TH11 Experimental Manual PDF

SOLTEQ EQUIPMENT FOR ENGINEERING EDUCATION
EXPERIMENTAL MANUAL
PERFECT GAS
EXPANSION
APPARATUS
MODEL: TH 11
SOLUTION ENGINEERING SDN. BHD.

NO.3, JALAN TPK 2/4, TAMAN PERINDUSTRIAN KINRARA,
47100 PUCHONG, SELANGOR DARUL EHSAN, MALAYSIA.
TEL: 603-80758000 FAX: 603-80755784
E-MAIL: solution@solution.com.my
WEBSITE: www.solution.com.my
029-0210-TH
TABLE OF CONTENT
LIST OF FIGURES i
1. INTRODUCTION 1
2. GENERAL DESCRIPTION 2
2.1 Description 2
2.2 Experimental Capabilities 3
2.3 Specifications 3
2.4 Optional Items 3
2.5 Requirements 3
2.6 Overall Dimensions 3
2.7 Manual 4
2.8 Assembly view 4
3. SUMMARY OF THEORY 5
3.1 The Perfect Gas 5
3.1.1 Boyle’s Law 5
3.1.2 Charles’s Law 6
3.2 First Law of Thermodynamics 7
3.3 Specific Heat 8
3.4 Internal energy, enthalpy and specific heat of ideal gases 8
3.5 Specific heat relations of ideal gas 9
3.6 Determination of the Heat Capacity Ratio 9
3.7 Determination of Ratio of Volume using an isothermal process 11
4. INSTALLATION AND COMMISSIONING 12

4.1 Installation Procedures 12
4.2 Commissioning Procedures 12
5. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES 13
5.1 General Operating Procedures 13
5.1.1 General Start-up Procedures 13
5.1.2 General Shut-down Procedures 13
5.2 Experiment 1: Boyle’s Law Experiment 14
5.3 Experiment 2: Gay-Lussac Law Experiment 15
5.4 Experiment 3: Isentropic Expansion Process 16
5.5 Experiment 4: Stepwise Depressurization 17
5.6 Experiment 5: Brief Depressurization 18
5.7 Experiment 6: Determination of ratio of volume 19
5.8 Experiment 7: Determination of ratio of heat capacity 20
6. REFERENCE 21
APPENDICES

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Assembly view of TH11 4

i

SOLTEQ®PERFECT GAS EXPANSION APPARATUS (MODEL: TH 11)

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The Perfect Gas Expansion Apparatus (Model: TH 11) is a self-sufficient bench top unit designed to
allow students familiarize with several fundamental thermodynamic processes. Demonstration of the
thermodynamic processes is performed with air for safe and convenient operation.
1


2.0 GENERAL DESCRIPTION
2.1 Description
The Perfect Gas Law Apparatus is customarily designed and developed to provide students a
comprehensive understanding of First Law of Thermodynamics, Second Law of Thermodynamics
and relationship between P-V-T. The Perfect Gas Expansion Apparatus enable the students to
have a good understanding in energy conservation law and the direction in which the processes
proceed.
The Perfect Gas Expansion Apparatus comes with one pressure vessel and one vacuum vessel.
Both vessels are made of glass tube. The vessels are interconnected with a set of piping and
valves. A large diameter pipe provides gradual or instant change. Air pump is provided to
pressurize or evacuate air inside the vessels with the valves configured appropriately. The
pressure and temperature inside the vessels are monitored with pressure and temperature sensors
and clearly displayed by digital indicator on the control panel. With an optional automatic data
acquisition system, the modern version of a classic Clement and Desormes experiment can be
conducted as pressure and temperature changes can be monitored continuously with the
computer.

2


2.2 Experimental Capabilities

 Demonstration of First Law of Thermodynamics
 Demonstration of Second Law of Thermodynamics and its corollaries
 Observation of P-V-T relationship and use it to determine other thermodynamic properties
 Observation of responses to different rate of changes in a process
2.3 Specifications
The Perfect Gas Expansion Apparatus comes complete with the followings:
Test Section:
Pressure vessel: 25 L and made of glass
Vacuum vessel: 12.37 L and made of glass
Temperature sensor with the range of 0-100˚C mounted on the top of vessels
Pressure sensor with the range of  160kPa mounted on the top of vessels
Vacuum/Air pump:
Capacity: 1.1 CFM open flow
Maximum vacuum: 24” HG
Motor specification: 1/8 HP (230/50/1HP)
Instrumentation:
Digital indicator with bright LCD display
2.4 Optional Items

- DAS
SOLDAS Data Acquisition System
i) A PC with latest Pentium Processor
ii) An electronic signal conditioning system
iii) Stand alone data acquisition modules
iv) Windows based software
 Data Logging
 Signal Analysis
 Process Control
 Real-Time Display
 Tabulated Results
 Graph of Experimental Results
2.5 Requirements
Electrical: 230 VAC/1 phase/ 50 Hz
Barometer (recommended)
2.6 Overall Dimension

Height: 0.90 m
Width: 0.75 m
Depth: 0.60m
3


2.7 Manual
The unit is supplied with Operating and Experiment Manuals in English giving full descriptions of
the unit, summary of theory, experimental procedures and typical experimental results.
2.8 Assembly View
1
2
1 3
3
4
7
5
6
Figure 1: Assembly view of TH11
1 Pressure Transmitter
2 Pressure Relief Valve
3 Temperature Sensor
4 Big glass
5 Small glass
6 Vacuum pump
7 Electrode
4


3.0 SUMMARY OF THEORY
3.1 The Perfect Gas
Perfect gas is also known as ideal gas. An ideal gas is defined as one in which all collisions
between atoms or molecules are perfectly elastic and in which there are no intermolecular
attractive forces. An ideal gas is also an imaginary substance that obeys the ideal gas equation of
state.
In 1662, Robert Boyle, an Englishman, discovered in his experiment that the pressure of gases is
inversely proportional to their volume in a vacuum chamber. In 1802, J. Charles and J. Gay-
Lussac, Frenchman, determined that at low pressures the volume of a gas is proportional to its
temperature. That is,
T
P  R( ) (1)
V
where the constant of proportionality R is called the gas constant and is different for each gas.
Equation (1) is called the ideal gas equation of state. Any gas that obeys this law is called an ideal
gas. In ideal gas equation of state, P is the absolute pressure, T is the absolute temperature and v
is the specific volume. The ideal gas equation of state can be written in other form:
V = mv, thus
PV = mRT (2)
By writing equation (2) twice for a fixed mass and simplifying, the properties of ideal gas at two
different states are related to each other by:
P1V1 P2V2
 (3)
T1 T2
It has been experimentally observed that ideal gas relation closely approximate the P-v-T behavior
of real gases at low density. At low pressure and high temperature, the density of gas decreases,
and the gas behaves as an ideal gas under these conditions.
Besides of ideal gas equation of state, the ideal gas also obeys the following law:
a. Boyle’s Law
b. Charles’s Law
c. Gay-Lussac’s Law
3.1.1 Boyle’s Law
Boyle’s law is a special law that describes the inversely proportional relationship between
the absolute pressure and volume of a gas, if the temperature is kept constant within a
closed system. The mathematical equation for Boyle’s law is:
PV = k (4)
5


Where P = pressure of the system

V = volume of the gas
k = constant value representative of the pressure and volume of the system
As long as the temperature remains constant at the same value the same amount of energy
given to the system persists throughout its operation and therefore, theoretically, the value of
k will remain constant. By forcing the volume V of the fixed quantity of gas to increase,
keeping the gas at the initially measured temperature, the pressure p must decrease
proportionally. On the contrary, reducing the volume of the gas will increase the pressure.
The Boyle’s law is used to predict the result of introducing a change, in volume and pressure
only, to the initial state of a fixed quantity of gas. The equation below is used to relate the
volumes and pressure of the fixed amount of gas before and after expansion process, where
the temperature before and after the process are the same.
p1V1 = p2V2 (5)
3.1.2 Charles’s Law
Charles’s law is a gas law which states that:

At constant pressure, the volume of a given mass of an ideal gas increases or decreases by
the same factor as its temperature (in Kelvin) increases or decreases.
The formula for this law is:

V
k (6)
T
Where V = volume of the gas
T = temperature of the gas (measured in Kelvin)
k = constant
To maintain the constant, k, during the heating of gas at fixed pressure, the volume must
increase. On the other hand, cooling the gas decreases the volume. The exact value of the
constant need not be known to make use of the law in comparison between two volumes of
gas at equal pressure.
V1 V2
 (7)
T1 T2
As a conclusion, when the temperature increases, the volume of the gas increase.
3.1.3 Gay-Lussac’s Law
Gay-Lussac’s law states that the pressure of a fixed quantity of gas at constant temperature
is directly proportional to its temperature in Kelvin.
The formula is:
P
k (8)
T
Where P = pressure of the gas
T = temperature of the gas (measured in Kelvin)
k = constant
6


The temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of a substance; as the kinetic
energy of a gas increases, its particle collide with the container walls more rapidly, and
therefore exerting increased pressure. In order to compare the same substance under two
different sets of condition, the law can be written as:
P1 P2
 (9)
T1 T2
3.2 First Law of Thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics, also known as the conservation of energy principle, states that
the energy can be neither created nor destroyed; it can only change forms. The conservation of
energy principle may be expressed as follows:
The net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of the system during a process is equal
to the difference between the total energy entering and the total energy leaving the system during
that process.
Ein – Eout =  Esystem (10)
This relation is often referred to as the energy balance and is applicable to any kind of system
undergoing any kind of process. The determination of the energy change of a system during a
process involves the evaluation of the energy of the system at the beginning and at the end of the
process. That is,
Energy change = energy at final state – energy at initial state
Besides, the energy also can exist in numerous form such as internal (sensible, latent, chemical,
and nuclear), kinetic, potential, electrical, and magnetic, and their sum constitutes the total energy
of the system. For a simple compressible system, the change in the total energy of a system during
a process is the sum of the changes in its internal, kinetic and potential energy can be expressed in
the following form:
E  U  KE  PE (11)
Where
U = m (u2 – u1) (12)
1
KE = m(v 2  v1 ) (13)
2 2
PE = mg (z2-z1) (14)
Energy can be transferred to or from a system in three forms, which is heat, work and mass flow.
Energy interactions are recognized at the boundary of system as they cross it and they represent
the energy gained or lost by a system during a process. For a closed system, the energy involved
is heat and work. Heat transfer to a system increases the energy of the molecules and thus the
internal energy of the system, meanwhile the energy transfer from a system decreases it since the
energy transferred out as heat comes from the energy of the molecules of the system. Work is an
energy interaction that is not caused by a temperature difference between a system and its
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surrounding system. The example of work interactions are rising piston and a rotating shaft. Work
transfer to a system increases the energy of the system, and work transfer from a system
decreases it as the energy transferred out as work comes from the energy contained in the system.
The mass flow involved in the open system. When mass enters a system, the energy of the system
increases because mass carries energy with it. Likewise, when the mass flows out from the
system, the energy contained within the system decreases because the leaving mass takes out
some energy with it.
From the description above, it is known that the energy can be transferred in the forms of energy,
work and mass flow, and the net transfer of a quantity is equal to the difference between the
amounts transferred in and out. In conclusion, the energy balance can be written more explicitly as:
Ein – Eout = (Qin – Qout) + (Win – Wout) + (Emass,in – Emass,out) =  Esystem (15)
3.3 Specific Heats
The specific heat is defined as the energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a
substance by one degree. The energy depends on how the process is executed. Normally in
thermodynamics, two kinds of specific heats are broadly used, which is specific heat at constant
volume (Cv) and specific heat at constant pressure (Cp). The specific heat capacity at constant
volume is defined as the energy required to raise the temperature of the unit mass of a substance
by one degree as the volume is maintained constant. The specific heat capacity at constant
pressure is the energy required to raise the temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one
degree as the pressure is maintained constant. The Cp is always larger than Cv as at constant
pressure the system is allowed to expand and the energy for expansion work must be supplied to
the system. The defining equations for Cv and Cp are as follow:
 u  (16)
Cv   
 T  v
 h 
Cp    (17)
 T  p
From the equation, it shows that the Cv is a measure of the variation of internal energy of a
substance with temperature, and Cp is a measure of the variation of enthalpy of a substance with
temperature.
3.4 Internal energy, enthalpy and specific heats of ideal gases
Joule has demonstrated in his classical experiment that the internal energy is a function of the
temperature only. In his experiment, two tanks connected with a pipe and valve was submerged in
a water bath. Initially, one tank contained air at high pressure and the other tank was evacuated.
After thermal equilibrium was attained, he opened the valve to let air pass from one tank to the
other until pressure equalized. From the observation, temperature of water bath remains constant
and assumed no heat transfer. Since there is also no work done, he concluded that the internal
energy of the air did not change even though the volume and the pressure changed. Internal
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energy is a function of temperature only. By using the definition of enthalpy and the equation of
state of an ideal gas,
h = u +Pv
and
Pv = RT
By combining both equations,

h = u + RT (18)
since R is a constant and u= u(T), the enthalpy of an ideal gas is also a function of temperature
only,
h = h (T)
Therefore, at a given temperature for an ideal gas, u, h, Cv and Cp will have fixed values regardless
of the specific volume or pressure. Thus the differential changes in the internal energy and
enthalpy of an ideal gas can be expressed as:
du = Cv(T)dT (19)
dh = Cp(T)dT (20)
3.5 Specific heat relations of ideal gas
A special relationship between Cp and Cv for ideal gases can be obtained by differentiating the
relation h = u +RT, which yields
dh = du + RT (21)
by replacing dh by CPdT and du by CvdT and dividing the resulting expression by dT, the equation
becomes
Cp = Cv + R (22)
Another ideal gas property called the specific heat ratio k, defined as
Cp
k (23)
Cv
3.6 Determination of the Heat Capacity Ratio
The heat capacity ratio, k, given by equation (23) can be determined for air near standard pressure
and temperature which is determined by a two step process:
1) An adiabatic reversible expansion from initial pressure, Pi, to an intermediate pressure Pm.
2) A return of the temperature to its original value, To, at constant volume, attaining a final
pressure, Pf
Cp
k
Cv
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Where Cp is the molar heat capacity at constant pressure and Cv is the molar heat capacity at
constant volume.
For a perfect gas, the following is true:
Cp = Cv + R
For a non-ideal gas, such as a reversible adiabatic expansion, dq = 0. According to first law of
thermodynamics,
dU = dq + dW
During the expansion process:

dU = dW
dU = -PdV (24)
The heat capacity related the change in temperature to the change in internal energy when the
volume is held constant, shown as follow:
dU = CvdT
substituting CvdT into equation (24) and the equation becomes:
CvdT = -PdV (25)
Substituting into the ideal gas law, followed by integration yields equation (26)
P V V
C v (ln m  ln m )   R ln m (26)
Pi Vi Vi
Rearranging and substituting from equation (22):
P C p Vm
ln m   ln (27)
Pi C v Vi
During the return of the temperature to its initial value, the following relationship is known:
Vm P
 i (28)
Vi Pf
Substituting equation (28) into equation (27) and rearranging to obtain a heat capacity ratio (29), a
comparison between theoretical and experimental heat capacity ratios can be easily conducted for
a diatomic ideal gas.
C p ln Pi  ln Pm

C v ln Pi  ln Pf
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3.7 Determination of Ratio of volumes using an isothermal process
To determine the ratio of volumes using an isothermal process, one pressurized vessel is allowed
to leak slowly into another vessel of different size. At the end of the process, the two vessels are
equilibrated and the final pressure is constant in both vessels. The final equilibrium absolute
pressure, Pabsf, can be determined using the ideal gas equation:
(m1  m2 ) RT
Pabsf  (29)
(V1  V2 )
Where the subscript 1 and 2 represent vessels one and two respectively. Since both of the vessels
are at room temperature before the valve is opened, and the entire process is isothermal, then the
initial temperature will be equal to the final temperature. Taking the ideal gas equation into
consideration, equations (30) and (31) are derived according to the initial mass contained within
each vessel:

V1 P1abs,i
m1 
RT
V2 P2 abs,i (30)
m2 
RT (31)
using equations (30) and (31) and substituting the solutions for m1 and m2 respectively into
equation (29), the equation becomes
V1 P1abs ,i V2 P2 abs ,i
(  ) RT
Pf  RT RT (32)
V1 V 2
Cancelling RT and rearranging to provide the ratio of the two volumes,
V1 P2 abs ,i  Pf
 (33)
V2 Pf  P1abs , i
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4.0 INSTALLATION AND COMMISSIONING
4.1 Installation Procedures

1. Unpack the unit and place it on a table close to the single phase electrical supply.
2. Place the equipment on top of a table and level the equipment with the adjustable feet.
3. Inspect the all parts and instruments on the unit and make sure that it is in proper condition.
4. Connect the pump to the nearest power supply.
4.2 Commissioning Procedures
1. Install the equipment according to 4.1.

2. Make sure that all valves are initially closed.
3. Fill up the sump tank with clean water until the water level is sufficient to cover the return flow
pipe.
4. Then test the pump according to Section 5.1.
5. Check that pump, flow meter and the pressure gauges are working properly. Identify any
leakage on the pipe line. Fix the leakage if there is any.
6. Turn off the pump after the commissioning.
7. The unit is now ready for use.
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5.0 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
5.1 General Operating Procedures
5.1.1 General Start-up Procedures

1. Connect the equipment to single phase power supply and then switch on the unit.
2. Fully open all valves and check the pressure reading on the panel. This is to make sure
that the chambers are under atmospheric pressure.
3. Then, close all the valves.
4. Connect the pipe from compressive port of the pump to pressurized chamber or connect
the pipe from vacuum port of the pump to vacuum chamber.
5. Now, the unit is ready for use.
5.1.2 General Shut-down Procedures

1. Switch off the pump and remove both pipes from the chambers.
2. Fully open the valves to release the air inside the chambers.
3. Switch off the main switch and power supply.
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5.2 Experiment 1: Boyle’s Law Experiment
Objectives:
To determine the relationship between pressure and volume of an ideal gas
To compare the experimental results with theoretical results
PRECAUTIONS:
When carrying out the experiment, pump pressure level should not exceed 2 bar as excessive
pressure may result in glass cylinder breaking.
Experimental Procedures:
1. Perform the general start up procedures in section 5.1. Make sure all valves are fully closed.
2. Switch on the compressive pump and allow the pressure inside chamber to increase up to
about 150kPa. Then, switch off the pump and remove the hose from the chamber.
3. Monitor the pressure reading inside the chamber until it stabilizes.
4. Record the pressure reading for both chambers before expansion.
5. Fully open V 02 and allow the pressurized air flows into the atmospheric chamber.
6. Record the pressure reading for both chambers after expansion.
7. The experimental procedures can be repeated for the following conditions:
a) From atmospheric chamber to vacuum chamber
b) From pressurized chamber to vacuum chamber
8. Calculate the PV value and prove the Boyles’ Law.

14


5.3 Experiment 2: Gay-Lussac Law Experiment
Objectives:
To determine the relationship between pressure and temperature of an ideal gas
Experimental procedures:
2. Connect the hose from compressive pump to pressurized chamber.
3. Switch on the compressive pump and records the temperature for every increment of 10kPa
in the chamber. Stop the pump when the pressure PT 1 reaches about 160kPa.
4. Then, slightly open valve V 01 and allow the pressurized air to flow out. Records the
temperature reading for every decrement of 10kPa.
5. Stop the experiment when the pressure reaches atmospheric pressure.
6. The experiment is repeated for three times to get the average value.
7. Plot graph of pressure versus temperature.
15


5.4 Experiment 3: Isentropic Expansion Process
Objectives:
To demonstrate the isentropic expansion process
3. Switch on the compressive pump and allow the pressure inside chamber to increase until
4. Monitor the pressure reading inside the chamber until it stabilizes. Record the pressure
reading PT 1 and temperature TT 1.
5. Then, slightly open valve V 01 and allow the air flow out slowly until it reaches atmospheric
pressure.
6. Record the pressure reading and temperature reading after the expansion process.
7. Discuss the isentropic expansion process.
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5.5 Experiment 4: Stepwise Depressurization
Objectives:
To study the response of the pressurized vessel following stepwise depressurization
reading PT 1.
5. Fully open valve V 01 and bring it back to the closed position instantly. Monitor and records
the pressure reading PT 1 until it becomes stable.
6. Repeat step 5 for at least four times.
7. Display the pressure reading on a graph and discuss about it.
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5.6 Experiment 5: Brief Depressurization
Objectives:
To study the response of the pressurized vessel following a brief depressurization
reading PT 1.
5. Fully open valve V 01 and bring it back to the closed position after few seconds. Monitor and
records the pressure reading PT 1 until it becomes stable.
6. Display the pressure reading on a graph and discuss about it.
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5.7 Experiment 6: Determination of ratio of volume
Objectives:
To determine the ratio of volume and compares it to the theoretical value
Experimental Procedures:
2. Switch on the compressive pump and allow the pressure inside chamber to increase up to
3. Monitor the pressure reading inside the chamber until it stabilizes.
4. Record the pressure reading for both chambers before expansion.
5. Open V 02 and allow the pressurized air flows into the atmospheric chamber slowly.
6. Record the pressure reading for both chambers after expansion.
7. The experimental procedures can be repeated for the following conditions:
a) From atmospheric chamber to vacuum chamber
b) From pressurized chamber to vacuum chamber
8. Calculate the ratio of volume and compares it with the theoretical value.
19


5.8 Experiment 7: Determination of ratio of heat capacity
Objectives:
To determine the ratio of heat capacity
reading PT 1 and temperature TT 1.
5. Fully open valve V 01 and bring it back to the closed position after few seconds. Monitor and
records the pressure reading PT 1 and TT1 until it becomes stable.
6. Determine the ratio of heat capacity and compare with the theoretical value.
20


6.0 REFERENCES
http://www.chemeng.queensu.ca/courses/CHEE218/projects/GasExpansion/ExpansionProcesses
ofaPerfectGas.php

21

APPENDIX A
SAMPLE DATA SHEET

EXPERIMENT 1: Boyle’s Law Experiment
Before expansion After expansion

PT 1 (kPa abs)
PT 2 (kPa abs)
EXPERIMENT 2: Gay-Lussac Law Experiment
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3

Pressure Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)
(kPa abs)
Pressurise Depressurise Pressurise Depressurise Pressurise Depressurise
vessel vessel vessel vessel vessel vessel
110
120
130
140
150
160
EXPERIMENT 3: Isentropic Expansion Process

PT 1 (kPa abs)
TT 1 (°C)
EXPERIMENT 4: Stepwise Depressurization
PT 1(kPa abs)
initial After first After second After third After fourth
expansion expansion expansion expansion
EXPERIMENT 5: Brief Depressurization
PT 1(kPa abs)
initial After brief expansion
EXPERIMENT 6: Determination of ratio of volume
PT 1 (kPa abs) PT 2 (kPa abs)

Before expansion
After expansion
EXPERIMENT 7: Determination of ratio of heat capacity
initial intermediate final
PT 1 (kPa abs)
TT 1 (°C)
APPENDIX B
TYPICAL EXPERIMENTAL RESULT

EXPERIMENT 1: Boyle’s Law Experiment
Condition 1: from pressurised vessel to atmospheric vessel

PT 1 (kPa abs) 147.1 131.6
PT 2 (kPa abs) 101.5 131.7
Condition 2: from pressurised vessel to vacuum vessel

PT 1 (kPa abs) 157.1 123.7
PT 2 (kPa abs) 54.2 123.7
Condition 3: from atmospheric vessel to vacuum vessel

PT 1 (kPa abs) 103.9 92.9
PT 2 (kPa abs) 70.3 93.0
Sample calculation:
For condition 1: from pressurised vessel to atmospheric vessel
V1 = 0.025m3
V2 = 0.01237m3
By using Boyle’s Law,
P1V1 = P2V2
(147.1 x 0.025)+(101.5 x 0.01237) = (131.6 x 0.025)+(131.7x 0.01237)
3.6775 + 1.255555 = 3.29 + 1.629129
4.933055 = 4.919129
The difference is only 0.013926, therefore the Boyle’s Law is verified.

EXPERIMENT 2: Gay-Lussac Law Experiment
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3

Pressure Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)
(kPa abs)
Pressurise Depressurise Pressurise Depressurise Pressurise Depressurise
vessel vessel vessel vessel vessel vessel
110 28.9 31.2 29.4 29.4 28.8 31.5
120 29.2 32.2 29.4 30.7 29.1 32.5
130 30.0 33.0 30.0 31.8 29.9 33.2
140 31.0 33.6 30.7 32.6 30.9 33.7
150 31.9 34.0 31.5 33.3 31.9 34.0
160 32.8 34.1 32.6 33.8 32.8 34.1
Pressure Average
(kPa abs) temperature (°C)
110 29.9
120 30.5
130 31.3
140 32.1
150 32.8
160 33.4
Graph of pressure against temperature
The pressure is directly proportional to temperature. Hence, the Gay Lussac Law is verified.
EXPERIMENT 3: Isentropic Expansion Process

PT 1 (kPa abs) 157.0 101.4
TT 1 (°C) 31.4 28.4
Sample calculation:
k 1
( )
T P k
For isentropic process, 2  2
T1 P1
k = 1.4
(28.4/31.4) = (101.4/157.0)0.2857
0.9045 = 0.8826
The difference is 2.48%. The expansion process is proven as isentropic.

EXPERIMENT 4: Stepwise Depressurization
Pressure (kPa abs)

initial After first After second After third
expansion expansion expansion
156.6 123.4 102.6 101.4
123.5 102.7 101.5
123.6 102.8 101.6
123.7 102.9 101.7
123.8 103.0 101.8
123.9 103.1 101.9
124.0 103.2 102.0
124.1 103.3 102.1
124.2 103.4 102.2
124.3 103.5 102.3
124.4 103.6 102.4
124.5 103.7 102.5
124.6 103.8 102.6
124.7 103.9 102.6
124.8 104.0 102.6
124.9 104.1 102.6
125.0 104.2 102.6
125.1 104.3
125.2 104.4
125.3 104.5
125.4 104.6
125.5 104.7
125.5 104.8
.
104.9
105.0
105.1
105.2
105.3
105.4
105.5
105.6
105.7
105.8
105.9
106.0
106.1
106.1
106.1
106.1
Graph of response of pressurised vessel following stepwise depressurisation
EXPERIMENT 5: Brief Depressurization
PT 1(kPa abs)
initial After brief expansion
156.9 103.3
103.4
103.5
103.6
103.7
103.8
103.9
104.0
104.1
104.2
104.3
104.4
104.5
104.6
104.7
104.8
104.9
105.0
105.1
105.2
105.3
105.4
105.5
105.6
105.7
105.8
105.9
106.0
106.1
106.2
106.3
106.4
106.5
106.6
106.7
106.8
106.9
107.0
107.1
107.2
107.3
107.4
107.5
107.6
107.7
107.8
107.9
108.0
108.1
108.2
108.3
108.4
Graph of response of pressurised vessel following a brief depressurisation

EXPERIMENT 6: Determination of ratio of volume
Condition 1: from pressurised vessel to atmospheric vessel

Before expansion 147.1 101.4
After expansion 132.1 132.2
Condition 2: from pressurised vessel to vacuum vessel

Condition 3: from atmospheric vessel to vacuum vessel

sample calculation:
condition 1:
Volume 1/Volume 2 = (P2,initial – P2,final) / (P1,final – P1,initial)
0.025/0.01237 = (101.4-132.2) / (132.1-147.1)
2.02 = 2.05
Difference = 0.03
EXPERIMENT 7: Determination of heat capacity
initial intermediate final
PT 1 (kPa abs) 191.8 109.8 120.0
TT 1 (°C) 31.8 29.0 29.3
Cp ln Pi  ln Pm

Cv ln Pi  ln Pf
ln 191.8  ln 109.8

ln 191.8  ln 120.0
= 1.189
Cp
The ideal k, = 1.4
Cv
deviation = (1.4-1.189) / 1.4 x 100%
deviation = 15%
The deviation is due to the measurement error. Theoretically, the intermediate pressure should be
lower than the measured intermediate pressure. However, due to the heat loss and sensitivity of
pressure sensor, the error occurs.
Note: The intermediate pressure should be taken as the lowest pressure which read at the moment the
valve is closed.
APPENDIX C
ASSEMBLY OF TH11
Parts of TH11
Make sure the gasket is placed properly inside the groove. Make sure the gasket is inside the
groove of the PVC valve (V2).
Place the big glass on the flange on top of the gasket.
Screw in the electrodes into the support of the flange

Place the flange on top of the big glass and screw the electrode caps with one washer in between. Plug
in the pressure transmitter cap and temperature sensor.
Similarly, repeat the same steps to install the small glass. However, each electrode cap for small glass
needs to place 5 washers (due to electrode too long). And lastly, tighten the PVC union cap of V2 after
adjusting the piping in line.

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SOLTEQ EQUIPMENT FOR ENGINEERING EDUCATION

SOLUTION ENGINEERING SDN. BHD.

4. INSTALLATION AND COMMISSIONING 12

Figure 1 Assembly view of TH11 4

2.0 GENERAL DESCRIPTION

2.2 Experimental Capabilities

2.4 Optional Items

2.6 Overall Dimension

2.8 Assembly View

Figure 1: Assembly view of TH11

2 Pressure Relief Valve

3.0 SUMMARY OF THEORY

3.1 The Perfect Gas

3.1.1 Boyle’s Law

Where P = pressure of the system

3.1.2 Charles’s Law

Charles’s law is a gas law which states that:

The formula for this law is:

3.1.3 Gay-Lussac’s Law

3.2 First Law of Thermodynamics

PE = mg (z2-z1) (14)

3.3 Specific Heats

3.4 Internal energy, enthalpy and specific heats of ideal gases

By combining both equations,

3.5 Specific heat relations of ideal gas

3.6 Determination of the Heat Capacity Ratio

During the expansion process:

3.7 Determination of Ratio of volumes using an isothermal process

4.0 INSTALLATION AND COMMISSIONING

4.1 Installation Procedures

4.2 Commissioning Procedures

1. Install the equipment according to 4.1.

5.0 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

5.1 General Operating Procedures

5.1.1 General Start-up Procedures

5.1.2 General Shut-down Procedures

5.2 Experiment 1: Boyle’s Law Experiment

5.3 Experiment 2: Gay-Lussac Law Experiment

5.4 Experiment 3: Isentropic Expansion Process

5.5 Experiment 4: Stepwise Depressurization

5.6 Experiment 5: Brief Depressurization

5.7 Experiment 6: Determination of ratio of volume

5.8 Experiment 7: Determination of ratio of heat capacity

SAMPLE DATA SHEET

Before expansion After expansion

EXPERIMENT 2: Gay-Lussac Law Experiment

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3

EXPERIMENT 3: Isentropic Expansion Process

Before expansion After expansion

PT 1 (kPa abs) PT 2 (kPa abs)

EXPERIMENT 7: Determination of ratio of heat capacity

initial intermediate final

TYPICAL EXPERIMENTAL RESULT

Condition 1: from pressurised vessel to atmospheric vessel

Before expansion After expansion

Condition 2: from pressurised vessel to vacuum vessel

Before expansion After expansion

Condition 3: from atmospheric vessel to vacuum vessel

Before expansion After expansion

For condition 1: from pressurised vessel to atmospheric vessel

By using Boyle’s Law,

(147.1 x 0.025)+(101.5 x 0.01237) = (131.6 x 0.025)+(131.7x 0.01237)

3.6775 + 1.255555 = 3.29 + 1.629129