed the expenditure planned. 40%.
To carry out the remedial work at a
STEP 5: Select Possible cost per plan not exceeding a fixed
Countermeasures maximum amount.
The maximum scheme cost is likely to

5:6.1 Objectives Of Countermeasure
depend on the type of measure used and
Scheme
the number of sites covered.
For Malaysia, the precise objectives for the
four accident reduction strategies outlined in
5:6.1.4 Area-Wide Objectives
Chapter I (Section l:4) will need to be
decided based on local experience but those
adopted in the UK are given below as a To achieve an accident reduction of
at least l0% within the area covered
guide. The First Year Rate of Return
by the plan.
(FYRR) is a measure of the net benefits in
terms of accident reductions from the To obtain a FYRR of 10% to 25%.
scheme expressed as a percentage of the To carry out the remedial work at
minimum cost. The maximum sum
total capital cost. This is defined fully later
will depend on the area size and
in this chapter in Step7.
inclusion of environmental
enhancements.
5:6.1.1 Single Site Objectives
To achieve an accident reduction of
5:6.2 Treatments
at least 33%at treated sites.
Having identified dominant accident types at
To obtain a significant FYRR
a location or area under study, this will
To carry out the remedial work at a
hopefully give an indication of an
cost per site not exceeding a fixed
appropriate remedial measure (or package of
maximum amount
measures if there is more than one accident
group).
An average FYRR of 50% for schemes
should be achievable nationally. As time
It is desirable to consider a number of
goes on schemes with a smaller FYRR may
alternative proposals for each site. For every
be worth considering provided that they
proposal it should be checked that:
meet the other two objectives.
a) The measures are likely to decrease
It is suggested that a maximum of
the type of accident at which it is
RM25,000 be an appropriate level for the
aimed
first application of accident remedial work.
Thereafter this maximum may be increased

b) No further increase in other types of the sum of the individual percentages given
accident is likely to occur as a result of in these tables.
the selected measure.
It is also recommended that reference5
c) There are not likely to be any be used as a source of ideas on many other
unacceptable effects on traffic movement treatments for typical blackspots, and that
or the environment. the reader keeps up-to-date with new
techniques.
It should be stressed that safety at the
site under study should not be the only 5:6.2.1 Example
consideration when choosing an appropriate Let us consider the same example T-junction
countermeasure. The effect of that measure discussed in detail at the end of the previous
on the surrounding network should be chapter (Section 4:5.4|& ref.6). It is clear
estimated. For example, a self-enforcing that the vehicle sideswipe and pedestrian
speed reducing device like a series of road collisions problems should be where
humps on a local collector road may have attention is focused in designing remedial
the effect of making a large proportion of action. In view of the former type of
drivers choose an alternative route along accident tending to involve motorcyclist, it
quieter residential streets. As well as being was decided that the best policy would be to
undesirable by residents of these streets, the restrict the crossing manoeuvre and make all
safety will also most probably be worsened turning vehicles perform more of a merge
by the increased traffic now. type manoeuvre. This could be done by first
narrowing down the two-lane flow along
The following tables (5.1 to 5.3) give a Jalan Sheikh Ahmad which currently joins
list of simple, chiefly low-cost, measures for the main road, Jalan Yam Tuan (see
general, urban and rural situations which Fig.4.15) into a single lane. This would have
have been found to be effective. Where the extra advantage of providing more area
available, the average percentage reduction which can be utilised for motorcycle
in accidents that has been achieved1,2 is also parking.
included. It should be noted, however, that
the list is based largely on experience in the A solid delineator kerb was suggested for
U.K. and Australia3,4 and should therefore this purpose as shown in the sketch in
only be used as a guide or “ideas” list. It is Fig.5.1.This kerb is extended along Jalan
likely that some of the measures will not be Yam Tuan so that the merge is actually
applicable in Malaysia and the reduction in carried out further downstream where
accidents will almost certainly be different. vehicles are travelling parallel to one
It is thus very important that all remedial another, and thus main road drivers have a
measures are properly monitored and clearer view of merging vehicles. This
evaluated, and results published or at least, smoother merge should also help prevent
centrally recorded so that a similar list based queuing along Jalan Sheikh Ahmad despite
on actual Malaysian experience cm be built its exit now being restricted to a single lane.
up.
The solid channelisation, which will
If more than one group of accidents has reduce the width of the main road slightly,
been identified at a site, then the remedial will need to be extended beyond Ja1an
work may consist of a package of measures Kha1sa and the petrol station to prevent
with each one designed to reduce a drivers making the immediate crossing
particular accident group. It does not, of manoeuvre to the left hand side (100 to150
course, follow that the total effect of such a vehicles per hour - see Fig.4.14).This
combination of measures at one site will be relatively small proportion of the traffic will




however, now need to use a road on the left for pedestrians as they only have to make
(slightly further downstream) to access these gap judgments about one stream of traffic at
entries. a time. Also, this refuge, together with the
new chicane now already at this point,
Two proposals are shown in the concept should also help to slow down traffic in this
sketches of Figs.5.l and 5.2 to deal with the vicinity. Large road studs along the
pedestrian conflict problem. The first is to boundary line of the hatched area and
build a footbridge which would only be direction arrows on the refuge would
feasible between Jalan Sheikh Ahmad and also be required to help minimise the
Jalan Khalsa without affecting existing likelihood of co11isions with the new
buildings. refuge.
As there are considerable numbers of As well as being much cheaper this

pedestrians at present crossing the road second option is preferred as it is like1y
further upstream (Fig.4.14), it would that many pedestrians would not choose
probably also be necessary to install to climb the footbridge.
extensive lengths of pedestrian guard rail to
channel pedestrians to the footbridge. This is 5:6.3 Approaches To Area-Wide
obviously an expensive solution. Treatment
Where accidents are widely dispersed, often
The second option of installing a pedestrian in urban areas, over several square
refuge, as shown in Fig.5.2, is much kilometres rather than at obvious individual
cheaper. The refuge should make it easier sites, an area-wide treatment may need to be
considered
A road hierarchy should be drawn up by a The safety objective is to reduce both the
road authority where residential streets, number and severity of accidents, especially
access roads, local distributors, district to vulnerable road users. This is usually
distributors and primary distributors are done with self-enforcing speed reducing
marked together with land-use (see Fig.5.3). measures like chicanes, traffic throttles, road
humps or speed tables (see Figs.5.4 to 5.9)
This can then be used as a base map on

which to mark road accidents, vehicle
and pedestrian flows. The main principle of traffic calming
techniques is that they still permit motorised
There is a wide variety of treatments traffic to use the same route which they are
that can be used in residential areas but good unable to do with more restrictive measures
consu1tation with local residents is always like road closures, turning bans and one-way
strongly recommended. traffic. Although limited use can be made of
these latter measures (eg.Fig.5.5), they are
Traffic calming can generally be regarded as rarely popular with residents and can lead to
ways in which vehicle speeds can be accidents being transferred to other areas
reduced from an average of 50km/h down to which become used as “rat-runs”.
30km/h.

It should be remembered that solutions

to a detailed study at a site may not
exclusively involve civil engineering works.
An integrated approach to improving road
safety should really be adopted whereby
road safety education and training may need
to be combined with an engineering
measure. For example, the introduction of a
new signa1 controlled pedestrian crossing in
a village may require a local publicity
campaign to inform pedestrians and drivers
how to use it together with training for
children in the local school(s).
STEP 7: Priortise Treatments & Sites
5:7.1 Estimating Accident Savings

The standard approach for the ranking of
treatments is to carry out a cost-benefit
analysis based on estimated benefits of the
scheme and simply place these in priority
order on the basis of the best returns.
However, if there is currently little or no

data on which to make an estimate of the
likely effectiveness of a treatment, then
perhaps the best way to proceed is to
implement the lowest cost schemes first as
these are likely to provide the greatest
overall benefit. If the least cost scheme
proves in practice to be ineffective then the
a1ternative schemes in order of increasing
cost should be tried. In most uses a
pessimistic estimate can be assumed to be an
average reduction in accidents of around
25-33%of a1l accidents.
In these applications it is recommended

that temporary materials be employed
where possible for initial trials; for example,
pre-cast concrete slabs tied together and
pinned to the road surface to try a particular
size and position of splitter island (see
Figs.5.10 & 5.11).
An economic assessment of projected

schemes is important to ensure that the
benefits likely will be greater than the cost
of implementing and maintaining the
scheme and that the best value for money is
obtained.

There are two methods of economic 5:7.2 First Year Rate of Return (FYRR)
assessment used for this purpose: This is simply the net monetary value of the
accident (and any other) savings and
i) First Year Rate of Return(FYRR), drawbacks expected in the first year of the
and scheme, expressed as a percentage of tile
ii) Net Present Value(NPV) total capital cost.
Both methods need the following basic FYRR (%) = Benefits (1st year) x 100
information: Capital costs
a) The capital cost of the scheme. where benefits = accidents savings

b) An estimate of al1 benefits +
(monetary value)expected to result. change in maintenance costs(+/-)
c) An estimate of all disbenefits. +
change in journey costs(+/-)
Unfortunately, at present the only available

accident costing used in Malaysia is that
produced in 1985 (see Table 5.4 - from
ESCAP7).
However, applying national inflation figures

since that time, figures for 1995 are
estimated in Table 5.4; and using the recent
numbers of each severity class of accidents
in Malaysia, the average cost of an injury
accident in 1995 is approximately
RM33,000. It is likely that this figure is
nevertheless an underestimate, and it is
hoped that a study will be conducted soon to
determine more up to-date and realistic
values for Malaysia. A column for the most
recent national accident costings has thus
been left in Table 5.4.
Thus let us consider, as an example, a

junction which had l2 injury accidents in
3 years, and nine of these involve side
collisions with drivers overshooting the Stop
line - these being the treatable group of
accidents. If the target FYRR is 50%, then
the maximum budget for the scheme may be
calculated as:
%FYRR = Annual Acc. Saving x 100

Scheme cost
50 = (9 x RM33,000 /3) x 100

Scheme cost

Scheme cost = RM99,000 x 100 if this also accrues next year then this is
50 valued at 11% 1ess, ie.89 Sen. A further
= RM198,000 year's delay will reduce the benefit again by
11% of 89 Sen, ie.79 Sen, and soon. These
That is, the scheme should not cost more figures can be summed over the life of the
than RM198,000 in order to achieve a 50% scheme to obtain the Present Value of
rate of return. Benefits (PVB).
A more detailed assessment may, however, The overall economic worth of the scheme
be needed with schemes where traffic is then obtained by deducting the Present
accidents and traffic levels are expected to Value of Costs (PVC)
change considerably from year to year. For {these may also have to be discounted
example, a scheme with an 80% FYRR may if they are spread over more than one
not be worthwhile if subsequent road year}:-
closures due to construction of a planned
new road, say, restricts the benefits just one NPV = PVB-PVC
year.
The scheme is only usually considered
5:7.3 Net Present Value (NPV) worthwhile if this figure is positive.
This type of evaluation expresses (in a
single lump slim) the difference between 5:7.3.1 Example of NPV assessment.
costs and benefits of a scheme which may
occur over a period of several years. Let us assume that the expected costs of a
junction redesign will be initially
Unfortunately, it would be incorrect to RMl00,000 spread over 2 years with annual
simply assume that year 1 benefit can be maintenance costs over the next 5 years (the
summed to obtain the overall benefit over life of the scheme) of RM8,000.
the life of the scheme. This is because
society, in general, prefers benefits which The benefits are always difficult to estimate
occur sooner rather than later. Future and will often require a simple educated
benefits must therefore be adjusted , or guess. If in this case we assume that 4 injury
“discounted” before being summed to obtain accidents over the first two years(2 per year)
a “present value”. will be saved, and this will reduce to 0.5 per
year following that due to changes in traffic.
The current rate used by the Treasury for This equates at present to RM66,000 for two
highway schemes is l1% which means that years followed by RMl6,500 for the remain-
for each RM l of benefit occurring this year, ing 3 years. The Net Present Value is
calculated in Table 5.5 to be RM6,865.
In cases where the estimated benefits do not all options are ranked in order of
vary throughout the scheme, the calculation their NPV/PVC ratio [the highest
of NPV is simplified by the use of ratio at the top of the list].
cumulated discount values and these are
given for various discount percentages in If funds are limited, those with the highest
Appendix F. NPV/PVC ratios are preferable on economic
grounds.
For example, for a benefit of RM20,000 per
annum over 5 years with reference to Table 5.6 shows an example of a remedial
Appendix F, the net benefit at 11% discount works priority programme ranked in terms
rate would be: of the schemes, NPV/PVC ratio for a 5 year
period.
RM20,000 x 3.57 = RM71,400
It can be seen that in this example the
5:7.4 Priorities For Implementation NPV/PVC ratio gives only a slightly
The economic criteria for scheme different ranking of the sites to that using
assessment using the NPV approach are: FYRR. Using this listing, a line can be
drawn for a particu1ar budget: in this use
all schemes where NPV is positive RM350,000. The full 1ist of l0 sites could
are worthwhile in economic terms; only be implemented if a budget of
RM500,000 were allocated.
for a particular site, the most
worthwhile option is that with the If the authority is receiving local political or
highest NPV; other pressures to treat a site which is

outside this list or below the cut-off level, current budget period to allow for these
then the table can be used to point out that minor re-allocations of funds.
resources should be concentrated at the sites
where greater benefits are likely to occur. In practice “easy” sites are normally best
This is more 1ikely to yield the best tackled first to yield cost effective results as
contribution to the nation’s casualty quickly as possible.
reduction targets.
However, it is likely that the “harder” sites,
In some uses a site may be at a location which may require more staff resources to
which is included within a major capital study extensively, will have high numbers of
works programme such as a flyover or accidents. These sites should not thus be put
traffic signals. If the time at which these are on one side and forgotten about.
scheduled for introduction is fairly close, it
may be best to “do nothing” at this stage and
incorporate necessary work within the major
scheme. If, however, the scheme is unlikely
to be carried out for 2 or 3 years, then
short-term (perhaps lower-cost) measures
will probab1y be justified .
For this reason and others which might

lead to “s1ippage” in timetables, it is always
worth investigating more sites and preparing
more schemes than can be carried out in the

REFERENCES
1. ROYAL SOCIETY FOR THE PREVENTION OF ACCIDENTS. Road safety

engineering manual. RoSPA, Cannon House, The Priory Queensway, B4 6BS,
Birmingham - 1992.
2. ACCIDENT REDUCTION 2000 GROUP. Progress Report December 1993.

Transportation Dept, Hertfordshire County Council, Goldings, SG14 2PY,
Hertford - 1994.
3. NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF AUSTRALIAN STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES.

Guide to traffic engineering practise: part 4-Road crashes. NAASRA, 2, Dind Street,
PO Box 489, Milsons Point, NSW 2061-1988
4. ANDREASSEN, D C. Strategies for safety problems. Australian Road Research

Board. Research Report ARR163. ARRB, 500 Burwood Highway, Vermont South,
Victoria-1989
5. TRANSPORT & ROAD RESEARCH LABORATORY. Towards safer roads in

developing countries: a guide for planners and engineers. TRRL & Oversea’s
Development Admin., Old Wokingham Road, RG11 6AU, Crowthorne-1991
6. RADIN UMAR RADIN SOHADI. Analisis Terperinci Kemalangan Jalan Raya:

Projek Pilot Seremban, Shah Alam dan Petaling Jaya. JK3P, Laporan Penyelidikan
No. 4. Majlis Keselamatan Jalan Raya Malaysia, Wisma Semantan, Jalan
Gelanggang, 50490 Kuala Lumpur-1993
7. ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMISSION FOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC.

Report on improvement of the traffic accident recording and analysis system in
Malaysia. UN ST/ESCAP/478, Bangkok-1985

CHAPTER VI
IMPLEMENTATION
6:0 INTRODUCTION the technical term for the systematic
Having selected an appropriate measure or checking of safety aspects of new schemes
package of measures to deal with the carried out on the public road.
accident problems at a site or area, the next
stage is detailed design and construction. It Although it is assumed that national
is not within the scope of this Guide to standards will be followed in any design
cover in depth the actual detailed design or unless unusual local conditions dictate a
physical implementation. This will generally departure (which needs special approval), a
be the responsibility of another appropriate combination of elements perhaps close to
department. However, it is essential that the their respective recommended minimum
team who made the scheme recommendation standard, may combine to create safety
continue to be involved. problems. Safety audit seeks to address such
problems .
The road safety audit is discussed and
general advice on the safety of construction At present the UK Institute of Highway
work noted. Engineers’ Guidelines1 are being
applied in Malaysia but these should be
STEP 8: Detailed Design And amended to suit local conditions as
Installation experience is gained.
6:8.1 Detailed Design 6:8.1.2 Aims Of The Safety Audit

As stated above, the next stage after
selecting an appropriate remedial measure To ensure that all road schemes
will usual1y be detailed design. This is operate as safely as possible.
likely to be carried out by a different unit to
those investigating the problems, and is To ensure that preventable potential
beyond the scope of this Guide. However, accident-generating elements are not
the design drawings will, of course, need to present in a completed scheme, for
be based on the proposals/outline plans of example ,moving lamp columns to
the accident investigators and this same the back of the footway.
team should also remain actively involved
with the designers. To ensure suitable accident-reducing
elements are included in the scheme,
6:8.1.1 Road Safety Audit for example, "anti-skid" surfacing
Road safety audit is a means of accident on down hill approach to traffic
prevention rather than accident reduction signals, guard rail and chevron
(a change in philosophy to the previous boards on unavoidably sharp bend,
chapters). It is the application of safety crash cushion before essential solid
experience to ensure that future safety structure.
problems are not designed into new
schemes. It is discussed here because ideally 6:8.1.3 Organisation Of The Audit
an audit should also be carried out on safety Safety audit should be part of the overall
remedial work, both at the design stage and safety management strategy for the road
again immediately after the scheme authority within its Road Safety Plan. An
implementation: that is, prior to opening to arbitration procedure should be agreed in
normal traffic. Safety audit is simply the use of differences in opinion.

In a road authority it is likely that safety is overlooked. However, the audit team
audit will be carried out within the accident should not rely solely on these lists.
investigation/road safety unit, though
preferably by more than one person. Before The auditors should imagine “walking” or
deciding on who should carry out the audit “riding” the scheme, and should physically
the following should be considered: do this at the final audit stage to check, for
example, that signs are of the correct type
The audit team should be and in the right place, road markings and
independent of the design team. It island are correctly placed and that there are
should contain (and must certainly no unforseen conflicts between the treatment
be led by) persons with safety and other existing site features.
engineering experience. A
knowledge of design standards is Although the audit team should discuss
important. their findings with the design team, a formal
report should always be produced. This
Other specialists such as traffic should state the potential safety problems as
signals and structural engineers may precisely as possible and should include a
also need to be consulted depending recommendation or options for
on the scheme. The police may also improvement. The recommendation should
be required, particularly in the latter be in outline form only and it may be
stages of the audit, where special desirable to annotate copies of the original
road users, requirements may need scheme drawings.
consideration.
The scheme should be monitored and
6:8.1.4 When To Carry Out The Audit feedback given to the design team.
Safety audits can be performed at the
following stages: 6:8.2 Installation
As stated above, it is beyond the scope
Feasibility study of this Guide to include guidance on all
engineering aspects of altering existing
Completion of preliminary design road geometry or installing countermeasure
devices. This section is thus limited to
Completion of detailed design general advice on maintaining safety during
installation.
Prior to opening to traffic
6:8.2.1 Safety At Roadworks
Other times on an informal basis Accidents tend to occur at a higher rate at
roadworks sites and involve more vehicles
6:8.1.5 The Audit Task than on normally operating sections of the
Information such as plans, list of standards road network. A study of major roadwork
followed, departures made traffic and sites in the UK2 found that, despite the fact
pedestrian counts, and accident records that the contraflow sites were genera1ly well
should be collected from the design team. It signed and laid out, accidents still occurred
may be helpful to discuss the purpose 1.6 times more frequently than on non-road-
behind the design of the scheme and it is works sections, and the percentage of
essentia1to carry out a site visit at a1l stages accidents involving 4 or more vehicles was
of the audit. 29% compared with only 8% without works.
It issuspected that the ratio may be
Appropriate check lists1 should be used considerably higher than this in Malaysia,
to systematically ensure no safety problem particularly at sites where advance warning
signs are poor.
their roadworks sites. Often with relatively

short-term work due to the extra trouble
required, warning signs are not set out
sufficiently in advance of the works site or
are two few in number: this is particularly
hazardous where drivers vision of the site
may be obscured by a bend or other traffic.
The use of modern electrically-powered

flashing arrow lights mounted on trailers
tend to provide a more effective means of
attracting drivers, attention.
Attention should be paid to the use of

adequate lengths of “safety zone” or
“buffer space” (see Fig.6.4) which provides
an escape area if drivers fail to notice the
advance warning signs. Lengths of these
zones are specified in ref.3.
Also, tapers of traffic cones to close off

a lane before the work area, or to move
traffic into other contraflow lanes, are
often not made long enough. The
standards should again be followed to
ensure that the traffic movement is gradual,
and thus smoother and safer.
6:8.3 Implementation log

It is important to keep a record of the
precise dates of the beginning and
completion of major parts of the remedial
work for all jobs. This is essential for the
monitoring of the scheme (see following
chapter).
Similarly, details of all costs involved,

including variation orders, must be kept. The
actual costs often differ considerably from
original estimates, and this record will
facilitate a more reliable cost-benefit-
analysis.
It is very important, therefore, that

countermeasure installations themselves
are made as safe as possible. The road
engineer must attempt to regularly enforce
contractors to follow the standards laid
down in Arahan Teknik 2C/853 for traffic
control, temporary signs and work zones at


REFERENCES
1. INSTITUTION OF HIGHWAYS AND TRANSPORTATION. Guidelines for the

safety audit of highways. IHT, 3 Lygon Place, Ebury Street, SWIW OJS, London -
1990.
2. MARLOW M, and R D COOMBE. A study of the safety of major motorway

roadworks in 1987. Research report RR223. Transport and Road Research
Laboratory, Old Wokingham Road, RG11 6AU, Crowthorne - 1989
3. JABATAN KERJA RAYA. Manual on traffic control devices, temporary signs and
work zones control . Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 2C/85. Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat
JKR, Jalan Sultan Salahuddin, 50582 Kuala Lumpur - 1985.

CHAPTER VII
EVALUATION
7:0 INTRODUCTION It is essential to carry out the monitoring
Having introduced a countermeasure or effectively, not least to avoid the “bad
package of measures it is important to publicity” which could occur if a road safety
establish the effectiveness of the safety scheme was seen to be actually causing
engineering work carried out; first to check accidents.
that nothing has gone wrong and that it is
working as intended, and later to learn Recording the results of the monitoring
lessons which may influence future measures is also important to build up
decisions on improvements. a database of types of treatment and the
effects they produced to provide information
This chapter emphasises the need to monitor for future safety engineering work.
by observing the changes at the site in
operation. To evaluate these it concentrates 7:9.2 Measures Used In Monitoring
on accident changes and describes the For monitoring or measuring the effect of a
simple statistical tests needed to obtain. safety improvement, the technique employed
is usually by “before” and “after” analysis.
STEP 9 Monitoring The most important measure of success is,
of course, whether the safety work has
7:9.1 Initial Observations improved the accident situation at the site.
The treated site should be observed This will always need to be assessed for a
immediately after completion of the scheme and statistical methods for
construction and regular visits made in the evaluation will be discussed in the next
following days, weeks or months until the Step. A simple visual method that has been
team is satisfied that the scheme is operating used, though is perhaps more suitable for
in the way expected. mass action plans rather than single sites, is
that cumulative accident numbers (& types)
It is strongly advised that my earlier are plotted together with their cumulative
behavioural measurements that were made mean.
during the investigation stage of Step5 (eg,
traffic conflict counts, speed measurements, Fig.7.1(from ref.1)is an example of this
skid resistance) are now repeated as this will method of data presentation, and illustrates
lend weight to any argument for making that the daytime running headlight campaign
further changes at the site or, indeed, in Malaysia was apparently being effective
proving success. It can happen, for instance, in reducing those accidents related to day-
that some feature of a scheme may produce time conspicuity (MSTOX = motorcycles
an unforseen reaction in drivers which moving straight or turning when other
creates a potentially hazardous situation. road users cross their path), whilst having no
Monitoring should highlight this problem at effect on night-time accidents. In the table
an early stage so that appropriate action can of Fig.7.l the cumulative mean number of
be taken quickly to remove this danger. related accidents has been calculated. The
cumulative mean is obtained by simply
At best it may be possible to alleviate this adding on the average monthly accident
danger easily, for example, by a realignment frequency over the before period (in this
of kerb lines to prevent a hazardous case 6 months) to each month after the first
manoeuvre. At worst, it could lead to the one. As long as the standard deviation is not
complete withdrawal of a scheme and need large, the two comparable lines of
to reassess alternative schemes.
cumulative accidents and cumulative mean wide or mass action treatments. It must be
accidents lie close together during the noted, however, that non-accident variables
before period, but after implementation have the disadvantage that they do not give
of the scheme the cumulative mean line direct measures of the size of safety
represents what would normally be expected improvement. There are practically no
if no action had been taken, and the amount variables for which the precise relation to
they drift apart (marked * in Fig.7.1) accidents is known. This means that a
represents the effect of the measure. measured reduction in mean speed, for
example, cannot be translated into an
However, to be sure that the random nature estimate for the number of accidents saved:
of accidents has been taken into account, it this is a considerable drawback.
will normally be necessary to wait for
several years for a valid result to be However, before carrying out a behavioural
available. More immediate feedback is often “after” study it is generally better to wait for
necessary which is why the above method is a period of about 2 months after the scheme
suggested. Other behavioural data, as has been operating. This serves as a “settling
mentioned in 7:9.1, can also be collected to in” period during which regular users get
give indications that a scheme is working. used to a new road feature and any learning
effects have disappeared.
It would, of course, be impractical to carry
out detailed behavioural studies for all minor Some of the factors that may need to be
alterations, but studies may be particularly examined (see also Step5,Chap IV) are
important for expensive schemes like area- noted below:

7:9.2.1 Speed Of Traffic 7:9.2.5 Public Perception

If speed reduction is one of the objectives of Often one of the main reasons why an
the scheme then speeds should obviously be area-wide scheme has been implemented is
monitored. Similar and appropriate locations due to campaigns by residents for something
should be carefully chosen for the before to be done. One of the most important parts
and after studies preferably using automatic of an area-wide scheme, therefore, is public
equipment. If radar guns are used then these consultation .Thus, an important monitoring
need to be unobtrusive otherwise warning measure is how the residents and other road
signals invariably given by drivers in the users feel about the safety elements of the
opposing direction will yield unreliable scheme after implementation.
results.
7:9.2.6 Effects On Other Areas
The t-distribution can be used to compare It is important to examine whether the
whether my changes in the mean speeds in scheme has led to an increase in accidents,
the two periods of measurement are traffic speeds and volumes in adjacent areas.
statistically significant (see Appendix G).
7:9.3 Control Data
7:9.2.2 Traffic Conflicts In most of the above monitoring measures
As mentioned earlier these are generally of (and particularly accident changes) it is
use at junctions only. The “after” study necessary to take into account other factors
should be carried out in the same conditions not affected by the treatment which might
and for the same periods as the “before” also influence that measure. Examples are:
study, and preferably using the same a change in speed limit on roads which
observers (to minimise subjectivity between include the site; national road safety
individuals). campaigns; traffic management schemes
which might affect volume of traffic.
The frequencies of occurrence of conflicts
cm be analysed in the same way as the These changes may be compensated for
methods used for accidents, as outlined in by comparing the same “before” and
the next Step. “after” periods with accidents (or other
measurements) at “control” sites which are
7:9.2.3 Traffic Volumes untreated. Control data can be either by
If the measure is expected to affect matched pairs or area controls.
manoeuvres at a junction or drivers choice
of route in any other way, then it is desirable A matched pair control site should be
to collect traffic flow data throughout the similar to the treated site in general
local network. It may also be necessary to characteristics and also geographically fairly
expand this survey to provide origin and close to it (but not close enough to be
destination information so that estimates in affected by my traffic diversion). This is so
through-traffic can be obtained to determine that the control will be subject to the same
how this has been affected by the scheme. local variations which might affect safety
(eg. weather, traffic flows, enforcement
7:9.2.4 Travel Times campaigns).
In some cases monitoring may require an
estimate of changes in travel time for Although the matched pair is the best
residents and through-traffic. This will be statistical method to use, in practice it is
important where traffic severance forms part very difficult to find other sites with the
of the scheme, and traffic is being re-routed. same problems which are left untreated
purely to carry out statistical tests. Area
controls which comprise anumber of sites
are, therefore, much more frequently used.
when choosing control sites: that due to other sources. Some of the other
factors that need to be considered are
they should be as similar as possible discussed below:-
to treats sites;
7:10.1.1 Changes In The Environment
they should not be affected by the This feature was mentioned in the last
treatment; section of Step 9 whereby a change in the
environment or driving habits can affect the
there should be more than 10 times accidents occurring at the study site. For
the number of accidents at the example, a change in the nationa1 speed
contorl sites. limit for the class of road at the site, or
closure of a nearby junction to the site
For example, if the traffic signals at a site producing a marked change in traffic
are modified then a control group of sites patterns.
might be a11other signalised sizes in the
town. But if there were only two other This feature can be taken into account by the
signalized junctions and these had lower use of control site data but for this to be
flows and much fewer accidents as did other valid it is important that these other sites
uncontrolled junctions, then it would be experience exactly the same changes as the
better to use all signalized junctions in the site under evaluation.
State.
7:10.1.2 Random Fluctuation
STEP 10 Evaluation As explained in Chapter I, the rare and
random nature of road accidents can lead to
7:10.1 The Effect On Accidents quite large fluctuations in frequencies
This step of the procedure focuses on occurring at a site from year to year, even
evaluation of whether the treatment has been though there has been no change in the
successful in achieving its objective of underlying accident rate. This extra
reducing the number of accidents. This variability makes the effect of the treatment
therefore requires comparison of the number more difficult to detect; but a test of
of accidents in the target group before the statistical significance can be used to
treatment with the number after treatment determine whether the observed change in
(with the assumption of a similar before accident frequency is likely to have occurred
pattern if nothing were done), and to study by chance or not.
whether my other accident type has
increased. 7:10.1.3 Regression To The Mean
This effect complicates evaluations at
This Guide does not attempt to delve deeply high accident or blackspot sites in that
into the different statistical techniques, but accidents at these sites tend to reduce even
to suggest practical and simple ways in when no treatment is applied. Even if a
which schemes can be evaluated. The 3.year total is considered at the worst
following sections generally refer to “a site” accident sites in m area, it is likely that the
but the same techniques can be used for accident frequencies were at the high end of
mass, route and area-wide action as long as the naturally occurring random fluctuations,
appropriate control groups are chosen. and subsequent years will yield lower
numbers. This is known as regression to the
The main problem when using accident data mean.
for evaluation (even assuming high
recording accuracy) is to distinguish
between a change due to the treatment and

As an example consider Table 7.1 which The effect does, however, tend to be
gives the actual numbers of recorded diminished if longer periods of time are
accidents involving personal injury for 122 selected. For example, Abbess et a1.3, in a
nodes in the town of Seremban over a two study in two counties of the UK calculated
year period. For sites with 5 or more that regression-to-mean had the following
accidents in year l there were overall fewer effects at high accident sites(ie. more than 8
accidents in the following year. Conversely, injury accidents per year), on average, on
sites with 4 or less acc1dents have more their accident rate:-
accidents in year 2. If an accident
countermeasure had been installed at the Period of accident Regression to mean
worst 9 sites at the end of year l then a data considered change in annual
highly significant reduction of 37% might be accident rate
claimed after year 2, even though the 1 year 15 to 26%
measure had been completely ineffective 2 year 7 to 15%
(this same result would be obtained by doing
nothing). An even higher false resu1t would 3 year 5 to 11%
be obtained if the other 113 sites were used
as a control group. Due to the uncertainty and complexity
of allowing for this effect reliably at any site
Possibly the most straightforward way of it is suggested, therefore, that where the
allowing for both the regression to mean highest accident sites are chosen for
effect and changes in the environment would treatment, then the above order of allowance
be to use control sites chosen in exactly the should be made when calculating any
same way as the treated sites, and identified estimate of the actual reduction in accidents
as having similar problems, but left the countermeasures have produced.
untreated. In practice, it is both difficult to
find matched control sites and, if 7:10.1.4 Accident Migration
investigated, to justify not treating them. There is still some controversy over whether
or not this effect exists but it has been
There has been much debate among reported by several researchers 6,7,8. It is
statisticians over many years on this subject simply that an increase in accidents tends to
and the best way to deal with it be observed at sites adjoining a successfully
(see refs. 2,3,4,5).
treated site giving an apparent transfer or 7:10.2 Before And After Periods
“migration” of accidents. There are a number of points to taken into
account when choosing periods to compare
It can be detected by comparing the accident before and after the treatment was applied:-
frequencies in the surrounding area before
and after implementation of treatments at Before and after periods at the
sites in the area with a suitable control. It is treated site should be identical to
unclear precisely why this effect occurs but that at the control site.
is suspected that drivers are “compensating”
for the improved safety at treated sites by The period during which work was
being less cautious elsewhere. carried out should be omitted from
the study. If this period was not
Again, there are no established techniques recorded precisely, a longer period
yet available to estimate this effect for a containing it should be omitted.
particular site. The first reported occurrence
of this feature 6 found an overa1l increase in The before period should be long
surrounding areas of about 9% and a later enough to provide a good statistical
study8 of a larger number of sites estimated estimate of the true accident rate (so
0.2 accidents/site/year. as to remove as far as possible
random fluctuations).It should not,
7:10.1.5 Risk Compensation however, include periods where the
This is an even more controversial effect, site had different characteristics.
though related to the previous section. The Three years is widely regarded as a
philosophy of “risk compensation” or “risk reasonable period to use.
homeostasis theory” suggests that road users
will change their risk-taking behaviour to The same applies to the after period
compensate for any improvements in road which ideally should also be three
safety. That is, road users tend to maintain a years. However, results are often
fixed level of accepted risk, so will take required much sooner than this. A
more risks when given greater accident one year after period can initially be
protection, for example, if provided with used if there is no reason why this
seat belts or anti-lock brakes. should bias the result (as long as the
same period is used at the control
Whilst again the extent of this effect is sites). However, sensitivity is lost
extremely difficult to monitor, the engineer and the estimate of the counter-
should be aware of the possibility of risk measure’s success should be updated
compensation when introducing later when more data becomes
countermeasures. For example, a scheme available.
giving pedestrians more apparent priority
using speed tables or raised pedestrian 7:10.3 Standard Tests On Accident
crossings (which give the impression of Changes
extensions to the footway) may lead the In evaluating a treatment the answers to
pedestrian into taking much less care in the following questions will usually be
crossing the road. required:
For further reading on this subject see Has the treatment been effective?
references 9,10.
If so, how effective has it been?
It is assumed that the user of this Guide will

need to interpret accident data practically

without necessarily understanding the
underlying statistical theory. For this
purpose it is sufficient to assume that the
before and after accidents are drawn from a
normal or Gaussian distribution.
If k < l then there has been a decrease in
accidents relative so the control;
This means that we can use the Chi-square
test to answer the first question above, ie.
if k = l then there has been no change
whether the changes at the site were
relative to the control; and
statistically significant. However, let us first
consider the size of that change by using the
if k > 1 then there has been an increase
k test.
relative to the control.
7:10.3.1 The k Test
The percentage change at the site is given by
It is possible that although accident levels
reduced at a treated site in an “after” period,
the general level of accidents is also
reducing; the “real” reduction at the site due
to the treatment thus being less than the
actual numbers observed (ie. over estimating
Example:
effectiveness). Conversely, if the general
Let us assume that Table 7.2 gives the
level of accidents is increasing an
annual injury accident totals for a priority
underestimate of the treatment would be
T-junction in a semi-urban area which had
obtained. The k test can be used to show
Stop signs on the minor road originally, but
how the accident numbers at a site change
where a roundabout was installed three years
relative to control data. For a given site or
ago. The control data used are accidents on
group of similarly treated sites, let:-
all other priority junctions in the District
over exactly the same 6 year period.
a = before accidents at site
b = after accidents at site
c = before accidents at control
d = after accidents at control
Therefore, as k < 1there has been a
then k = b/a
decrease in accidents relative to the
d/c
controls of:
or, if any of the frequencies are zero then
1/2 should be added to each, ie:

7:10.3.2 The Chi-Squared Test 7:10.3.3 Group Of Sites With Same

It is important to answer whether the above Treatment
change in accidents was indeed produced by For a number of sites, N, which have had
the treatment or whether this occurred by the same treatment, the overall effect is a
chance. This test thus determines whether rather more complex calculation, ie. by
the changes are statistically significant. solving the following equation for K over all
with reference to the above table chi-squared the sites, ie. i = l to N. The other symbols
is calculated by the formula: are as in previous equations.
For testing, the natural logarithm of a

variable such as K is usually found to have a
more symmetrical distribution (amenable to
standard statistical treatments), and the
standard error, σ, of loge K can be
approximated to the following:
Example:
Now looking at the chi-squared distribution The following ratio should then be
table (Appendix D) and the first line (one calculated using loge of the value of K
degree of freedom, v=1), the value for chi- calculated above and its standard error from
square of 5.38 lies between 3.84 and 5.41. the previous equation:
This corresponds to a value of significance
level (on the column header line) between
0.05 and 0.02, which is normally quoted as
greater than the lower level, ie. better than
the 5% level of significance. and if this value is outside the range ±1.96
(Student's t), then the change is statistically
This means that them is only a 5% significant at least the 5 per cent level.
like1ihood (or l in 20 chance) that the
change in accidents is due so random Now to test whether the changes at the
fluctuation. Another way of stating this is treated sites are in fact producing the
that there is a 95% (100% - 5%) confidence same effect on accident rates, calculate
that a real change in accidents has occurred the following chi-squared value.
at the junction.
The 5% level or better is widely accepted as

the level in which the remedial action has
certainly worked, though the 10% level can
be regarded as an indication of an effect.

If this is significant with N-l degrees of to the treatment is negligible, the First Year
freedom [refer to the (N-1)th] row in the Rate of Return (FYRR) is simply given by:
table of Appendix D, where N is the
number of treated sites], then unfortunately,
the changes at the sizes are not producing
the same effect. If non-significant, then it is
likely that they are producing the same
effect. The above FYRR figure should be rounded
so 90% to give m indication of the possible
7:10.4 Economic Evaluation effect of using this treatment in the future.
For every scheme the evaluation should
include an indication of the benefits actually This is the same technique as outlined in
achieved in relation to cost. Chapter 5 and the Net Present Value figures
can also be calculated for completed
In the previous sections we have already schemes following the example given in that
seen how we can determine a best estimate Chapter. This would be particularly
of the size of the effect on accidents. advisab1e if there are considerable new
Considering again the example in Fig.7.2, maintenance costs associated with the
the estimate of the reduction was 72.2%. If installed measure.
the site was one of the worst blackspots in
the District, then we ought to make some It is only by evaluating and recording results
allowance for the regression-to-mean effect. in this way that a listing of implemented
From Section 7:10.1.3,let us assume this remedial measures and their effectiveness
amounts to as much as 11%, such that our can be built up for the use of road
best estimate of the true reduction in authorities throughout the country.
accidents due to installation of the round-
about is 61.2% (72.2%-11%). 7:10.5 Evaluating Overall Effectiveness
This chapter has concentrated on evaluating
Since the original number of accidents the effects of specific schemes. In addition
at the site was 20, this represents a saving of there is a need for the regular strategy
12.24 accidents over the study period. As the document mentioned in Chapter I to provide
“before” period in this case was 3 years, the a summary of the overall achievements of
best estimate of savings is 4.08 accidents per road safety programmes.
year.
As background information in the strategy
It should be noted that only injury accidents document it is normal to present and
have been considered here but if there had examine aggregate accident statistics over
been reliable numbers of damage-only the State, District or Municipality, broken
accidents which were also reduced, then a down in various ways by, for example, Class
separate costing of these should perhaps also of road user, class of road. These aggregate
be carried out. figures can be useful not only in indicating
general priorities but also in evaluating the
Using the average injury accident cost effects of wide-scale safety campaigns,
of RM 33,000 used in Step7 (see Section legislative and/or enforcement changes.
5:7.2), this accident saving amounts to
RM134,640 per year. However, as schemes are usua1ly localised,
their effects are often difficult to detect
This figure is then compared to the costs of among much larger accident totals. Hence in
the treatment which totalled say, the strategy document or Road Safety Plan it
RM150,000. Assuming delay to traffic due will probably be better to give a summary

listing of the effectiveness of all the of safety efforts taking place and the relative
low-cost schemes (see Appendix A success of the various methods used.
examples). This is more informative than a
single overall figure as it displays the range
REFERENCES
1. RADIN UMAR R S, G M MACKAY, B L HILLS. Preliminary analysis of

motorcycle accidents:short-term impacts of the running headlights campaign and
regulation in Malaysia.To be published in J.of Traffic Medicine-1995
2. HAUER E,& P BYER. Bias by selection: the accumcy of an unbiased estimator.

Accid-Anal.& Prevention-15, 5, pp323-328-1983.
3. ABBESS C, D JARRETT, C C WRIGHT-Accidents at blackspots: estimating the

effectiveness of remedial treatment,with special reference to the ‘regression to
mean’ effect. Traffic Engineering & Control, 22 10-1981.
4. WRIGHT C C, C R ABBESS & D F JARRETT. Estimating the regression-to-mean

effect associated with road accident blackspot treatment: towards a more realistic
approach. Accid. Anal.& Prevention. 20, 3, pp199-214, - 1986.
5. MOUNTAIN L,B FAWAZ & L SINENG. The assessment of changes in accident

frequencies on link segments: a comparison of four methods.Traffic Engineering &
Control, 33, 7 -1992.
6. BOYLE, A J & C C WRIGHT. Accident migration after remedial treatment at

accident blackspots. Traffic Engineering & Control, 25, 5 -1984.
7. PERSAUD, B.Migration of accident risk after remedial treatment at accident

blackspots. Traffic Engineering & Control, 28,1-1987.
8. MOUNTAIN L, & B FAWAZ. The effects of engineering measures on safety at

adjacent sites. Traffic Engineering & Control, 33, 1-1992
9. ADAMS J. Risk and freedom:the record of road safety regulation. Transport

Publishing Projects. Cardiff -1985.
10. TRIMPOP R M, & G J S WILDE Challenges to accident prevention: the issue of

risk compensation behaviour. STYX Publications, Postbus 2659, 9704 CR
Groningen, The Netherlands -1994.

CHAPTER VIII
SUMMARY
Summary Of Chapter I Summary Of Chapter II
- INTRODUCTION - ACCIDENT DATABASE
The main points covered in this chapter can Maintenance of a reliable accident
be summarised as follows: database is m essential element of
safety work since it constitutes the
Road accidents are a serious base measure used to:
problem in Malaysia with more than
one person in every 450 of the i) identify the nature and location of
population suffering injury or death problems, and
on the road each year.
ii) to monitor the effects of remedial
This Guide focuses on the action taken.
Engineering aspects of improving
safety. Accident Investigation Units should
be set up in all road authorities with
The Guide also concentrates on the one full-time staff per 400-1000
accident reduction approach accidents per year.
(although the priciples applied in
devising colinsermeasures also be The data originates with the Police
adopted at the design stage in order but the responsibilities of various
to prevent accidents) authorities are summarised below:-
The four basic strategies for Balai Police

reducing accidents are: - Attend scene of accident and record
details
-Single sites/blackspots - Enter basic details in 24.hour incident
-Mass action schemes report book
-Route action plans - Open investigation file (for all injury and
-Area-wide schemes some damage-only accidents)
- Complete POL27 form
The national casualty reduction
targets should be disaggregated to Output:
the local level, and a planned giving - Main copy of POL27 to HQ
details of how they will be met, and - Pages 4 & 15 copies to District JKR/Local
reporting progress/success. Government Office
- Investigation papers for court case
An annual Road Safety Plan should
be produced by all road authorities Police HQ-Bukit Aman
to include a local accident analysis, - Receive POL27 forms, check, and enter
statement of the targets, giving onto mainframe computer
details of how they will be met, and - Download data to MAAP files
reporting progress/success.
Output:
- Send copy of MAAP files to HPU

JKR District Office - Single site listing by worst nodes

- Produce appropriate scale maps marked and links, ie. descending order of
with landmarks. accidents.
- Check POL27 forms for accident location
on all State & Federal roads - Mass action sites can be ranked
- Fill in Section No, 100m distance, map according to numbers of accidents
code, X-Y coordinate coding. of a selected factor (eg. night time
accidents)
Output:
- Completed pages 4 & 15 of POL27 send to - For Area wide action , residential
HPU areas need to be divided into
approximately l km squares
Local Government Department (though irregular shapes bounded
- Produce appropriate nodal scale maps. by rail lines, roads, rivers etc. will
- Check POL27 forms for accident location ultimately be used).These areas are
on all Urban principal and minor roads. usually ranked by numbers of
- Fill in Node, Link Nos, map code, X-Y vulnerable road user accidents.
coordinate coding.
STEP 2: Preliminary Accident Analysis
Output:
- Completed pages 4 & 15 of POL27-send to Test sites in first listing to ensure
HPU high accident numbers have not
occurred by chance.
Highway Planning Unit (MOW)
- Coordinate all location data Produce stick diagrams to help look
- Merge this with data from Police HQ into for common patterns of accident.
MAAP computer files.
STEP 3: Initial Site Visit
Output:
- Complete data set copy sent to Police HQ Check plans are up to date.
- Appropriate data files made available to all
authorities. Visualise accidents on record to
confirm manoeuvres and make
Summary Of Chapter III preliminary judgement of causes.
- INVESTIGATION
Photograph site.
Step 1: Identifying And Prioritising
Sites Classify sites if possible as ‘easy’ or
‘hard’.
Define a reaction level above which
action should be taken.
Search data ideally covering a

period of 3 years using MAAP to
produce initial ranking of sites.
These can be:-
- Route action listing in descending

order of accident totals ( or points)
per Section Number per year.

Summary Of Chapter IV i) Supplement accident data,

- DIAGNOSIS
ii) Help diagnose problems, and
STEP 4 Collection Of Further Data
And Analysis iii) Use in future evaluation of remedial
work implemented.
Study accident data at the site in
more detail including sketch Summary Of Chapter V
diagrams, and produce collision - SELECTION
diagrams.
STEP 6 Select Posibble
Classify accidents into types. Countermeasures
Amend stick diagrams to include A road hierarchy should be

my further information and search estab1ished.
for dominant accident patterns.
Decide on economic objectives
Gather any available data such as for the different scheme types
traffic flow, dates of road (eg.50% FYRR at single sites
alterations. to10-25% area-wide action).
Determine likely human factors - Several treatment proposals for

any perceptual traps. a site should be considered (lists
of schemes shown to be effective in
STEP 5: Site Studies And Analysis several countries are given), and
each should:-
Make further site visit and look for
likely features which may be - aim to reduce the prevalent accident
contributing to accidents. type(s);
Plan the following further studies, - not increase other types of accident at the
as necessary: site or in the surrounding area;
- Traffic flow manoeuvre counts. - not cause undesirable effects on other

traffic movements or on the environment.
- Pedestrian road crossing flow in marked
road lengths if relevant. For area-wide residential schemes,
aim to reduce speeds as opposed to
- Speed measurements on approach to restricting vehicle movements and
junctions or bends indication of possible maintain good consultation with
problems. locals and the emergency services.
- Take still photographs and/or video as a Consider whether schemes need to

record for report, or use to study problem incorporate road user training and
behaviour. media campaigns.
- Conduct traffic conflict study most useful

at junctions to :

STEP 7: Priortise Treatments & Sites Monitoring should be carried out at

different levels: for the whole area
Estimate costs and benefits of each covered by the road authority;
treatment for which the following is immediately after each individual
required: scheme; and for longer term
conclusions.
- capital costs
- estimate of benefits Variables other than accident
- estimate of any disbenefits. frequency can be used to monitor
the effectiveness, particularly in
Select most cost-effective solution relation to the objectives of the
in terms of best First Year Rate of particular countermeasure. A series
Return (FYRR) or best Net Present of other factors are strongly
Value to Present Value Cost ratio recommended for area-wide
(NPV/PVC). Only those schemes schemes.
with FYRR > 50% should initially
be considered. It is important to monitor other
surrounding areas which could be
Draw up list of sites in priority affected by the scheme and to
order of best NPV/PVC ratio, and identify as large a group of control
decide on cut-off of sites to be sites as possible of similar nature
treated within the budget. but well away from the study sites.
Summary Of Chapter VI STEP 10: Evaluation

- IMPLEMENTATION
Remedial action schemes should be
STEP 8: Detailed Design And evaluated so that knowledge can be gained
Installation about relative performances. This will assist
decision making on efficient allocation of
Carry out a road safety audit at the resources in the future.
design stage and immediately before
opening to traffic. Statistical tests should be used in
before and after studies to compare
Ensure adequate safety standards are accident changes at the treated sites
followed at the safety improvement with the control sites.
construction site.
The investigator should make
Maintain a 1og of dates of the works allowance for the known other
and of actual costs. factors that can affect the estimate
of the effect of the measure on
accidents (eg. regression-to-mean).
Summary Of Chapter VII
- EVALUATION
As a guide to overall effectiveness
of a road authority’s road safety
STEP 9: Monitoring
programme, a summary list of
individual schemes, grouped in an
The importance of monitoring after scheme appropriate manner, should be
implementation is stressed. produced and included in the Road
Safety Plan document.

APPENDIX A
Example of Road Safety Plans
This Appendix contains extracts from recent road safety strategy documents or Road Safety
Plans of two highway authorities in the United Kingdom, ie. Doncaster Metropolitan
Borough Council and Berkshire County Council. They are included as examples only of the
format and type of information which, it is recommended, be incorporated in similar
published documents in Malaysia.
Road Safety Plans are now produced annually by most road authorities in the United
Kingdom regardless of the current success or failure of each in achieving its target. They
serve as a means of ensuring that the road authority concentrates on managing its particular
problems effectively, and provide the public and higher authorities with a valuable record of
the efforts it is making on their behalf towards improving the safety of the road network.
It should be noted that Berkshire County Council, having responsibility for a larger road
network, have now appointed a commercial highways and planning consultants, the Babtie
Group, to carry out the task of producing their Plan.
















2.0 PROGRESS TOWARDS TARGET
Berkshire Progress
In 1989 when the County Council adopted the casualty reduction target, some 4354
casualties had resulted from accidents on Berkshire’s roads. In order to achieve the target
reduction of one third of the average 1981-85 figure by the year 2000, this figure must
reduced to 2847. Progress towards the target is shown opposite. Whilst casualty numbers
continue to decline it can be seen that an increased rate of reduction is now required if the
objective is to be achieved.
National Progress
For comparison purpose the national progress towards the year 2000 target is also shown
opposite. It can be seen performance in Berkshire is better than the national average.
It can be seen that both the Berkshire and National trends show the same effect: an early and
relatively rapid reduction as the “easier” sites are tackled, followed by a levelling off as
more difficult problems (often related to behaviour as much as to the road layout) have to be
tackled.
WHILST CASUALTY NUMBERS CONTINUE TO DECLINE, MORE SIGNIFICANT

REDUCTIONS ARE REQUIRED TO MEET THE YEAR 2000 TARGET

3.0 ACCIDENT TRENDS AND ANALYSIS
An analysis of accident trends has shown that speeding particularly in urban areas continues
to be a major factor in accident causation. The young and inexperienced road users feature
predominantly in Berkshire's accident statistics, and the fact that two-thirds of all casualties
resulting from accidents on Berkshire's roads are the drivers and passengers of cars is a
cause for concern. It is at these key areas that resources must be targeted if the year 2000
targets is to be met.
The Size Of The Problem

Throughout 1993 on roads in Berkshire there was a total of 2773 accidents involving
personal injury.
These resulted in 3672 casualties of which:
33 were fatal
347 were serious injuries 3
292 were slight injuries
The total number of fatalities and serious injuries has declined every year since 1989 and
now represents a 65% reduction over the 1981 - 85 average figure.

The only specific road user group showing and increasing casualties trend is that of car
occupants. Casualty levels in this group are currently 10% higher than the 1981-85 average.
It is clear that this casualty group holds the key to achieving the casualty reduction target
and the County Council's objective in the next few years will be to reduce casualties in this
area.
THE KEY TO ACHIEVING THE YEAR 2000 TARGET WILL BE REDUCE TO REDUCE
CASUALITIES IN THE CAR OCCUPANT ROAD USER GROUP

Accidents Locatios In Berkshire

As can be seen in the figures below, the majority of accidents in Berkshire take place on
urban roads. (i.e. those roads subject to a speed limit of 40mph or less). It is evident that if
the casualty reduction target is to be met then a significant proportion of engineering
programmes and police enforcement activity must be focused on these areas.
THE COUNTY COUNCIL WILL CONTINUE TO FOCUS ROAD SAFETY RESOURCES

TOWARDS ACCIDENT CONCENTRATIONS, PARTICULARLY THOSE IN URBAN AREAS
Vulnerable Road User Groups In Berkshire

The distribution of road traffic casualties by age and road user class shows that
inexperienced users of each mode are more likely to be involved in accidents. This is
particularly evident with the young car driver since accident records show that over
one-third of all accidents involve drivers in the 17 to 24 age range.

As discussed in later sections, Education Training and Publicity initiatives are directed
principally at these inexperienced and hence vulnerable groups.
Speed
Speeding by drivers and riders is the most common contributory factor to deaths and injuries
on Berkshire's roads.
A study by the Transport Research Laboratory (TRL) has indicated that between 22 and 32
percent of the accidents studied had excessive speed as a contributory factor.
In terms of the 1993 injury road accident figures for Berkshire, this would indicate that
speeding had been involved in over 800 injury road accidents.
As discussed in later sections, the theme of excessive speed and road safety will play a
major part in the County Council's engineering and education programmes and in the
enforcement activity of Thames Valley Police.
AN ANALYSIS BY TRL INDICATES THAT A REDUCTION IN

AVERAGE SPEED EVERYWHERE OF THE ORDER OF 1 KPH COULD SAVE 5
PERCENT OF ALL INJURY ACCIDENTS

4.0 ENGINEERING ACTION
The great majority of schemes in the County Council's highway works programme will
result in road safety improvements. Indeed the Council's scheme selection procedures are
heavily biased towards tackling sites with a persistent injury accident problem.
In recognising the importance of reducing the level of accidents on the County's roads the
Government allows Supplementary Credit Approval (SCA) to be claimed against
engineering projects which can demonstrate potential injury accident savings. Hence it is in
the County's interest to promote such schemes above those to which no potential injury
accident savings can be ascribed. Recent engineering road safety initiatives are listed below:
TRAFFIC CALMING has continued to be heavily promoted within Berkshire with

numerous projects including 20mph zones, chicanes, road narrowings, road humps
and mini roundabouts being installed around the County.
In recognition of the accidents caused through excessive speed by drivers and riders
in urban areas, Berkshire County Council quickly responded to the regulations
issued in 1992 by installing the first 22 fixed speed camera sites in Berkshire. This
work will continue in 1994/95 with a further 50 sites planned and complements red
light enforcement cameras already installed.
The first non-trunk road variable speed limit scheme in the country was introduced
in Slough.
The first Berkshire Toucan crossing is being progressed in Newbury.
Berkshire’s 3rd Puffin crossing is being progressed in Thatcham.
Appendix A lists local safety engineering schemes planned for 1994/95 together with
comment on their estimated effect on injury accidents over a three year period. As can
be seen considerable emphasis will continue to be placed on tackling the problems of
speeding in urban area with many speed camera and traffic calming schemes programmed at
identified high risk accident sites. Such schemes are seen as one of the prime accident
reduction measures currently being implemented in Berkshire and are expected to make a
major contribution towards changing attitudes to inappropriate speeds.
The County Council carries out a continuous programme of investigation of accident

patterns at High Risk Sites. Potential schemes arising from this process are presented to
Members for funding consideration
The potential for reducing accidents will continue to be taken into account when deciding on
the priorities for traffic management works promoted by the Area Highway Sections.
Appendix B lists all High Risk sites in Berkshire with comment on action already taken or
proposed.

A minimum of 100 sites will be investigated in depth in 1994/95 either as individual sites or
as part of an area wide or route approach. In addition to this, accident investigation will
continue to feature predominantly in the County Council's continuing programme of Area
Traffic and Transport Studies.
The County Council continues to monitor its success in accident remedial work to ensure a
cost effective approach to the work. Indeed, this feedback is essential to maintain levels of
expertise in this rapidly developing field. Appendix C gives before and after information and
clearly demonstrates the cost effectiveness of this work.
The County Council continues to improve road safety through its close control of
development proposals and liaison with the local Planning Authorities. Every opportunity
will be taken to resolve existing road safety problems or prevent others arising as a result of
new development. Developer contributions will also be actively sought to enable positive
accident prevention and remedial work to be pursued at identified problem sites.
CONSIDERABLE EMPHASIS WILL CONTINUE TO BE

PLACED ON TACKLING THE PROBLEM OF SPEEDING IN VRBANAREAS AT
IDENTIFIED HIGH RISKACCIDENT SITES.




APPENDIX B
POL27 Accident Report Form







APPENDIX C
Poisson Probabilities (Single Factor Values)

APPENDIX D
Chi-squared Table

APPENDIX E
Standard Symbol For Collision Diagrams

APPENDIX F
Discount Factor Tables

APPENDIX G
Comparison Of Mean Speed Measurements and
T-Distribution Table
COMPARISON OF MEAN SPEED Having found the value of t we look at

MEASUREMENTS the table over page with (na+nb- 2) degrees
of freedom. If the value of t exceeds that for
To determine whether the mean speed the 5% level (the t =0.05column) we can be
of one set of speed measurements is 95% conndent that the true mean speed has
significantly different from another changed.
(ie.between a “before” and “after” study),
it is necessary to determine the means and
standard deviation of the difference in
means.
Let b1,b2..................bnb the before speed

readings
and a1,a2,..............ana be the after speed

readings
we then ca1culate the equations below:


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Interim Guide On Identifying, Priortising And Treating

FOR INTERNAL USE ONLY Hazardous Locations On Roads In Malaysia

(Tan Sri Dato’ Ir Wan A Rahman Yaacob)

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 1

Mr. Chris Baguley - TRL.

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The final two steps (9 and 10) in Chapter

1:2 WHAT IS A ROAD ACCIDENT?

"a rare, random, multi factor event always

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Road and environment faults 1:3 APPROACHES TO IMPROVING

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Single sites/Blackspots effective and straightforward as a starting

Route action plans 1:5 SAFETY MANAGEMENT

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Safety management should allow the

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Review of existing highways and Summary of proposals planned

The Plan should include:

Background to the road accident

Aims of the Plan (casualty reduction

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 9

1. TRANSPORT AND ROAD RESEARCH LABORATORY. Interim manual on

2. INSTITUTION OF HIGHWAYS AND TRANSPORTATION. Highway safety

3. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORT. Accident Investigation Manual. Royal Society

4. ROYAL SOCIETY FOR THE PREVENTION OF ACCIDENTS. Road safety

5. INSTITUTION OF HIGHWAYS AND TRANSPORTATION. Guidelines for: the

6. TRANSPORT & ROAD RESEARCH LABORATORY. Towards safer roads in

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 10

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 11

2:2 LOCATION CODING 2:2.2 Urban Areas

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 12

2:3.1 Police X-coordinate (easting)

The appropriate officers at the JKR District

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 13

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 14

At the 1:25000 scale, it should just be Node number on other side of

Node number of accident or nearest

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 15

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2:3.4 Ministry Of Public Works and safety improvements).

2:4 RESOURCES REQUIRED

Both the Institution of Highways and

The IHT Guidelines suggest a staffing level

Adequate capital resources are also required

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 17

1. POLIS DI RAYA MALAYSIA. POLIS 27 (Pindaan 1/91) - Panduan Mengisi

2. HILLS, B L, G J ELLIOTT & D CLARKE. Microcomputer Accident Analysis

3. INSTITUTION OF HIGHWAYS AND TRANSPORTATION. Highway safety

4. LOCAL AUTHORITY ASSOCIATIONS. Road safety code of good practice. C/o

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 18

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 19

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 20

An example of a reaction level criterion 417 (includes 2 fatal accidents)

To produce a list using MAAP, select the 3:1.1.2 Single sites

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 21

analysis. It is often more difficult to rank mass action

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 22

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 23

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 24

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 25

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