Introduction to Quantitative

Techniques

Dr. Nurul Afiqah Ahmad

Prepared by Dr. Junainah Muhammad

 Chapter 1
Introduction to Statistics
 What is statistics?
 Represents scientific procedures and
methods FOR

Collecting Organizing Analyzing Interpreting Presenting

 Data, to draw valid conclusion and make

effective decisions.
 Statistical Problem-solving
Step 1: Identifying problem •Monthly sale of Proton cars has been declining significantly for the past 24 months
or opportunities event though the overall auto industry has shown steady growth.

Step 2: Gathering available •Data related to actual problem must be gathered.

•Internal data –department from within organisation
facts •External data – obtained from other organisations

Step 3: Gathering new •If the data are inadequate to get a clear picture of the problem, the management may
decided to collect new data. Sometimes, secondary data are already out-dated and
data not suitable to be used. Must obtain from primary data.

Step 4: Classifying and •To make data more meaningful, readable and understandable.
organizing data

Step 5: Presenting and •Report writing and presentation.

analyzing data •i.e fruequency table, graph and others

Step 6: Making a decision •List the alternative solution.

 Types of Statistics

Descriptive Inferential
Statistics Statistics

Types of
Statistics
 Descriptive Statistics
- Data are complied, organized, summaries,
and presented in suitable visual forms
- Easy to understand
- Represent the data in tables, graphs,
charts, and diagrams
- For general conclusion
 Inferential Statistics
- Suppose need to collect data on a very
large population.
i.e: average height of all man in a city with a
population of million residents. Therefore it
isnt’ practical to try and get the height of
each of man
- Makes inference about populations by
collecting the data on the samples.
 Statistical Terms
1. Population and sample

 Population: the complete set of the item to be studied

 Sample: a sub-set of items draw from a population
 Krejcie and Morgan table (sample size
determination)
 Statistical Terms
2. Statistic and Parameter

Population Sample

Parameter Statistic
 Statistical Terms
3. Census
The collection of data from every member of the
population
Population Distribution by State, Malaysia, 2016
 Statistical Terms
4. Sample Survey
- Subgroup (sample) of population being chosen
and questioned on a set of topics
- The answer are used to make inferences for a
large population
- Advantages:-
reduce cost and time
the results also accurate as the census study if the
sample is selected using proper sampling
technique
 Statistical Terms
5. Pilot Study
- A study done before the actual fieldwork is carried out
- The purpose is to identify the possible problems and
difficulties that researcher may accounted when the
actual study is being carried out
- Also used to test the questionnaire and improve the
questionnaire in terms of flow, question design, language
and clarity
 Data

Qualitative Quantitative

Data
 Qualitative Data
 Using non-numerical data in their reports
 Provided definite information regarding
opinions, perceptions, preferences and
behavior of respondents
 Less accurate and have limited statistical
methods for data analysis
 Transcripts of individual interviews and
focus groups, filed notes from observation
of certain activities, copies of documents,
audio/video recordings
 Qualitative Data
 Types of Qualitative Data
- Structured text ( writings, stories, survey
comments, news articles, books etc)
- Unstructured text (transcription, interviews,
focus groups, conservation)
- Audio recordings, music
- Video recordings (graphics, art, pictures,
visuals)
 Quantitative Data
 When numerical data are required
 Provide more accurate market
information as they are numerical
 Quantitative data are more accurate
compare to qualitative data
 Quantitative Data
 Advantages of quantitative data:-
- Specific
- Replicable
- Generalizable
- Breadth…aggregate across multiple subjects,
summarizes findings
BUT
- Data are constructed what you look for and
see are subjective as are interpretations
- Danger of being seduced by numbers
 Quantitative Data
 Types of Quantitative Data
- Primary data (questionnaires,
measurement)
- Secondary data (existing research, library
searches of statistical data)
 Data Sources: Primary and
Secondary
 Primary Data:-
- Collect by user himself
- First-hand information
- Example: personal interview
- Primary data collection activities:- survey, recording
observation, conducting laboratory

 Secondary Data:-
- Previously collected and summarized by other parties
or department for their own use
- Example: newspaper report, annual report
- Primary data collection activities:- collecting data at
JPPH department
 Types of Variables

Quantitative
Can be measured numerically or counted

Qualitative
Cannot be measured numerically or counted
 Types of Variables
Variables
The characteristics of the population of
interest
i.e monthly income, respondents’ age,
gender, level of education, and types of
house owned

Qualitative or Attributive
Quantitative or Numerical
- Measured with a non-numerical
- Measured with numerical scale
scale
- Yields numerical response
Yields categorical response
Example is: The MFA size of the
Example is: environmental factors;
house?
sea view
The answer is numerical
The answer is Yes or No

Discrete
Numerical response which arise
from a counting process
Example: How many children do
you have
Continuous
Numerical response which arise
from a measuring process
Example: How tall are you
What is you weight
 Scale of Data Measurement
 Nominal data:- categorical data, lowest in
the data measurement scale
 Ordinal data:- can be arranged in ranking
order and inequality signs can be used
when comparing the values of variables
 Interval data:- is meaningful but cannot be
manipulated
 Ratio data:- the highest level of
measurement scale
 Scale of Data Measurement

Ratio
• Absolute zero
Interval
• Distance is
Ordinal meaningful
• CGPA of UiTM
• Attributes can be students
Nominal ordered
• Ranking from best
• Attributes are only to worst
named; weakest
• Using likert scaling
• i.e gender (male,
female)
 Statistics
Scale Basic characteristics Examples Descriptive Inferential

Nominal Number assigned to ID number, gender, Frequency, Chi-square,

classify objects. programme, type percentage, mode binominal test
of house, ethnic
group
Ordinal Number assigned to Scoal class, Median, percentile, Spearman rank
indicate the relative qualification, job ranking correlation,
positions of the ordered position, rank of friedman ANOVA
objects. opinion,
perception
Interval Number assigned to Age, income, Range, mean, Pearson
indicate the magnitude of attitudes, opinions, variance, standard correlations, t-
differences between the strength of deviation, tests, ANOVA,
objects. Normally in the agreement or skewness factor analysis,
multiple-choice response. disagreement regression
Ratio Zero of point is fixed; Length, weight, Range, mean, Coefficient of
number assigned to income, cost, sale variance, standard variation, almost
indicate the actual value quantity, amount deviation, all statistical
or amount of variable. expenduture skewness analysis methods
can be used
Any Questions?
 TUTORIAL QUESTION
 What the difference between nominal,
ordinal, interval and ratio? Why should we
care?
 Give an example based on the factors
that affecting the property values.