PROJECT tWORK t

SUBMITTED tTO

THE tTAMILNADU tNATIONAL tLAW tUNIVERSITY,

tTIRUCHIRAPPALLI.

tAsst. tProf. tMr. tMohammad tAzaad

In tFulfilment tof tthe tRequirements tfor tInternal tComponent

tin

ELECTION tLAW

SECRECY tIN tVOTING

By

VISHAL.R t
BC0150034
 TABLE TOF TCONTENTS

TABLE TOF TCONTENTS T2

TABLE TOF TAUTHORITIES T4

RESEARCH TMETHODOLOGY T6

CHAPTER TI: TGUJARAT TRAJYA TSABHA TELECTIONS T8

1.1. t9
1.1.1. t9
1.1.2. t10
1.1.3. t10
1.2. t10
CHAPTER TII: TSECRET TBALLOT TVOTING T11

2.1. tOrigin tof tthe tConcept t11

2.2. tEvolution tof tVoting t11
2.3. tAdvantages tof tSecrecy t12
2.3.1. tAn tExtension tof tPrivacy t12
2.4. tDrawbacks, tThreats t& tChallenges t13
2.4.1. tThe tIncumbent tAdvantage t13
CHAPTER TIII: TSECRECY TIN TRAJYA TSABHA TELECTIONS T15

3.1. tThe tChallenge t15

3.2. tArguments tagainst tSecrecy t15
3.2.1. tMil’s tTrust tv. tRight tApproach t15
3.2.2. tBentham’s tOpen tand tSecret tVoting t16
3.3. tAccountability tv. tFree tChoice t16
3.4. tTackling tCorruption t17
CHAPTER TIV: TTHE T2003 TAMENDMENT T18

4.1. t“Open-Ballot” tSystem t18

4.2. tChecking tDefection tand tCross-Voting t18
4.3. tCriticism tof tthe tAmendment t19
4.3.1. tWhat tis tthe tRajya tSabha tsupposed tto tbe? t19
4.3.2. tViews tof tthe tSupreme tCourt t20
CHAPTER TV: TOPEN TBALLOT T21

5.1. tRelevant tProvisions t21

5.2. tForeign tInterpretation t21
5.3. tJudicial tInterpretation t22
CHAPTER TVI: TSECRECY TIN TOTHER TCOUNTRIES T28
6.0.1. tLegitimate tState tInterest tv. tFree tSpeech t28
CHAPTER TVII: TCONCLUSION T29

BIBLIOGRAPHY T30

SECRECY TIN TVOTING T| t4

 TABLE TOF TAUTHORITIES

DOMESTIC TLAW

1. Constitution tof tIndia, t1950.

2. Code tof tCivil tProcedure, t1908.

3. Conduct tof tElection tRules, t1961.

4. Representation tof tthe tPeople tAct, t1951.

5. Representation tof tthe tPeople tAct, t1950.

FOREIGN TLAW

1. Ballot tAct, t1872 t(United tKingdom).

2. Constitution tof tSouth tAfrica, t1997 t(South tAfrica).

3. Constitution tof tthe tUnited tStates, t1789 t(USA).

4. International tConvention ton tCivil tand tPolitical tRights, t1966.

5. Representation tof tthe tPeople tAct, t1948 t(United tKingdom).

6. Universal tDeclaration tof tHuman tRights, t1948.

SECRECY TIN TVOTING T| t5

CASES

1) A. tNeelalohithadasan tNadar tv. tGeorge tMascrene, t1994 tAIR tSCW t2198.

2) Burson tv. tFreeman, t504 tU.S. t191 t(1992).

3) Gurdeep tSingh tv. tState tof tPunjab, t(2000) t9 tSCC t9.

4) In tRe tBiennial tElection tto tthe tCouncil tof tStates tby tthe tElected tMembers tof tthe

tLegislative tAssembly tof tGujarat t– t2017 t(Election tCommission tof tIndia, tAugust

t08, t2017)

5) In tRe tDelhi tLaws tAct, tAIR t1951 tSC t332.

6) K.S. tPuttaswamy tv. tUnion tof tIndia, t2017 tSCC tOnLine tSC t996.

7) Kuldip tNayar tv. tUnion tof tIndia, tAIR t2006 tSC t3127.

8) Lily tThomas tv. tUnion tof tIndia, t(2013) t7 tSCC t653.

9) Peoples tUnion tfor tCivil tLiberties tv. tUnion tof tIndia, t(2013) t10 tSCC t1.

10) S. tRaghbir tSingh tGill tv. tS tGurcharan tSingh tTora, t1 t(1980) t3 tSCR t1302.

11) Shra\dha tDevi tv. tKrishna tChandra tPant, t(1982) t3 tSCC t389 t(2).

SECRECY TIN TVOTING T| t6

 RESEARCH TMETHODOLOGY

AIMS TAND TOBJECTIVES

This tpaper taims tat texploring tthe trepercussions tof tintroduction tof tan t“open-ballot”
tsystem tpost ta t2003 tAmendment tto tthe tRepresentation tof tthe tPeople tAct, t1951 tand
tconcomitant tchanges tto tthe tConduct tof tElection tRules, t1961. tAn tattempt thas tbeen
tmade tto texplore tthe tconsequences tof tsecrecy tof tballot twith tan taim tof tcritiquing tthe
trecent torder tby tthe tElection tCommission tin tre t2017 tGujarat tRajya tSabha telections.

CHAPTERISATION

This tpaper thas tbeen tdivided tinto tthe tfollowing tparts:

CHAPTER TI: TGUJARAT TRAJYA TSABHA TELECTIONS T

This tpart tintroduces tthe tbackground tof twriting tthis tpaper, tthat tis tthe t2017 tGujarat
tRajya tSabha telections, tthe timportant tissues traised tby tparties tand tthe tdecision tof
tthe tElection tCommission. t

CHAPTER TII: TSECRET TBALLOT TVOTING

This tpart ttraces tthe tantecedents tof tthe tsecret tballot, tand thow tthe tconcept tof tsecrecy
thas tevolved tboth tinternationally tand twithin tIndia.

CHAPTER TIII: TSECRECY TIN TRAJYA TSABHA TELECTIONS

This tpart tlooks tat tthe tdesirability tof thaving ta tdifferent tstandard tof tvoting tin tRajya
tSabha, tgiven tthe tunique tconflicts tarising tbetween tthe tduality tof tdischarge tof
tfunctions tand tfree tconsent, tfacing tan tMLA tin tlight tof trecommendations tof tvarious
tcommittees tand treports.

CHAPTER TIV: TTHE T2003 TAMENDMENTS T

This tpart tcritically tanalyses tthe tchanges tbrought tabout tin tvarious trules tand
tlegislations tby tthe tParliament tin t2003, tand tcursorily tdiscusses tthe tdesirability tof
tsuch ta tchange.

SECRECY TIN TVOTING T| t7

 CHAPTER TV: TOPEN TBALLOT

This tpart taims tat tdiscovering tthe tmeaning tof tthe tterm t“open-ballot” tas tintroduced
tthrough tthe tAmendments tin tthe tabsence tof tany tdefinition tprovisions, tin tlight tof
tjudicial tinterpretation tand tuniversal tusage.

CHAPTER TVI: TSECRECY TIN TOTHER TCOUNTRIES

This tpart texamines tvarious tcontemporary tinternational tissues tin tforeign tjurisdictions
tlike tthe tUnited tStates tbrought tabout tby tevolution tof ttechnology.

SCOPE T& TLIMITATION

This tpaper tdoes tnot tattempt tto tdelve tinto tthe tconstitutionality tof tthe tAmendments tto
tthe tRepresentation tof tthe tPeople tAct, t1951 tmade tin t2003, tnor tdoes tit taim tto
tdetermine tor targue tfor tsecrecy tof tballot.

MODE TOF TCITATION

A tuniform tstyle tof tcitation, tderived tin tpart tfrom tthe tNLS tGuide tto tUniform tCitations
thas tbeen tadopted tin tthis tpaper.

SOURCES

Emphasis thas tprimarily tbeen tmade ton tsecondary tliterature tand texisting ttheories
tsurrounding tjustice tand tlitigation. tReliance thas tbeen tplaced ton tdata tfrom tparallel
tjurisdictions, tin tthe tabsence tof treliable tempirical tstudies tin tIndia.

SECRECY TIN TVOTING T| t8

 CHAPTER TI: TGUJARAT TRAJYA TSABHA TELECTIONS

1.1. INTRODUCTION

1.1.1. Background

The tRajya tSabha telections, tin tGujarat tlast tAugust, traised tsome tsignificant tquestions tof
tsecrecy tand tfree tchoice. tThe tIndian tNational tCongress t(Congress) twas table tto tsecure
tone tof tthe tthree tseats ton toffer tfor tits tfive-time tMP tAhmed tPatel. tHowever, tthe treal
tfight twas tnot ton tthe tfloor tof tthe tLegislative tAssembly, tbut tinstead tin tthe tElection
tCommission’s toffice.1

The tBharatiya tJanata tParty t(BJP) twent tto tgreat textremes tto tdeny tthe tCongress tforty-
five tvotes twhich tit tneeded tto tsecure ta tseat tfor tPatel. tNews tof tmultiple tdefections tuntil
ta tnight tbefore tthe telection, tand ta tBollywood-esque tsiphoning toff tof tMLAs tby tthe
tCongress tto ta tresort tfor ttheir tsafety, twere treported.2

A tsliver tof thope temerged tfor tthe tCongress twhen ta tpossible tbreach tof tsecrecy/election
tprocedure temerged tby ttwo trebel tMLAs, tboth tof twho tallegedly tdisclosed ttheir tballots tto
tAmit tShah tand ttwo tother tBJP tMLAs. tThe telection thence thinged ton tthe toutcome tof
tthe tdecision tof tthe tReturning tOfficer tin tthis tregard, tfor tinvalidation twould treduce tthe
tcut-off tfigure tenough tto tensure tvictory tfor tPatel. tUnfortunately tfor tthe tCongress,
thowever, tthe tReturning tOfficer tdismissed tthe tobjection tby tthe tCongress, tholding tin
tfavour tof tthe tBJP. tSoon, thowever, tthe tElection tCommission twas tforced tto thalt
tcounting tmidway tfor ta tcomplaint thad tbeen traised tby ta tdelegation tfrom tthe tCongress tin
tfront tof tit. t

1
tShreenath tA tKhemka, tThe tNot tSo tFree tVote, tINDIAN TEXPRESS t(August t11, t2017) tavailable tat
thttp://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/gujarat-rajya-sabha-elections-ahmed-patel-democracy-
electon-commission-congress-bjp-amit-shah-smriti-irani-the-not-so-free-vote-4791249/ t
2
tMaulik tPathak, tRajya tSabha telections ttoday ta tgame tchanger tfor tGujarat tpolitics, tLIVE TMINT
T(August t08, t2017) tavailable tat thttp://www.livemint.com/Politics/O3aOMpYNRE52ypebDKu9vK/Rajya-
Sabha-elections-today-a-game-changer-for-Gujarat-polit.html t

SECRECY TIN TVOTING T| t9

1.1.2. Contention tof tthe tCongress

Randeep tSurjewala, tRPN tSingh tand tGhulam tNabi tAzad tmet tthe tElection tCommission
tofficials tand tclaimed tthat tthe tlaw tpermitted tthe tMLAs tto tshow ttheir tballot tpaper tonly
tto ttheir tparty tnominated tagent, tand tno tone telse. tThe tvote totherwise tbeing tsecret,
tBhola tBhai tGohil tand tRaghav tBhai tPatel’s tvotes tmust tbe tinvalidated.

1.1.3. Counterarguments tby tthe tBJP

A tteam tof tcabinet tministers tfrom tthe tBJP, theaded tby tArun tJaitley tand tRavi tShankar
tPrasad, talso tapproached tthe tElection tCommission tto tpress tits tdie. tThe tparty tboth
tsought tto treaffirm tthe tfinality tof tthe tReturning tOfficer’s torders tof trejecting tthe
tCongress’ tcontentions tand targued tthat tvotes tonce tcast tcould tnot tbe tremoved tfrom tthe
tballot tbox. tFurther, tthe tparty tbelieved tthat tthe tprescription tof t‘open-ballot’ tas
tintroduced tthrough tan tamendment tto tthe tRepresentation tof tthe tPeople tAct, t1951 tin
t2003 tdid taway twith tany tsemblance tof tsecrecy tin tthe tvoting tprocedure. tHence, tthe ttwo
tMLAs tcould tdisclose ttheir tvotes tto tany tperson tthey tso tchoose.

1.2. THE TELECTION TCOMMISSION’S TDECISION

Post tfive-hours tof tdiligent texamination tof tvideo tfootage tand tconsultations twith
trepresentatives tof tboth tparties, tthe tElection tCommission tthrough ta twritten torder theld
tthat tthe ttwo telectors twere tin tbreach tof tthe tvoting tprocedure tand tsecrecy tof tballots
tcast tby tthe. t

The tElection tCommission theld tthat tthe trelevant trules tin tthe tcontroversy twere tRule t39A
tand t39AA tof tthe tConduct tof tElection tRules, t1961. tA tcombined treading tof tthe ttwo,
tthey topined, tclearly tshowed tthat tan telector tbelonging tto ta tpolitical tparty t“has tto tshow
this tballot tpaper tto tthe tauthorised trepresentative tof this tparty tand tto tno tone telse”.

It tfurther tclaimed treliance tupon tthe tjudgement tof tthe tSupreme tCourt tin tKuldip tNayar3
talong twith t“constitutional, tlegal tand tfactual” tpositions tto tdirect tthe tReturning tOfficer

3
tKuldip tNayar tv. tUnion tof tIndia, tAIR t2006 tSC t3127.

SECRECY TIN TVOTING T| t10

 tunder tArt. t3244 tread twith tSec. t665 tand tRules t39A tand t39AA6 tto treject tvotes tby tthe
ttwo telectors tthrough ta tprocess tof tsegregation. tThe tReturning tOfficer taccordingly
tidentified tthe tdisqualified tvotes tby tgoing tthrough tvotes tcast tby tserial tnumber, tprinted
ton tthe tback, tand tsegregated tand tdiscarded tthe tsame. tAs texpected tthis tdisqualification
tturned ttables, tscraping ttogether ta tbare tvictory tfor tAhmed tPatel, tbeing ta tclassic tpolitical
tdrama trather tthan ta tfair tdemocratic texercise.

The torder tof tthe tElection tCommission thence trelied tupon timportant tconcepts tof tsecrecy
tand tprocedure, tall tof twhich twere tnot tarticulated tor texplained tin tlength tin tits twritten
torder. tIn tsubsequent tchapters, tan tattempt thence thas tbeen tmade tto tdelve tinto tthe
tconcept tof tsecrecy tin tvoting, tits tdesirability tand tother tcompeting tgrund-norms.

CHAPTER TII: TSECRET TBALLOT TVOTING

2.1. TORIGIN TOF TTHE TCONCEPT

Unlike tmost tlaws tin tIndia, tthe tsecret tballot twas tnot tborrowed tfrom tthe tBritish, tor teven
tthe tAmericans. tInstead, tit tis tconsidered tto tbe tone tof tthe tmost tfamous texports tof
tAustralia, tsometimes teven tknows tas tthe t“Australian tballot”7 t

Essentially, tthe tsecret tballot twas tan timprovement tover terstwhile t“open” tsystems tof
tvoting tin tthe tVictorian tera, twhich tconsisted tof tvoice tvotes, tvoting tby tshow tof thands
tor tby tsigning tone’s tname tin ta tregister topen tto tviewing tby tall. tSuch tsystems twere
tnotorious tfor trampant tcases tof tvoter tintimidation, tfraud, tcorruption tand tbribery.

2.2. TEVOLUTION TOF TVOTING

Gradually, tstates tshifted tto ta tsystem tof tpaper tballots twhich telectors twere tresponsible tfor
tcrafting tthemselves. tParties thowever, twere tquick tto tjump tand tcreated ttheir town teasily-

4
tArt. t324, tCONSTITUTION TOF TINDIA, T1950.
5
tSec. t66, tRepresentation tof tthe tPeople tAct, t1951
6
tRules t39A tand t39AA, tConduct tof tElection tRules, t1961.
7
tNaomi tWolf, tA tCure tfor tAmerica’s tcorruptible tvoting tsystem, tTHE TGUARDIAN T(November t03,
t2012) tavailable tat thttps://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/nov/03/cure-america-corruptible-
voting-system t

SECRECY TIN TVOTING T| t11

 identifiable tballots, tcreating ta tscheme tfor tvote tbuying tand tselling. tThis tlater, tin
tAustralia, tevolved tinto ta tsystem twhere tthe tstate tprovided tofficial tballots tlisting tall
trunning tcandidates, twhich tvoters tcould tthen tfill tin tprivate.

The tsecret tballot thence twas tintended tto tbe ta tsolution tto tall tthese tissues tby, tin ttheory
tat tleast, tdenying tknowledge tof tan telector’s tvote, tpreventing tverifiability tof tcorrupt
tvoting tarrangements tand tleaving tno tassurance tof treturn tin tinstances tof tbribery. t

“No tman thas tever tplaced this tmoney tcorruptly twithout tsatisfying thimself tthat
tthe tvote twas tcast taccording tto tthe tagreement, tor, tin ta tphrase twhich tbecame
tonly ttoo tcommon tduring tthe tlast tcampaign, twithout tproof tthat t“the tgoods
twere tdelivered”; tand twhen tthere tis tto tbe tno tproof tbut tthe tword tof tthe
tbribe-taker t(who tmay thave treceived tthrice tthe tsum tto tvote tfor tthe tbriber’s
topponent), tit tis tidle tto tplace tany ttrust tin tsuch ta tuse tof tmoney. tIn tother
twords, ttake taway tall tinterest tin tcommitting tan toffence, tand tthe toffence twill
tsoon tdisappear.”

t—John tWigmore ton tthe tAustralian tBallot tSystem t(1889)

2.3. TADVANTAGES TOF TSECRECY

Further, tsecrecy twould thave tprevented tintimidation tand tmany tstudies8 talso tcredit tit tfor
timproving tvoter tturnouts tin telections. tSecrecy thas tbeen tan tissue tof tmuch tconsternation
twithin tIndia, tas twell. tThe tConstitution tprescribes tcertain telections tas tbeing tsecret9,
tvarious tinternational tconventions10 tdeclare tthe tsame tas tbeing tessential tfor tfree tand tfair
telections11, tand tthe tSupreme tCourt titself tin tthe tcases tof tLily tThomas12 tand tPUCL13
thas treaffirmed tthe tneed tfor tsecrecy tthrough tintroduction tof tthe tNone-of-the-above

8
tAlan tS. tGerber, tet tal, tIs tthere ta tSecret tBallot? tBallot tSecrecy tPerceptions tand tTheir tImplications
tfor tVoting tBehaviour, t43 tB.J. TPOL. TS. T77-102 T(July t03, t2012) tavailable tat
thttps://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/british-journal-of-political-science/article/is-there-a-secret-ballot-
ballot-secrecy-perceptions-and-their-implications-for-voting-
behaviour/CD20CED9A450927354E8E754FC67D5E3# t
9
tArt. t55(3), tCONSTITUTION TOF TINDIA, T1950.
10
tArt. t25, tINTERNATIONAL TCONVENTION TON TCIVIL TAND TPOLITICAL TRIGHTS, t1966.
11
tArt. t21, tUNIVERSAL TDECLARATION TOF THUMAN TRIGHTS, t1948.
12
tLily tThomas tv. tUnion tof tIndia, t(2013) t7 tSCC t653.
13
tPeoples tUnion tfor tCivil tLiberties tv. tUnion tof tIndia, t(2013) t10 tSCC t1.

SECRECY TIN TVOTING T| t12

 t(NOTA) toption ton telectronic tvoting tmachines t(EVM). tThe tsecret tballot tis ttoday
tconsidered ta tcornerstone tof tdemocracy, tin tmodern tpolitical ttheory.

2.3.1. tAn tExtension tof tPrivacy

The tsecret tballot tis talso tformulated tas tan textension tof tthe tprinciple tof tprivacy14,
tsomething twhich tgains timportance tin tlight tof tthe tJustice tPuttaswamy tjudgement15 tby ta
tconstitutional tbench tof tthe tSupreme tCourt.

“In tdeciding thow tto tvote, tcitizens tare tentitled tto tfreedom tfrom tcoercion tand
tto ta t‘private tspace’ tin twhich tto tmake tup ttheir town tminds tthrough tthe
texercise tof tpolitical tjudgment. tThe tprivacy tof tthe tvoting tbooth tserves tto
tenhance tthis tsense tthat twe tare tfree tto tmake tour town tdecisions twithout
texternal tcoercion. tThis trationale talso textends tbeyond tprocedural tprotections
tin tthe tparadigmatic tcase tof tvoting tto tthe tgeneral trole tprivacy trights tplay tin
ta tcitizen’s tcapacity tto tthink tof tthemselves tas trulers”

- Brettschneider16

Such ta ttheorization, tis ta tcommon tjustification tand tperfect tstatement tof tthe tneed tfor
tsecret tballot tin ta tdemocratic tsetup. tCitizens tmust tbe tallowed tto tvote, tirrespective tof
tapproval tfrom ta tthird tparty. t

2.4. TDRAWBACKS, TTHREATS T& TCHALLENGES T

However, tsuch tformulations tof tthe tsecret tballot tare tno tchance-occurrence. tHistory tand
tpolitical tscience tare tno tstrangers tto tthe tgreed tand tself-centricity tof tpolitical tparties twho

14
tBurson tv. tFreeman, t504 tU.S. t191 t(1992).
15
tK.S. tPuttaswamy tv. tUnion tof tIndia, t2017 tSCC tOnLine tSC t996.
16
tCOREY TBRETTSCHNEIDER, TDEMOCRATIC TRIGHTS: TTHE TSUBSTANCE TOF TSELF-GOVERNMENT
t(Princeton tUniversity tPress, t2007) t75.

SECRECY TIN TVOTING T| t13

 tare tunwilling tto tchange tcorrupt tpractices tand tmend tbroken tpolitical tsystems, tas tfar tas
tthey textend tan tadvantage tto tthem. tThe tBJP tis tnow tcrying tfoul, twas tearlier tlast tyear
ton tthe treceiving tend, twith tRandeep tSingh tSurjewala’s tvote thaving tsimilarly tbeen
tdisqualified tby tthe tElection tCommission, tfor tviolation tof tballot tsecrecy. tAt tthat ttime,
tthe tCongress twas tquick tto tcry tfoul. t

Further tan timportant tquestion twhich tarises tin tlight tof tpast tpractice twas twhether tin tthe
tname tof tpreventing tcorruption tone tcan tundermine tthe tessence tof tthe tvote titself? tMen
tare tcorruptible, tand tthey twill tfind ta tway tto toutmatch tthemselves. tThe tonly treason tthat
tcorruption tor tvote tbuying twas tillegalised twas tnot tbecause tof tpolicy tor tnormative
tconsiderations, tbut tbecause tit tbenefited tthose talready tin tpower. t

2.4.1. tThe tIncumbent tAdvantage

Much tevidence tindicates tthat tthe tswitch tto tsecret tballot tpresents tan tadvantage tto
tincumbents, twho tin tturn thave tthe tpower tto tformulate tlaws taffirming tsecrecy.17 tThis tis
tbecause, tincumbents tusually twin tmore tthan ta trandom tshare tof tvotes tin telections tand
tare tahead twhen tit tcomes tto tcampaigning. tThe tincumbents tthus thave tmore tto tlose
tthrough tcorrupt tpractices tfor tthey texpect tto twin tthe telections, tin tthe tabsence tof tany
tskewing tthrough tpractices tlike tbribing. t

In tcase tof topen tballot, teach tparty tis tfree tto tbuy tvotes tfor tit tcan tenforce tthe tsame
tthrough tverification. tEach tparty twould thence tbe tassured tof treturn tand twould thave ta
tsimilar tpay-out tfor tevery tinvestment. tHowever, tit tis tnot tpossible tto tidentify tthe tdefault
tchoice tof tcandidates. tIt tis tmore tlikely tthan tnot tthat tan taverage tvoter tbeing tbribed
t(hypothetically) talready tsupports tthe tincumbent. tIn tsuch ta tscenario, tthe tnet tbenefit tfor
tthe tincumbent tis treduced tin tcase tof ta tcorrupt telection. t

This tgame-theoretic tadvantage tcan tbetter tbe tmathematically tmodelled tas tthe tfollowing.
tThe tpayoff tfor ta tchallenger tis thence, tp, ti.e. tthe tprobability tof ta tvoter tbeing tan
tincumbent tsupporter t(or tnot tchallenger tsupporter). tThe tincumbent’s tpayoff tis tt-p, tthat tis
tthe tresidual tnumber tof tvoters tor tthe tnumber tof tchallenger-supporters. tBecause tthe
tnumber tof tvoters tof tthe tincumbent tusually tis tmore, tthe tchallenger tstands tto tgain tmore.

17
tJac tC. tHeckelman, tThe tSecret tBallot tProtects tthe tIncumbency tAdvantage, t8(3) tTHE TINDEPENDENT
TREVIEW T419-425 T(Winter tReview) tavailable tat thttp://users.wfu.edu/heckeljc/papers/published/IR.pdf t

SECRECY TIN TVOTING T| t14

tHence tthe tincumbent thas ta theavy tinterest tin tpassing tsecret tballot tthrough tlegislation tas
ta tmeans tof teliminating tbribery.18

18
tId.

SECRECY TIN TVOTING T| t15

 CHAPTER TIII: TSECRECY TIN TRAJYA TSABHA TELECTIONS

3.1. TTHE TCHALLENGE

Theorizations tas tdiscussed tin tthe tprevious tchapter tgive trise tto tthe tquestion tat thand, ti.e.
twhether tMembers tof tParliament t(MPs) tshould tbe textended tthis tright tof tsecret tvote, tor
tgiven tthe tspecial tnature tof ttheir tvote tand tthe tduties tthey tdischarge, tshould tspecial
tprovisions tbe tmade tfor tthem?

This tquestion tcan tbe tbroken tbetter tanalysed tby texamining tthe tessence tbehind
tparliamentary tvoting tand tthe temanation tof tsuch tpowers tto tvote. tIt tis tcontended tthat tan
tMP tdoes tnot tact tas ta tmere tcitizen tselecting ta trepresentative, twhilst tvoting tin tRajya
tSabha. tRather, the tis tmerely tdischarging tfunctions tof this tpost, tnecessitating timportation
tof tdemocratic taccountability tand ttransparency19

3.2. TARGUMENTS TAGAINST TSECRECY

Despite tthe tfact tthat tlegislators tmight tbe tmore tvulnerable tto tintimidation tand tcorruption
tthan ta tnormal tcitizen, tgiven ttheir teasy tidentifiability tand tlimited tnumber, tthey tshould
tvote topenly. tThis tis tbecause tthe tlegislators tare texercising ttheir tvote ton tbehalf tof ttheir
tconstituents’, tand tnot tmerely tvoting tas tper ttheir twhims tand tfancies. tIt tis tacknowledged
tthat tsecret tballots tinduce tirrationality, tas ttheorised tby tMill.20 tUnlike tcitizens, twhose
tright tto tvote tdoes tnot tdepend tupon tthe tapproval tof tothers tor tany tother tspecial tpower
tor tvirtue; tlegislators tin ta tdemocracy tare tsubjected tto tsocietal tapproval. tHence,
tlegislators thave ta tduty tto tvote topenly tto tprevent timportation tof textraneous
tconsiderations tlike tfear, tcorruption, tignorance tand tgreed. t

3.2.1. tMil’s tTrust tv. tRight tApproach

19
tAnnabelle tLever, tPrivacy tand tDemocracy: tWhat tthe tSecret tBallot tReveals t11(2) tLAW, TCULTURE
TAND TTHE THUMANITIES T164-183 T(October t16, t2012) tavailable tat thttps://unige.ch/sciences-
societe/speri/files/3214/1656/3700/Pub_Privacy_and_Democracy_What_the_Secret_Ballot_Reveals.pdf t
20
tAnnabelle tLever, tMill tand tThe tSecret tBallot: tBeyond tCoercion tand tCorruption, t19(3) tUTILITAS
T(2007) Tavailable tat thttp://www.alever.net/DOCS/Mill%20and%20the%20Secret%20Ballot.pdf t

SECRECY TIN TVOTING T| t16

 Mill thighlighted tan timportant taspect tof tsecret tvoting, twhilst topposing tthe tsame. tThe
ttrouble twith tsuch tsecrecy tis tthat tit tencourages tpeople tto tthink tof t“voting tas ta tright
trather tthan ta ttrust.” tThis tfacilitates tirresponsible tvoting trather tthan tconsiderations tof
tpublic tgood. tAccording tto tMill, tvoting tis ta t‘public tduty’ tas ta tconsequence tof tone’s
tcitizenship tand tnot tpersonal tsituation, tand tbeing tso tmust tbe tperformed t“under tthe teye
tand tcriticism tof tthe tpublic”.

3.2.2. tBentham’s tOpen tand tSecret tVoting

Jeremy tBenthem tin tChapter tXIV tof tPolitical tTactics targues tfor tsecret tballot tin tmass
telections, tbut topen tvoting tin t‘political tmatters’

Although tproblematic tin tits tapplication tto tgeneral tcitizens, tMill’s ttheory tfits tperfectly
tgiven tthe tsignificant tdifferences tin tpower tand tauthority tbetween tlegislators tand tcitizens.
tIn trepresentative tgovernments, tlike tthe tone tin tIndia, ta tlegislator t(being ta
trepresentative), tis trequired tto trepresent this tconstituency tin texercise tof tsignificant tpower.
tAlthough tharsh tfor tcitizens, tthe tstandards tof taccountability tand tpublicity the tsets tforth,
tare tbut tappropriate tfor tlegislators.21

3.3. TACCOUNTABILITY TV. TFREE TCHOICE

The tchoice tin tdemocracies, thence, tis tbetween taccountability tand tfree tchoice. tGiven tthe
tnature tof tthe tlegislators’ tjob, tit tis tbut tnatural tthat tthe tformer tshall toverride tthe tlatter.
tIt tis tessential tfor tpeople tto tbe taware tof thow ttheir trepresentative thave tmade tuse tand
tapplied tthe tagency twhich tthey taccorded tand tassess tthe tsame tthrough tsubsequent
telections. tThe tdemerits tof ta tsecret tsystem tinclude twhat tcannot tbe tseen tin tthe tplain
tsight. tSecret tballot tmakes tthe tvoter tdetached tfrom tthe tprocess tof telection tand tmakes
thim ttake tdecisions tirresponsibly. tIt tbecomes tmore tof ta tpersonal ttask tthan ta tpublic
tduty. tThis tmay talso tlead tthe tvoters tto tmake tuninformed tdecisions. tSecrecy tprevents
tfair tassessment, tessential tto tfree telections tand thence tundermines tdemocracy.22

21
tRukmini tS., tIs tIt tTime tTo tLet tIndia's tMPs tAnd tMLAs tVote tFreely?, tHUFFINGTON TPOST t(July t26,
t2017) tavailable tat thttp://www.huffingtonpost.in/2017/07/26/is-it-time-to-let-indias-mps-and-mlas-vote-
freely_a_23046452/ t
22
tWhat tis tDemocracy: tSecret tBallot tor tPublic tVote?, tCOSMOLOGICALLY TINSIGNIFICANT T(BLOG)
tavailable tat thttps://cosmologicallyinsignificant.wordpress.com/2011/05/15/what-is-democracy-45-secret-
ballot-or-public-vote/ t

SECRECY TIN TVOTING T| t17

3.4. TTACKLING TCORRUPTION

As twas tpointed tout tby tthe tEthics tCommittee tin tits t1st treport tpresented tto tthe tupper
thouse tof tthe tParliament, tdespite tsecrecy tof tvoting tin telections tto tthe tRajya tSabha,
tinstances tof tcorruption tand tvoting tbuying twere tcommonplace. tThe truling tgovernment,
tthen, tchose tto treact tto tthis tby tundermining tsecrecy tof tvoting tby tway tof tan tamendment
tto tthe tRepresentation tof tthe tPeople tAct, t1951. tHowever, tsuch tan tunderstanding, tas
tlater thighlighted tis tproblematic. tThe tparliamentarians tfailed tto tappreciate tthat tcorruption
thappened tin tspite tof ta tsecret tballot tand tnot tdue tto tit. tSolution tcould thence tnot tbe tof
tdoing taway twith tsecrecy taltogether. t

CHAPTER TIV: TTHE T2003 TAMENDMENT

The tParliament tin torder tto tcheck tinstances tof tmassive tcorruption tand tbribery tas tarose
tin t2000, tbrought ta tbill tto tamend tSecs. t59, t94 tand t128 tamongst tothers, tof tthe
tRepresentation tof tthe tPeople tAct, t1951. t

4.1. T“OPEN-BALLOT” TSYSTEM

This tAmendment tintroduced tthe tconcept tof t“open-ballot” tin telections tto tthe tCouncil tof
tStates, tor tthe tRajya tSabha, ta tterm twhich thas tnot tbeen tdefined tor tclarified tin tthe
tAmendment tor tany tsubsequent trule. tProponents targued tthat ttheir tsecrecy twas tmeant tfor
tordinary tvoters tin ta tpolling tbooth tduring tgeneral telections, tand tnot tfor telections tlike
tthe tRajya tSabha tone. tThe tthen tAttorney-General, tSoli tSorabjee tdefended
tconstitutionality tof tsuch tan tamendment tby targuing tthat t"the tsystem tof tvoting tby tsecret
tballot tis tneither tan tindispensable tconcomitant tnor ta tsine tqua tnon tof tfree tand tfair
telections".23

4.2. TCHECKING TDEFECTION TAND TCROSS-VOTING

23
tV. tVenkatesan, tAn tAmendment tChallenged, t21(13) tFRONTLINE T(June t19, t2004) tavailable tat
thttp://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2113/stories/20040702006512800.htm t

SECRECY TIN TVOTING T| t18

 Came ton tthe tback tof treform tto tthe tAnti-defection tlaw tunder tSchedule tX twhich tfurther
tremoved texception tfor tsplit tof tone-third tmembers tof ta tparty, tand twas tpropounded tas
tbeing tnecessary tto tensure t‘purity tof telections’. tIt tis tevident tthat tthis tstep twas tan
tattempt tto tsidestep twhat tcould totherwise tnot thave tbeen tdone tconstitutionally, tthat tis
tbring tcross-voting tunder tthe tambit tof tSchedule tX. t

Defections tare tan tissue twhich thave thaunted tIndian tpolity tfor tdecades. tMerely tbetween
t1967 tand t1972, tone tout tof talmost tevery ttwo tmembers tof tthe tLok tSabha tand tvarious
tVidhan tSabhas tdefected, twith tsome thaving tchanged tloyalties tas tmany tas tfive ttimes.
tSuch tdefections twere tnot tmerely towing tto ta tchange tin tideology tor tsupport tthereof, tbut
trather tseems tto tbe tmotivated tby tpecuniary tbenefit tand tgreed. tThis tis tevidenced tby tthe
treward tmost tdefectors tgot tby tway tof tministerial tpositions.24 tFurther, tsuch tpossibility tof
treward twas trestricted tthrough tfuture tlegislations twhich tlimited tthe tnumber tof tministers
twhich tcould tbe tappointed, tto ta tpercentage tof tthe ttotal tmembership tof tthe thouse.

4.3. TCRITICISM TOF TTHE TAMENDMENT

The tsolution tproposed tby tthe tParliament tof thaving tan t“open tballot” tmerely tfacilitates
tvindication tagainst tcross-voters tand tnot taccountability tto tpeople. tIt tis ta tsettled tquestion
tthat tno twhips tcan tbe tapplicable tin tcase tof telections tto tthe tRajya tSabha, trecognising
tthat tit tis tnot tan taverage troutine tparliamentary tproceeding tor tvote. tIt tthen tis ta tmystery
tthat twhy tshould tparties tget ta tright tto tdo tindirectly twhich tthey tcannot tdo tdirectly? t

The tIndian tupper thouse tis tunique, tbeing tunlike tthe tBritish tHouse tof tLords tas twell tas
tthe tAmerican tHouse tof tRepresentatives. tUnlike tthe tAmerican tsystem, tstates tthemselves
tdo tnot thave tthe tright tto tnominate ttheir trepresentatives. tHence, tconcentration tof tpower
tin tthe thands tof tthe truling tgovernment tby tsubversion tof tsecrecy tis tunconstitutional.
tFurther, tthe tamendment tby tthe tgovernment twas ttargeted tat tonly tthe tRajya tSabha,
tperhaps twith taim tof tpersonal tgain, trather tthan ta tpolicy tshift tas tevidenced tby tthe

24
tReview tof tElection tLaw, tProcess tand tReform tOptions, tREPORT TOF TTHE TNATIONAL TCOMMISSION
TTO TREVIEW TTHE TWORKING TOF TTHE TCONSTITUTION t(2002).

SECRECY TIN TVOTING T| t19

 tabsence tof tsimilar tprovisions tfor telection tto tthe tLegislative tCouncils tof tvarious
tbicameral tstates.25

4.3.1. tWhat tis tthe tRajya tSabha tsupposed tto tbe?

This tis tfurther tevidenced tby tConstitutional tAssembly tDebates, twhere tmembers ttook
tpains tto thighlight tthe tnature tof telections tto tRajya tSabha tand tthe taim tthe tcouncil
tsought tto tfulfil.

Highlighting tthe tneed tfor tproportional trepresentation, tHriday tNath tKunzru thighlighted
tthe tneed tfor tthe tunpopular tto tbe telected tand tthe tnecessity tto tensure tfair trepresentation
tto tminorities tand tpeople thaving tviews tdifferent tfrom tthose tof tthe tmajority. t26 tAnother
tmember, tMr. tMahavir tTyagi, thighlighted tthe tneed tto tbreak tthe tshackles tof texisting
trepresentations, twhich the tfelt thad tbeen tcornered tby ta tfew, tnamely tthe tliterates tand
tintelligentsia tforming tparties. tAlthough tgiven tstatistics, tthis tdiscerption tof tparty tmembers
tneed tnot tbe taccurate tany tlonger, tbut tthe tprinciple tof tmonopolisation tof tRajya tSabha
tseats tby tparties tis ttrue tnonetheless, tsomething twhich tis tbut treinforced tthrough tthe t2003
tAmendment.27

4.3.2. tViews tof tthe tSupreme tCourt

The tSupreme tCourt tin tthe tlandmark tconstitutional tcase tof tKuldip tNayayar28 ttook ta
tsimilar tconstruction twhilst tholding tthe tprinciple tof tsecrecy tto tnot tbe tabsolute. tIt
tevinced tthat tthe tright tto tvote tmust tyield tto tthe tneed tfor thaving tfree tand tfair telections.
tIt theld tthat tthe tnature tof telections, tnamely twhether tthe tsame tis tdirect tor tindirect
tregulates twhether tthe tsystem tshould tbe topen tor tsecret. tHowever, talthough tthe tSC
tupheld tthe tright tof tParliament tto tlegislatively timpress tparty taccountability, tit tfailed tto
tascertain tor timpress tupon tpublic taccountability. tFurther, tthe tAct tonly tsubstitutes, tif tat
tall, tindividual tcorruption twith tparty-president tcorruption.

25
tOpen tballot tsystem tin tRS tpoll: tWho twill tit tbenefit?, tDECCAN TCHRONICLE T(June t02, t2016)
tavailable tat thttp://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/politics/020616/open-ballot-system-in-rs-poll-who-will-
it-benefit.html t
26
tStatement tby tHirday tNath tKunzru, tCONSTITUTIONAL TASSEMBLY TDEBATES t(January t03, t1949).
27
tStatement tby tMahavir tTyagi, tCONSTITUTIONAL TASSEMBLY TDEBATES t(January t03, t1949).
28
tKuldip tNayar tv. tUnion tof tIndia, tAIR t2006 tSC t3127.

SECRECY TIN TVOTING T| t20

 CHAPTER TV: TOPEN TBALLOT

Even tthough tthe t2003 tAmendment tintroduced ta tsystem tof t“Open-ballot”29, tit tis
timportant tto tnote tthat tthe tsame thas tnot tbeen tdefined tanywhere. tNeither tthe tamending
tAct, tneither tsubsequent trules tframed tclarify tthe tsame. tIt thence tis tperplexing thow tthe
tElection tCommission theld tthe ttwo tMLAs tin tviolation tof tthe tprocedure tgiven tunder tthe
tRepresentation tof tthe tPeople tAct, t1951.

5.1. TRELEVANT TPROVISIONS

“59. tManner tof tvoting tat telections. t—At tevery telection twhere ta tpoll tis ttaken
tvotes tshall tbe tgiven tby tballot tin tsuch tmanner tas tmay tbe tprescribed, tand,
tsave tas texpressly tprovided tby tthis tAct, tno tvotes tshall tbe treceived tby
tproxy: t
Provided tthat tthe tvotes tat tevery telection tto tfill ta tseat tor tseats tin tthe
tCouncil tof tStates tshall tbe tgiven tby topen tballot.”

“94. tSecrecy tof tvoting tnot tto tbe tinfringed. t—No twitness tor tother tperson
tshall tbe trequired tto tstate tfor twhom the thas tvoted tat tan telection: t
Provided tthat tthis tsection tshall tnot tapply tto tsuch twitness tor tother tperson
twhere the thas tvoted tby topen tballot.”

5.2. TFOREIGN TINTERPRETATION

In tcountries tlike tNigeria, tOpen tBallot tsystem tof tvoting, talso tknown tas tOption tA4 tis ta
tvoting tmethod tadopted tin t1993, twhere tcandidates tqueue topenly tto tindicate ttheir tchoice.
tTheir tvote tis tpublic tfor tviewing tas topposed tto tsecret tballots. tThis twas tintended tto
treduce trampant telecton trigging tand tother tfraudulent tprocedural tpractices tin tthe
tcountry.30

29
tSec. t59, tRepresentation tof tthe tPeople tAct, t1951.
30
tFunke tAyoola, tMaking ta tPoint twith tOption tA4, tTHE TNATION t(March t21, t2013) tavailable tat
thttp://thenationonlineng.net/making-a-point-with-option-a4-2/ t

SECRECY TIN TVOTING T| t21

 Further, tin tSouth tAfrica, tthe tterm t“Open-ballot” twas tused tas tdirect topposite tto ta
t“Secret-ballot” tin tthe tcase31 tof tprocedure tfor tvoting tto tbe tadopted tin ta tcase tof tno-
confidence tmotion tagainst tthe truling tgovernment.32 tThe tConstitution tof tSouth tAfrica
tfurther tprovides tthat tthe tNational tCouncil tof tProvinces tmust tconduct tits tbusiness tin tan
topen tmanner, twithout trestricting tvisibility tto tthe tpublic tor tmedia.33 t

5.3. TJUDICIAL TINTERPRETATION

The tSupreme tCourt tin tthe tcase tof tGurdeep tSingh tin t2000, tused tthe tterm t‘open-ballot’
tas tdemanded tby tcertain telectors tin ta tPanchayat tElection tin ta tmanner tsimilar tto tthat tin
tSouth tAfrica tand tNigeria, tthat tis tas ta tcorollary topposite tof ta tsecret tballot.34

31
tUnited tDemocratic tMovement tv. tSpeaker tof tthe tNational tAssembly, t2017 t(8) tBCLR t1061 t(CC)
t¶¶ t59-64 t(South tAfrica).
32
tLoammi tWold, tA tconstructive tno-confidence tvote tis tper timplication tsecret, tDAILY TMAVERICK
t(May t15, t2017) tavailable tat thttps://www.dailymaverick.co.za/opinionista/2017-05-15-a-constructive-no-
confidence-vote-is-per-implication-secret/#.WleXhN-WbIU t
33
tArt. t72(1)(b), tCONSTITUTION TOF TSOUTH TAFRICA, t1997.
34
tGurdeep tSingh tv. tState tof tPunjab, t(2000) t9 tSCC t9.

SECRECY TIN TVOTING T| t22

 CHAPTER TVI: TSECRECY TIN TOTHER TCOUNTRIES

In tthe tUnited tStates, tBallot-Selfies thave tbeen ta tmatter tof tmuch tdebate trecently. tThe
texplosion tof tdigital tmedia tand ttechnology thas tchallenged tthe ttraditional tnotions tof
tviolation tof tvoter tsecrecy. tMany torganisations thave targued tthat tsuch tselfies tmotivate
tthe tnewer tgeneration tto tparticipate tin tdemocratic tprocesses tand tshould thence tbe
tencouraged. t

6.0.1. tLegitimate tState tInterest tv. tFree tSpeech

Some tstates, tlike tNew tHampshire, trecently tadopted tlaws twhich tmake tit tunlawful tfor
tvoters tto tclick tselfies tof tcompleted tballots. tThree tvoters, tin tviolation, tchallenged tthe
tlaw tas tbeing tin tconflict twith tthe tFirst tAmendment tto tthe tUnited tStates tConstitution,
twhich tprevents tlegislatures tfrom tmaking tlaws tabridging tthe tfree texercise tof tcertain
tfundamental tfreedoms tlike tspeech, tpress, tpeaceful tassembly, treligion tetc.35 t

The tlaw tin tNew tHampshire twas tchallenged tsuccessfully tin ta tfederal tcourt, tand twas
truled tunconstitutional tfor trestricting tfree tspeech. tEven tin tthe tappellate tcourt tof tUnited
tStates tFirst tCircuit tCourt tof tAppeals tin tBoston, tthe tNew tHampshire tlaw tdidn’t tpass
tmuster. tThe tCircuit tcourt theld tthat tthe tstate tinterest twasn’t tcompelling tenough, tand
tcompared tthe tlaw tin tpreventing tvoter tfraud tto tto t“burning tdown tthe thouse tto troast tthe
tpig.”36 tHowever, tother tlaws tlike tNew tYork’s twhich tdo tnot tabsolutely tban tsuch tforms
tof texpression texcept twhen tthey tthreaten tto tcreate tchaos tor tinclude timage tof tsomeone
telse’s tballot, thave tbeen tupheld.37

Such tinstances tare trelevant tto tthe tissues tin tIndia, twhere twith tincreasing tdigital tliteracy
tchances tof tsuch tinstances tare tincreasing. tIt tis tvery tpossible tthat ttomorrow tyoungsters
tstart tclicking tpictures tof tEVMs, thowever, tthe ttest tand tstandard tin tsuch ta tcase twould
tbe tdifferent tthan tthat tapplicable tin tcase tof tRajya tSabha telections. tThe tAmerican
texample, tin tso tfar tas tthe tjudge twhilst tappreciating tlegitimate tstate tinterest, tstruck tthe

35
tSecrecy tof tthe tBallot tand tBallot tSelfies, tNATIONAL TCONFERENCE TOF TSTATE TLEGISLATURES
T(February t23, t2017) tavailable tat thttp://www.ncsl.org/research/elections-and-campaigns/secrecy-of-the-
ballot-and-ballot-selfies.aspx t
36
tId.
37
tJonathan tStempel, tNew tYork t'ballot tselfie' tlaw tsurvives tcourt tchallenge, tREUTERS T(September t29,
t2017) tavailable tat thttps://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-election-selfie-new-york/new-york-ballot-selfie-
law-survives-court-challenge-idUSKCN1C332P t

SECRECY TIN TVOTING T| t23

tsame tdown tnonetheless tfor tbeing texcessive, tis tsomething twhich twould tdefinitely tbe
tinstrumental tin tdomestic tinterpretation.

SECRECY TIN TVOTING T| t24

 CHAPTER TVII: TCONCLUSION

Rampant tcorruption, tbribery tand tother telectoral tmalpractices tin tour tpolity, tnot tonly
tundermine tthe tstrength tof tdemocracy tand tIndia’s tinstitutions, tbut talso tadversely taffect
tgovernance tand tgovernment. tParties, tcutting tacross tspectrum, tare ttaking tsteps tto tremove
tthis tunpredictability tcaused tby tcross-voting tand tdefections, tas tevidenced tby tformulation
tof tAnti-Defection tlaws tthrough tSchedule tX tas twell tas tfrequent tamendments tto telectoral
tActs. t

Democracy tin tIndia thas tmetamorphosed tinto tbut tcomplex tsystems tof trepresentative
tpolitics. tParties, tcandidates tand tvoters twould talways tattempt tto tbend tand tcircumvent
trules tto ttheir town tbenefit. tAs tillustrated tby tthe tGujarat tepisode, telectoral tlaws tin ttheir
toperation treserve ta tvery tspecial tplace. tNot tonly tdo tthey tbar tremedy twith tjudiciary
tuntil tculmination tof telection tprocess, tbut talso tthrough tArt. t324 tbestow timmense tpower
ton tthe tElection tCommission tof tIndia tin trequisitioning tresources tand ttaking tdecisions.
tGiven tthe textent tof tthis tpower, tit tis tbut tessential tthat ta tretrospective tin-depth tanalysis
tof tits texercise tbe tmade. tIt tis tnecessary tto tkeep targuments tand tprocedures tprincipled,
tand tthat tthe tElection tCommission tbe tguided tby tprinciples tof tfree tchoice tand tconsent,
tessential tin ta tdemocracy, trather tthan tclerical tapplication.

Secrecy-in-voting, tof trecent, thas temerged tas tone tof tthe tmain tissues tsurrounding
telections tto tthe tCouncil tof tStates tin tIndia. tIt tpresents ta tchoice tbetween tresponsibility
tof tthe tlegislator tin tcapacity tas trepresentative tof tthe tpeople, tover tmere tindividual
tprivate tinterests. tProcedural tsecrecy tand tprocedural tdemocracy, tare tnot tonly tgoals tby
tthemselves, tbut talso tdeeply taffect tvoting tpatterns. tIt tis twell tdocumented tthat topen
ttransparent tsystems tincrease taccountability tand tfacilitate treasoned tdecision tmaking, talbeit
tat tthe tcost tof tpersonal tliberty.38

The tepisteme tof tdemocracy tis tconsent. tIt twould tbut tbe tparadoxical tto ttake tmake tthe
tprocess tof tsuch tvoting tduty-based tand tin trestriction tof tfundamental trights tof tpolitical
tbelief, tfreedom tof tspeech tand tof texpression. tThe tpresent tframework, tconsequent tto tthe
t2003 tAmendments tkeeps tthe tprocess tin ta tstate tof tlimbo, tbeing tneither tsecret tnor topen.
tOpacity tand taccountability thave tnot tbeen tincreased. tMerely, tthe tpersonal tinterests tof

38
tRebecca tB. tMorton, tand tKai tOu, tThe tSecret tBallot tand tEthical tVoting t(November t08, t2013)
tavailable tat thttp://econ.columbia.edu/files/econ/content/morton_secretballotpaper8nov2013.pdf t

SECRECY TIN TVOTING T| t25

tthe tlegislators thave tbeen treplaced twith tthose tof tthe tparty. tThe tcitizen tis tbut tforgotten.
t

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MISCELLANEOUS

1) Alan tS. tGerber, tet tal, tIs tthere ta tSecret tBallot? tBallot tSecrecy tPerceptions tand
tTheir tImplications tfor tVoting tBehaviour, t43 tB.J. TPOL. TS. T77-102 T(July t03,
t2012) tavailable tat thttps://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/british-journal-of-
political-science/article/is-there-a-secret-ballot-ballot-secrecy-perceptions-and-their-
implications-for-voting-behaviour/CD20CED9A450927354E8E754FC67D5E3# t

2) Annabelle tLever, tMill tand tThe tSecret tBallot: tBeyond tCoercion tand tCorruption,
t19(3) tUTILITAS T(2007) Tavailable tat
thttp://www.alever.net/DOCS/Mill%20and%20the%20Secret%20Ballot.pdf t

3) Annabelle tLever, tPrivacy tand tDemocracy: tWhat tthe tSecret tBallot tReveals t11(2)
tLAW, TCULTURE TAND TTHE THUMANITIES T164-183 T(October t16, t2012) tavailable tat
thttps://unige.ch/sciences-
societe/speri/files/3214/1656/3700/Pub_Privacy_and_Democracy_What_the_Secret_Ball
ot_Reveals.pdf t

4) COREY TBRETTSCHNEIDER, TDEMOCRATIC TRIGHTS: TTHE TSUBSTANCE TOF TSELF-

GOVERNMENT t(Princeton tUniversity tPress, t2007) t75.

5) Funke tAyoola, tMaking ta tPoint twith tOption tA4, tTHE TNATION t(March t21, t2013)
tavailable tat thttp://thenationonlineng.net/making-a-point-with-option-a4-2/ t

6) In tRe tBiennial tElection tto tthe tCouncil tof tStates tby tthe tElected tMembers tof tthe
tLegislative tAssembly tof tGujarat t– t2017, tELECTION TCOMMISSION TOF TINDIA

t(August t08, t2017) tavailable tat

thttp://eci.nic.in/eci_main1/current/Order_08082017.pdf t

7) Indian tculture thas tsoft tpower tto tmake tit tinfluential tleader: tShashi tTharoor, tTHE
TECONOMIC TTIMES T(June t09, t2017) tavailable tat
thttp://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/56976028.cms?
tutm_source=contentofinterest&utm_medium=text&utm_campaign=cppst tJac tC.

SECRECY TIN TVOTING T| t26

 tHeckelman, tThe tSecret tBallot tProtects tthe tIncumbency tAdvantage, t8(3) tTHE
TINDEPENDENT TREVIEW T419-425 T(Winter tReview) tavailable tat
thttp://users.wfu.edu/heckeljc/papers/published/IR.pdf t

8) Jonathan tStempel, tNew tYork t'ballot tselfie' tlaw tsurvives tcourt tchallenge, tREUTERS
T(September t29, t2017) tavailable tat thttps://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-election-
selfie-new-york/new-york-ballot-selfie-law-survives-court-challenge-idUSKCN1C332P t

9) Loammi tWold, tA tconstructive tno-confidence tvote tis tper timplication tsecret, tDAILY
TMAVERICK t(May t15, t2017) tavailable tat
thttps://www.dailymaverick.co.za/opinionista/2017-05-15-a-constructive-no-confidence-
vote-is-per-implication-secret/#.WleXhN-WbIU t

10) Maulik tPathak, tRajya tSabha telections ttoday ta tgame tchanger tfor tGujarat tpolitics,
tLIVE TMINT T(August t08, t2017) tavailable tat
thttp://www.livemint.com/Politics/O3aOMpYNRE52ypebDKu9vK/Rajya-Sabha-

11) elections-today-a-game-changer-for-Gujarat-polit.html tNaomi tWolf, tA tCure tfor

tAmerica’s tcorruptible tvoting tsystem, tTHE TGUARDIAN T(November t03, t2012)
tavailable tat thttps://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/nov/03/cure-america-
corruptible-voting-system t

12) Open tballot tsystem tin tRS tpoll: tWho twill tit tbenefit?, tDECCAN TCHRONICLE T(June
t02, t2016) tavailable tat thttp://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/politics/020616/open-
ballot-system-in-rs-poll-who-will-it-benefit.html t

13) Rebecca tB. tMorton, tand tKai tOu, tThe tSecret tBallot tand tEthical tVoting
t(November t08, t2013) tavailable tat
thttp://econ.columbia.edu/files/econ/content/morton_secretballotpaper8nov2013.pdf

14) Review tof tElection tLaw, tProcess tand tReform tOptions, tREPORT TOF TTHE

TNATIONAL TCOMMISSION TTO TREVIEW TTHE TWORKING TOF TTHE TCONSTITUTION

t(2002).

15) Rukmini tS., tIs tIt tTime tTo tLet tIndia's tMPs tAnd tMLAs tVote tFreely?,
tHUFFINGTON TPOST t(July t26, t2017) tavailable tat
thttp://www.huffingtonpost.in/2017/07/26/is-it-time-to-let-indias-mps-and-mlas-vote-
freely_a_23046452/ t(Last taccessed ton tJanuary t11, t2018).

SECRECY TIN TVOTING T| t27

 16) Secrecy tof tthe tBallot tand tBallot tSelfies, tNATIONAL TCONFERENCE TOF TSTATE

TLEGISLATURES T(February t23, t2017) tavailable tat

thttp://www.ncsl.org/research/elections-and-campaigns/secrecy-of-the-ballot-and-ballot-
selfies.aspx t

17) Shreenath tA tKhemka, tThe tNot tSo tFree tVote, tINDIAN TEXPRESS t(August t11, t2017)
tavailable tat thttp://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/gujarat-rajya-sabha-
elections-ahmed-patel-democracy-electon-commission-congress-bjp-amit-shah-smriti-
irani-the-not-so-free-vote-4791249/ t

18) Statement tby tHirday tNath tKunzru, tCONSTITUTIONAL TASSEMBLY TDEBATES

t(January t03, t1949).

19) Statement tby tMahavir tTyagi, tCONSTITUTIONAL TASSEMBLY TDEBATES t(January t03,
t1949).

20) United tDemocratic tMovement tv. tSpeaker tof tthe tNational tAssembly, t2017 t(8)
tBCLR t1061 t(CC) t¶¶ t59-64 t(South tAfrica).

21) V. tVenkatesan, tAn tAmendment tChallenged, t21(13) tFRONTLINE T(June t19, t2004)
tavailable tat thttp://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2113/stories/20040702006512800.htm
t

22) What tis tDemocracy: tSecret tBallot tor tPublic tVote?, tCOSMOLOGICALLY
TINSIGNIFICANT T(BLOG) tavailable tat
thttps://cosmologicallyinsignificant.wordpress.com/2011/05/15/what-is-democracy-45-
secret-ballot-or-public-vote/ t

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