3148 IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-102, No.
9, September 1983
IMPULSE BEHAVIOR OF GROUND ELECTRODES
Carlo Mazzetti, Member, IEEE
lstituto di Elettrotecnica
Universita' di Rona
Via Eudossiana, 18 - 00184 Roma
Abstract - The state of knowledge on the behavior of
ground wire electrodes under impulse currents due to
lightning strokes is outlined. The influence of ground
characteristics, size of buried conductors, and current
wave-shape and intensity are discussed.
The analysis was made by a mathematical model and
satisfactory agreement with known experimental results
was obtained even for those current values which cause
breakdown of the soil.
LIST OF SYMBOLS
d wire diameter
f frequency
g ground conductance per unit length
h burying depth
io(t) impulse current at the feeding point (x=o)
1 electrode inductance per unit length
r ground resistance per unit length
s Laplace variable
t time
v (t) impulse voltage at the feeding point (x=o)
z0(t) impulse impedance
x abscissa
E electric field at the electrode surface
Io10
L
current peak value at the feeding point (x=o)
wire length
S electrode lateral surface
Ti rise-time of impulse current
T2 time to half-value of impulse current
VVX0 voltage peak value at the feeding point (x=o)
x voltage peak value at the abscissa x
Kv
Kv Vx/V
z conventional impedance
zk characteristic impedance
time constants inverse of the lightning current
waveshape
6 current density on the electrode surface
£S P soil permittivity and resistivity
INTRODUCT ION
The performance of ground electrodes under impulse
current must be known in detail, so as to be able to
analyze problems involved in lightning protection of
domestic and public buildings and industrial plants.
While the behavior of industrial-frequency ground
electrodes is well known, and the verification of the
efficiency of a grounding system at low frequencies
presents no difficulties, the behavior of ground
electrodes is more complex when these have to dissipate
impulse currents, such as for example those due to a
strike on a structure. In this case, difficulties arise
even in the definition of quantities characterizing the
phenomenon.
83 WM 142-7 A paper recommended and approved by
the IEEE Transmission and Distribution CoLmmittee
of the IEEE Power Engineering Society for presen-
tation at the IEEE/PES 1983 Winter Meeting, New
York, New York, January 30-February 4, 1983.
Manuscript submitted February 2, 1982; made
available for printing November 19, 1982.
0018-9510/83/0900-3148$01.00 © 1983 IEEE
Giuseppe M. Veca, Member, IEEE
Most published studies are designed to improve
knowledge, of the transient behavior of ground
electrodes of various forms (horizontal wires, vertical
rods and mesh networks) from the theoretical [1-5] or
experimental [6-9] points of view.
These studies have shown that, for a comparison
among various kinds of ground electrodes, it is
convenient to take into account the following
parameters:
(i) impulse impedance, z (t), of the electrode,
def ined as the ratio %etween the instantaneous
values of the total ground voltage and of the
current flowing from the electrode at the
f eeding point;
(ii) the conventional impedance, Z, defined as the
ratio between the maximum value of the total
ground voltage and the peak value of the impulse
current;
(iii) the impulse efficiency defined as the ratio,
between the conventional impedance of the
electrode and the its resistance at low
frequency.
The impulse behavior of wire-type electrodes,
buried horizontally, differ quite markedly depending on
whether or not electrode length is negligible, in
comparison with the wave length of the transient
phenomena. Fundamentally, the distinction between
localized and extended electrodes is based on the
importance of the inductance terms compared with the
resistance terms: therefore, besides the maximum slope
of the impulse current front, it is necessary to
consider soil resistivity, too, because if this is
high, it helps increase the resistive drops in relation
to the inductive drops.
A mathematical model is presented here to analyze
the transient behavior of a buried ground wire when fed
at one side by an impulse such as a lightning stroke
current. The model allows the formulation of analytical
expressions for the following:
- impulse impedance of the electrode;
- voltage distribution along the wire;
- current distribution along the wire;
even for those current values which cause breakdown of
the soil.
Using this model it is possible to analyze the
influence of current wave shape and of the
characteristics both the soil and the conductor on
impulse impedance and conventional impedance values.
As the characteristics of the soil and of the
current wave-shape vary, it is also possible to
evaluate the so-called "effective length" of the
conductor, namely that fraction of the conductor which
is sufficient to dissipate the larger part of the
current.
Comparison of the authors analytical results with
experimental results [4-9] shows that the model
proposed is quite close to the real situation, and that
therefore it may be employed for designing ground
-electrodes for impulse currents.
THE BEHAVIOR UNDER IMPULSE OF A BURIED HORIZONTAL WIRE
The behavior of a horizontal wire of length L,
 3149

buried at a depth h greater than 0.5 m and fed by an especially critical, the program provides for varying
impulse current can be simulated by means of a long the integration step inversely as the value of the
transmission line with uniform distribution of upper limit of integration, t.
constants. The only difference is that in the latter
case the resistance of the metal ground electrode is
negligible compared with inductive reactance, and ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS
capacity reactance is negligible compared with leakage
conductance. In fact, the propagation of lightning Application of the model previously described
impulse currents in the soil can be considered quite permits an analysis to be made of the electrode's
reasonably to be governed by laws typical of conductive impulse behavior as the soil characteristics and the
media (see Appendix I). current wave-shape and amplitude vary, and in
particular it enables an evaluation to be made of the
io(t) conductor length that effectively participates in the
leakage of the current into the earth.-
Table I shows the numerical values of the
parameters adopted for the calculation.
TABLE I
. ~~~~h_ d
TI T2 I
[ps] [Is] [kA]
1 ~~~~~~7
0 x

7 28 5
ablo(t (x,t) i(x+dx,t)
]v,(t) tvY(x,t) f
Idx 25 100
p = 3; 30; 150; 300; 500; 600; 1000 Q.:m
o
.) i
(xt)
dx v (x + d x, t) d = 3 mm
h > 80 cm
0 --o L > 100 m

Effective length of electrode

0 V
L
Figure 2 shows an example of the voltage
distribution along a buried wire, placed in a soil
Fig.1 - Buried ground wire and equivalent electrical having a resistivity of p = 30 .- m, and impulsed by a
circuit. current wave of the 25/100 is type.

The electrical diagram to be considered is therefore I[kA] V [kV]

that of Fig.1, where: Q 30a- m
=t

6
1 is the electrode inductance per unit length
(H/m); 4
r is the ground resistance per-unit length (0a/m);
g=l/r is fhe ground conductance per unit length 4

( m).
3
The formulas [10] for evaluating 1 and r are:
2
1 = 0,2 ln (4) tH/m

r = P ln (d) Q/m

Further assumptions made are that:

- the wave-shape of the impulse current impressed on
the conductor may be analytically approximated by a Fig.2 - Voltage distribution along the buried ground
double-exponential function; wire.
- the buried wire is considered to be of inf inite
length, and therefore effects owing to the Figure 3 shows the Kv ratio between the voltage
ref lection of the incident wave at the end of the peak value along the wire length and the voltage peak
wire are ignored. value at the section x=o, as a function of soil
resistivity..
With these assumptions the well known equations of In soil of low resistivity the inductance causes a
propagation may be integrated so as to obtain the time rapid voltage drop along the electrodes: so that only
behavior of the voltage v(x,t) and current i(x,t) along the first part of the electrode effectively contributes
the wire and the impulse impedance z (t) of the to the dissipation of the current into the soil.
electrode (see Appendix II). The "effective length" of a wire-type electrode is
A computer program was designed for numerical therefore short in high conductivity soils, while it
integration of the convolution integrals, so as to increase with resistivity.
evaluate numerically the voltage, current and impulse- The effect of wire inductance increases if the
impedance expressions. Since the numerical integration current shape has a very steep front, as may be
for the first instants of the phenomenon proved to be observed from Fig.4, where values of Kv as a function
3150
of T1 are shown. a very short time.

[a
40 _

30k

20 _

10

25/iOOfhS
Fig.3 - Ratio Kv = Vx/V0 as a function of soil
resistivity. 0 500 1000 Qe[Q m]
Fig.5 - Impulse conventional impedance as a function of
soil resistivity.
ooo Experimental results according to [6].

Q = 300 Q-m

5kAe

7,us < t
28,L4s p

0
x[m]

Fig.4 - Ratio Kv = Vx/V as a function of impulse

current rise time.
ooo Experimental results according to [6].

Electrode impulse impedance

The trend noted in the behavior of the electrodes
considered is confirmed too by Fig.5, which shows the
behavior of the conventional impedance of ground wires
as the resistivity varies, for different current wave-
shapes.
From Fig.5 it can be deduced that, in high
resistivity soils, it is practically impossible to
obtain small impedance values with a single conductor.
Figure 6 also shows behavior as a function of
time, of the impulse impedance of the wire-type
electrode buried in soils of different resistivities.
Figure 7 shows the behavior of this impedance where the
parameter assumed is the rise time of the impulse
current. This figure not only confirms that the
steepness of the wave front contributes to increasing
the inductive drops, it may also be concluded that
flow of current to the ground can be very difficult for
front rise-times of the order of I p s (lightning
currents associated with the subsequent lightning
strokes), even if the steady-state value is reached in
Fig.6 - Impulse impedance as a function of soil
resistivity.
Comparison with experimental results
The results from the mathematical model were
compared with the experimental results [61 obtained
from wires of different lengths placed in soils of
various resistivities, and impulsed with current of
various amplitudes.
The current and voltage distributions obtained by
means of this model are in agreement with the
experimental results for small values of impressed
current; similarly, good agreement is found in the
values of the Kv ratio (see Fig.4). The values
indicated for the effective length that may be deduced,i
agree with those obtained experimentally [6], and with
those provided by other authors [5-61.
 3151
TMPULSE BEHAVIOR OF THE ELECTRODE
FOR HIGHI CURRENT VALUES
ZO[S1

1oo0 Experimental results 13,6,71 show that, at very

high impulse current values, such as, for example,
90o. those reached by the lightning-stroke current,
breakdown can occur in the soil around the electrode.
8 AlSv
This phenomenon has been considered in the model,
~~~~~~I
L)=300ut.
In n m
by equating it with an apparent increase in the cross
section of the electrode, and therefore with a decrease
70
in ground resistance.
This interpretation is in agreement with the
610
theoretical and experimental results obtained by
several authors [3,7,91, who have found that the value
of the impulse impedance decreases as the peak value of
the current increases, tending towards a limiting value
4 .0 that depends on type of soil and the resistivity
thereof. In fact, ionization of the soil caused by the
3 high current density results in a decrease in the
10 resistive component of the impedance, the importance of
21
T1=lfAs 25t4s which is, however, tied in with the value of soil
resistivity and the dimensions of the electrode, both
1110 T of which tend to increase the inductive component of
5 z0(t) rather than the resistive component.
5
0
1 2 3 4
t[s]
On the basis of the theoretical and experimental
results obtained to this point, adjustments were made
Fig.7 - Impulse impedance as a function of impulse to the original mathematical model so as to take
current rise time. account more fully of the physical phenomena which
occur as the impressed current levels increase. The
Good agreement is also found in the behavior of following assumptions were made:
the impulse impedance (see Fig.5 and Fig.8), though
this is still limited to the case of small peak values (i) for each soil type there is a critical value of
for the impressed current, and that is long as the so the electrical field on the electrode surface
phenomenon of conduction in the soil may be considered (inception electrical field) which, if exceeded,
to be of the electrochemical type, and appreciable results in the inception of discharges in the
ionization phenomena around the electrode are not contact zone with the soil, and there is also a
taking place [3,7,9]. critical value of the electrical field below
which the discharges are extinguished
(extinction field);
ZO[ Q] (ii) the voltage drop in the area where the
15 discharges are taking place is ignored.
It is known that the electric field in the contact
Q = 20Q.m zone with the electrode is tied in with soil
7/28 ps resistivity, p , and with current density, 6 , on the
10o_ electrode's lateral surface, S, by the relation:
E = p 6= p * i/S (1)
where i is the current flowing in the soil through the
5 electrode's lateral surface.
For each value of p , therefore, it is possible to
establish the critical value of the current density at
which discharge takes place, or under which the
discharge extinguishes.
0 2 4 6 8 10
t[Ps] With these assumptions the impulse behavior of the
wire-type electrode when impulsed by high currents may
still be studied by means of the equations of
v[V] propagation for a line whose I and r parameters are
uniformly distributed, provided that the values of
10 2 these parameters are suitably modified when the current
density along the electrode exceeds the critical value.
In particular, the geometry of the electrode is
modified, by increasing the radius of the cross section
so as to simulate a decrease in ground resistance,
resulting in a greater current flowing. The geometric
characteristics of the electrode are kept at the new
values so long as the current density at the electrode
surface does not attain values such as to extinguish
the discharge phenomenon (extinction field, obviously
0 1 2
~~~~~~~~~~~~i
[A] less than the inception field).
On the basis of these considerations a computer
Fig.8 Impulse impedance as a function of time and
- program was written that allows instant-by-instant
volt-ampere characteristic of buried ground wire for verification of whether the current densities along the
small values of impressed current (discharge phenomena conductor exceed the critical inception and extinction
neglected). values, so that the voltage and current distributions
ooo Experimental results according to [6j. and the impedance under the different conditions are
3152
progressively calculated.
Figures 9 and 10 show the volt-ampere
characteristic v=f(i) and the behavior of the impulse
impedance of a wire-type ground electrode buried in a
soil with a resistivity of 30 0. m for an impulse
current wave-shape of 25/100 Uis type. Curve l shows the
wire behavior if the discharge phenomena are neglected;
curve 2 shows the behavior assuming that when the
electric field along the wire reaches the critical
value (2 kV/cm according to the experimental results
[6,8,91) discharge occurs and the assumed apparent
increase in the ground electrode dimensions is three
times the wire diameter; curve 3 shows the wire
behavior in the same hypothesis as curve 2 but the
amplitude of the breakdown zone is ten times the wire
diameter.
The results reported in Figs.9 and 10 are in good
agreement with the experimental work done by to Italian
Radio and Television Corporation (RAI) on buried wire
electrodes, the results of which are reported in 161.
Fig.9 - Volt-ampere characteristics of buried ground
wire:curve 1 refers to the model in which discharge
phenomena are neglected (d=3 mm); curve 2 refers to the
model in which discharge phenomena are considered (d's9
mm); curve 3 differs from curve 2 because d' was
assumed equal to 30 mm.
CONCLUSIONS
Analysis of the results presented permits a number
of conclusions to be drawn:
the transient behavior under impulse current of a
horizontally buried wire is particular; length,
soil resistivity, and intensity and wave-shape of
the impulse current have a decisive influence on
its behavior;
whatever kind of model is used to analyze the
impulse behavior of this kind of electrode, account
must be taken of the discharge phenomena that occur
in the soil around the electrode when the current
density along the conductor exceeds the critical
value;
a mathematical model is proposed that permits
calculation of the impulse characteristics of a
horizontally buried wire-type electrode whatever
the amplitude of the impulse current may be; the
non-linear behavior of the electrode under strong
currents is simulated by a reduction of ground
resistance and a decrease of wire inductance so as
to take account of the discharge phenomena in the
soil;
- the results obtained using the model agree with
those achieved experimentally by other researchers;
- the model lends itself to the evaluation of the
impulse behavior of grounding systems for the
protection from lightning of both domestic and
public buildings and power systems, as the
amplitude and the wave-shape of the impulse current
are varied;
- the precision of the model depends closely on the
accuracy with which model parameters are
determined, especially the critical values of the
current density at which soil discharges are
initiated and extinguished.
It is hoped further experimental investigation
will be made to clarify the physicochemical phenomenon
governing soil conductivity.
5kA-t
25tts ; t
100 /is
6.
5-
4. Q =30Qg m:
t [Ps]
20
Fig.10 - Impulse impedance as a function of time: curve
I refers to the model in which discharge phenomena are
neglected (d=3 mm); curve 2 refers to the model in
which discharge phenomena are considered (d'=9 mm);
curve 3 differs from curve 2 because dt was assumed
equal to 30 mm.
APPENDIX I
With reference to a typical oscillogram of
negative polarity lightning current recorded by Prof.
K. Berger [12], the relevant amplitude and phase
spectrum [131 shows that frequencies higher than a few
hundred kHz are not appreciable in lightning current
waves (Fig.Al).
From the point of view of propagation of the
electromagnetic field, ground affected by a variable-
current of these frequencies can be considered as a
conductive medium. In facs assuming soils with a
resistivity between I and 10 Q.m and, correspondingly,
a relative permittivity E / E,, between 80 and 3, it
must be recognized that the characteristic frequency of.
the dispersive medium fo=1/2TrECpcan range between 200 kHz
 3153
and 6 MHz. It can be seen from Fig.Al, therefore, that
the maximum frequency of the phenomenon is much less
than f0 and so propagation of the impulsive current in
the ground is predominantly of the conductive type. V(x,s) = M(s)exp(K(s)x) + N(s)exp(-K(s)x) (A3)
0
2 50 75 10 125

-20
I(x,s) = M(s) exp(K(s)x) + N(s) exp(-K(s)x) (A4)
kA3
k(s zk s

where M(s) and N(s) are the integration constants that

litude phase are calculated using the following boundary conditions

i(O,t) = I [exp(- at)-exp(-_ t)] -+ I(O,s)=I ( +

i(L,t) = 0 + I(L,s) = 0

The first condition depends on the fact that a double

exponential function is adopted to approximate the
waveshape of the lightning current. Having determined
the expressions for M(s) and N(s), then (A3) and (A4)
become
b) I Zk(s) 1-1
V(x,s) = k )exp(K(s)x) +
Fig.Al -a) Oscillogram of a negative polarity
lightning stroke [3]; b) Amplitude and phase spectrum; (A5)
the amplitudes refer to the continuous component. + k (s)eP (.L - .) exp (-K (s) x)
exp(2K(s)L)-l S+a s+ e
I
I(X,S) = - o 11 T)xpKSk
exp(2K(s)L)-l (~7 ~)x((sx
APPENDIX I I I exp(2K(s)L) 1 1
+
exp(2K(s)L)-l ( e p(-K(s)x) (A6)
With reference to the horizontally-buried wire
conductor and its equivalent electrical model (see
Fig.1), the equations of voltage and current
propagation along the wire, making use of the Laplace Assuming that L +- , namely ignoring the contribution
operator, are: of the reflected waves and bearing in mind the
expressions of z(s) and y(s), then (A5) and (A6)
become:
d2V(x,s) K2(s)V(x,s) = 0 (Al)
0
s+n~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
_

dx2 V(x,s) = vsg I (- -+)exp(-x ) (A7)

d2l(X,s) - K2(s)I(x,s) = 0 (A2) I(x, s) =

1
I 0 (-
5 +c
- -T)exp(-x
1 /"gTs)
+
(A8)
dx2
where
The following expressions are obtained in the time
domain, adopting the inverse Laplace transform [111:
K(s) = /z(s) y(s) is the propagation cpefficient
v(x,t) =
(c-L)I07'[2/r exp(-lgx2/4t)-x/il erfc( ]+
Zk(s) = z(s)/y(s) is the characteristic impedance
+ n2IA7ig exp(-at)j exp(T)[2V/7-exp(-lgx
2 4) +
with
z(s) = sl series impedance per unit length + xvTg erfc(xV/g/2v/T)]dT-SIo2/i74 exp(-St) (A9)

y(s) = g transverse admittance per unit length

erfc(x5'v1-)
ftexp(ST) [2$7N exp(-x lg/4r -x,/ dT
Integration of the two differential equations (Al) and
(A2) gives
3154

[81 A. L. Vainer: "Impulse Characteristics of complex

i(x, t) = exp t) exp (T)erf c dT-exp (-at) earth grids", in Electrical Technology in URSS,
O L 02 VT- vol.1, 1966.
[9] R. Kosztaluk, M. Loboda, D. Mukhedkar:
"Experimental study of transient ground impedance",
jexp(aT)erfc(- fi)dT] Paper 81 SM 399-5 presented at IEEE PES Summer
(A1) Meeting, Portland, July 1981.
[10] Rudemberg, Reinhold: "Electric shock Waves in
Power Systems", Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge,
Massachusetts 1968, pp.273-277.
where erfc is the complementary error function: [111 A. Ghizzetti, A. Ossicini: "Trasformata di
Laplace e calcolo simbolico", UTET, Torino 1971,
pp. 200-2 18.
[121 K. Berger: "Methoden und Resultate der
blitzforschung auf dem Monte San Salvatore bei
erfc )x 1
exp(-s2)ds Lugano in den Jahren 1963-71", Bull. des
2T Scweizerischen Vereins, n.24, vol.63, 1972.
[131 A. Brandolini: "Studio sui modelli di dispersore
in regime variabile e prove 'comparative tra
Therefore the impedance, section by section, will be dispersori di forma diversa", L'Elettrotecnica,
the ratio between (A9) and (AIO), that is: n.10, vol.62, 1975.
v(x, t)
z (x,it)
=(x,t( (All)
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was partially supported by the ANCE
(National Association of Home Builders) and the
The relation (All) for the feeding point (x=o) gives University of Rome.
the impulse impedance:
C. MLazzetti (M'72) was born in Rome, Italy, on May 5,
z (t) = 2 /- o) t+a2exp (-at) $Texp (a')dT + 1943. He received the Dr. Ing. degree in Electrical
Engineering from the University of Rome in 1967.
From October 1967 he worked at the University of
Rome, firstly as a researcher in HV problems and than
P2exp(-St) v/rFexp (St)dT] exp(-at)-exp(-St)] (A12) as assistent professor of Advanced Electrical
0 Engineering. Since 1974 he has been Professor of HV
Engineering at the University of Rome. Since 1967 his
main interest have been in HV impulse generators,
electric and magnetic field computation auid lightning
protection.
Dr. Mazzetti is a member of HV Group of the
REFERENCES Italian National Research Council (CNR) and since 1978
he has been a member of the Italian Electrical
[1] L. Bellaschi: "Impulse and 60 cycle characteristics Committee on Lightning Protection (CEI/138).
of driven grounds", in I Trans. AIEE, vol.60, 1941.
[21 L. Bellaschi: "Impulse and 60 cycle characteristics
of driven grounds", in II Trans. AIEE, vol.61, G. M. Veca (M179) was born in Rome, Italy, on September
1942. 27, 1942. He received the degree of Dr. Ing. in
[3] K. Berger: "Le comportment des prises de terre sous Electrical Engineering with full marks from the
courants de choc de grande intensite". Rapporto 215 University of Rome in 1966. In 1968 he obtained a post-
- CIGRE, 1946. graduate degree in Nuclear Engineering with -full marks
[4] R. Verma, D. Mukhedkar: "Impulse Impedance of from the University of Rome. From 1967 to 1970 he
Buried Ground Wire", IEEE Trans. on PAS, vol.PAS- worked at the University of Trieste, Italy, as
99, n.5, Sept./Oct. 1980. Assistant Professor in the 'Mathematical-Physics
[5] B. R. Gupta, B. Thapar: "Impulse Impedance of Department. From 1970 to 1973 he was Assistant
Grounding Grids", IEEE Trans. on PAS, vpl.PAS-99; Professor of Electrical Measurement at the University
n.6, Nov/Dec. 1980. of Rome.' From 1974 he has been an Associate Professor
[6] E. Giudice, G. B. Lo Piparo: "Comportamento ad of Electrical Engineering at the University of Rome.
impulso dei dispersori di terra",' Elettronica e His interests are electromagnetic problems of
Telecomunicazioni, n.2, 1972. electrical machines and design and protection of LV
[7] M. Loboda, R. Kosztaluk: "Model tests of Surge Electrical installations.
Properties of Grounding Systems in Lightning Dr. Veca is a member of the Electrical Machines
Protection", 16th International Conference on Research Group of the Italian National Research Council
Lightning Protection, Szeged, Hungary, June 1981. (CNR).

Discussion
A. C. Liew (National University of Singapore, Kent Ridge, Singapore):
The authors have made an interesting contribution to the work on im-
pulse earth resistance. We have made studies on the impulse
characteristics of concentrated earths and a model -describing its
behavior was presented [Ref. 1]. The authors' views on the following
comments and questions are apreciated.
(a) The authors state that in soils-of high resistivity and with fast front
rise-time currents typical of subsequent lightning strokes, flow of
current to the ground will be very difficult. We have found [1] that
under such conditions, breakdown of the surrounding soil occurs
with excessive sparking around the electrodes, which reduces the
impulse resistance. The ultimate test is that of a sparking connec-
tion, i.e., an impulse current surge applied from just above the
ground without any earth electrode. It was found that the impulse
resistance achieved was only- slightly- higher than that of a driven
rod electrode in the same soil. -With wet soil in the presence of rain-
sprays, surface sparking occurred and under these conditions, it
was even possible- that the impulse resistance of the sparking con-
nection (which favors surface sparking) was lower than that of the
driven rod without surface sparking.
(b) The assumption made whereby voltage drop in the area where
discharges occur (i.e., soil is in state of ionization) is negligible-and
the sudden reversal back to its previous resistivity Q when the area
falls- below the extinction field appear rather simplified. In par-
ticular, for the portion of soil which has exceeded inception field
(i.e., ionized) and which subsequently- falls-below the extinction
field, the soil is still partially- inonized or in a state of deionization.
This accounts for the observation that the impulse resistance values
remain low even long after the current has reached its peak. In our
model used, we consider the resistivity Q to recover in a manor
which is a function of time and instantaneous current density.
(c) It is not clear if a current is injected into the buried ground wire
electrode or a voltage applied to it. It appears that a current of 5 kA
is injected, in which case the statement made that a larger current
will -flow with decreased resistance caused by increase in effective
radius of conductor is incorrect. Normally, high impulse currents
are assumed to be obtained from ideal current sources.
(d) Fig. 9 shows 3 curves of v-i characteristics of the buried ground wire
with and without surrounding soil breakdown. It appears that once
the wire surface current density exceeds the inception valu-e, a new
apparent radius equal to d, = 3 d (curve 2) and d, = 10d (curve 3)
has been used in the calculation. It would be more approriate to
calculate the field at points away from the wire to determine the ex-
tent of the radius where the inception field- is exceeded. This radius
should then be used in the resistance computation.
REFERENCE
[1] A. C. Liew, M. Darveniza, "Dynamic Model -of Impulse
Characteristics of Concentrated Earths", Proc. IEE, Vol. -121,
No. 2, February 1974, pp. 123-135.
Manuscript received February 4, 1983.
C. Mazzetti and G. M. Veca: The authors wish to thank Dr. Liew for
his valuable-comments, which allow further study of the matter.
The subject dealt-with in the paper is the continuation of an ex-
perimental research carried out some years ago by the Italian National
Board for Electric Power (ENEL) and by the Italian Broadcasting Cor-
poration (RAI) on the lightning protection of radio and television
transmitters and of HV transmission lines.
Bearing in mind the experimental results acquired on the impulse
behavior of ground electrodes of various size and located on soils-with
different resistivity, the authors developed a mathematical -model
capable-of agreeing with the experimental results, but also easy to apply-
in designing ground electrodes for the lightning protection of structures
and plants.
It must be pointed out, in the first place, that the model presented in
the paper takes into consideration extended ground electrodes, which
are more complex to be dealt -with analytically; but which are certainly-
more in keeping with the real situation occurring in lightning protec-
tion. In this case the ground electrodes sizing must be performed not so
much with a view to reducing the ground resistance, as to be able-to
maintain the step voltage within non-dangerous limits.
3155
That being stated, Dr. Liew's considerations basically concern the
problem of the behavior of ground electrodes in presence of ground
ionization, namely, when they are called upon to disperse high-intensity
currents.
It may be generally- affirmed that while- the breakdown phenomena
are very strong in concentrated earth electrodes, as in the cases con-
sidered under [1], in the long horizontally- buried electrodes (wires,
meshed networks) ionization is less important. In this case, the
dissipated current by unit length is not very large, and soil ionization in-
volves a moderate variation in the impulse impedance, especially-in soils-
with resistivity values not very high. As may be easily-inferred by Fig. 9
of the authors' paper, in a soil with L = 30 Q.pcavd +oQ av LvoEOTEd qiA-
WuAgE tUiQQCJT I"bx:: ps with a peak-value of 5 kA, the impulse im-
pedance (Z) decreases by 8%, due account being taken of the ionization
phenomena. The experimental results obtained with higher impulse cur-
rent valu-es on real extended ground electrodes 12,31 or on mathematical
and analogic models-14,5I, both agree on this point.
Moreover, in the case of extended ground electrodes it is no longer
possible-to overlook the sizes and geometry of the electrodes in relation
to the wave length of the transient phenomena, and this because the
ground electrode configuration, besides determining the value of the
current density flowing from the lateral surface to the ground and hence
the extent of the ionization phenomenon, determines as well the valu-e
of the ground electrodes inductance.
It is in these terms that the authors' statement: "in soils -of high
resistivity and with fast front rise time currents typical of subsequent
lightning strokes, a flow of current to the ground will be very difficult"'
can be understood. In fact, under these conditions, both instantaneous
impedance and imulse impedance acquire very high values, with a sub-
stantial agreement between the results shown in 12,51. On the other
hand, also in the case of the "driven rod electrodes" examined by Dr.
Liew, the inductive behavior is clearly pointed out in Fig. 6-9 of paper
IlI, in which voltage appears to be in advance in respect of the current;
and a further confirmation is given by Fig. 11 of the same paper III,
where the ground resistances of the electrodes increases as the front rise-
time Tl of the impulse current decreases.
More complex is the problem of taking into account, in the
mathematical model, the nonlinear phenomena associated with soil
ionization and deionization, and it is to this point that the discusser's
observations b) and d) refer.
Very interesting is the "dynamic-impulse resistance model" proposed
by Dr. Liew in paper II 1, which is directed at reproducing a situation
more in line with the real one, with resistivity profiles varying with time
and with current density. The authors agree on the point that the extent
of the ionization phenomenon is linked with the energy dissipated in the
soil; the higher the current density at the surface of the wire in relation
to the critical current density Jc and the longer the duration of the im-
pulse current injected in the soil, the stronger accordingly will be the
ionization phenomenon. It is for these reasons that the authors have
taken into account, in their model, the phenomenon of soil ionization
and deionization through a resistivity variation. With reference to Fig.
1, it may be noted that soil resistivity shifts to value Qi starting from the
Q.
no ionization
LO
, \\\
I ionization
t zone
'I. \\
QiI
Ii
deionization zo ne
tC I
Fig. 1 Resistivity profiles vs current density
----- Liew, Darveniza Ill model
- Author's model
moment in which J > Jc and retains this value throughout the period in
which the current density is higher than the extinction value Ji, lower
than Jc- In other words, the authors replace, in the practice the more
complex resistivity profile proposed by Dr. Liew (dashed line in Fig. 1)
by the more approximate resistivity profile (continuous line) that is cer-
tainly simpler to the dealt with in a model. The authors beleive that in
this case the model simplification does not reduce accuracy, in view of
the uncertainties existing in the evaluation of the parameters indicated
by Dr. Liew, such as the soil ionization and deionization time constants.
3156
As regards the exent of the ground involved in the discharge and the
wire fictitious diameter to be used in the computation, the authors ob-
viously agree on what was suggested, but wish to point out that the
values indicated in the paper were merely indicative and aimed at ascer-
taining the validity of the proposed model and the sensitivity of same to
the variations in the wire diameter.
And finally, in regard to observation c), it is thought that the authors'
statement was misinterpreted by Dr. Liew. It is once again stated, in this
connection, that the calculations were made in the assumption of a
maximum current of 5 kA, irrespectively of whether the current was in-
jected by a real or by an ideal source. Furthermore, if at a given mo-
ment, the current density at the lateral surface of the wire exceeds the
critical value, ground discharges occur and the ground resistance is
reduced. Of this phenomenon account is taken in the model through an
increase in the wire cross-section, that leads, accordingly, to an increase
in the current flowing to the ground from the lateral surface in respect
to the case that no discharge should take place. This physically involves,
in the case of an extended ground electrode, a more marked voltage
drop along the wire and, hence, a reduction in the effective length of the
ground electrode itself, in agreement also with the experimental results
2,31.
REFERENCES
Ill A. C. Liew, M. Darveniza, "Dyanmic Model -of Impulse
Characteristics of Concerntrated Earths", Proc. IEE, Vol. -121,
n.2, February 1974, pp. 123-135.
121 E. Guidice, G. B. Lo Piparo, "Comportamento ad impulso dei
dispersori di terra", Elettronica e Telecomm,unicazioni, n. 2, 1972.
131 A. L. Vainer, "Impulse Characteristics of Complex Earth Grids",
in Etectrical Technology in URSS, Vol. I, 1966.
141 B. R. Gupta, B. Thapar, "Impulse Impedance of Grounding
Grids", IEEE Trans. on PAS, Vol. -PAS-99, no. 6, Nov/Dec.
1980.
151 R. Kosztaluk, M. Loboda, D. Mukhedkar, "Experimental Study
of Transient Ground Impedance", Paper 81 SM 399-5 presented at
IEEE PES Summer Meeting, Portland, July- 1981.
Manuscript received April 19, 1983.