Awarded Ebook, PreCalculus II, With Videos and Animations

Xunming Du
PreCalculus 2
with Video Animation

and
Awarded e-Textbook
Xunming Du
Xunming was the recipient of the Regents’ Creative Activities Awards on March 2,
2018. This award, established in 1993 by the Regents, recognizes significant accomplish-
ments which bring recognition, as well as national and international stature, to the Nevada
System of Higher Education.
Xunming has been a professor of mathematics at Great Basin College since 2003. He
holds a master’s degree in medical statistics from Tongji Medical University, China and a
master’s degree in mathematics from Ohio University. Prior to coming to GBC, Xunming
taught medical statistics and other mathematics courses to undergraduate and graduate
students in China and Ohio. His mathematical research interest is in the interdisciplinarity
of Statistics and Analysis. One of his papers , “A Note of Wavelet Variance,” is published
in the journal of “Communications in Statistics – Theory and Methods” in 2008.
His creative labor of love has been his electronic textbook for pre-calculus. The
text allows students to interact with embedded graphs, tables and videos to enhance the
learning process.
√ !
1 3
,
y 2 2
x
(1,0) −1 0 1
0
π 1
cos =
3 2
Electronic Version: video, animation, graph toggling, interaction, hyperlink, exercise

1 Trigonometric Functions 1
1.1 Arbitrary Angles and Radian Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Arbitrary Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.2 Radian Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2 Trigonometric Functions of Arbitrary Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2.1 Trigonometric Functions of Arbitrary Angles . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.2.2 Relationship among the Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . 20
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.3 Formulas from the Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.4 Graphs and Properties of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.4.1 Graphs of functions sin x and cos x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
1.4.2 Graph of function f (x) = tan x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.5 Graph of function y = A sin(ωx + φ ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
i
ii
2 Vectors and Trigonometric Identities 61
2.1 Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.2 Dot Product of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.3 Sum and Difference Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.3.1 An Important Identity cos(α − β ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.3.2 Sum and Difference Formula for sin, cos and tan . . . . . . . . . 74
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.3.3 Double Angle Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2.4 Trigonometric Function Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Exercise for Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
2.5 Law of sin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
2.6 Law of cos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
2.7 Application of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
3 Conic Curves 111

iii
3.1 Parabola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.2 Ellipse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
3.3 Hyperbola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
3.4 Polar Coordinate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
3.5 Parametric Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4 Sequences 155
4.1 General sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
4.2 Arithmetic sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
4.3 Geometric sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
4.4 Mathematical induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
4.5 Binomial Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Index 187
iv
1
1.1 Arbitrary Angles and Radian Measure
1.1.1 Arbitrary Angles
Two points A and B determine a line AB. The line segment AB is the portion of the line
between A and B including points A and B. A ray AB is the portion of the line which starts
at point A and goes beyond the point B. Point A is called the starting point of ray AB.
terminal side
B
A B
α
O A
vertex initial side (4:49minutes)
Let OA be a ray. An angle α can be formed by rotating ray OA to a position OB. Ray OA is
called the initial side. Ray OB is the called the terminal side. The angle ∠AOB is denoted
by α.
P Q
Figure 1.1: Pulley motion

People are familiar with angles of 00 ∼ 3600 . But actually people are familiar with
angles which are more than 3600 as well. For example in ice skating sport, loop jump of
two circles means an athlete rotates 7200 . A loop jump of three circles means an athlete
rotates 10800 . In auto industry, people often see a driving pulley rotates in a different
amount of angles from that of a driven pulley. Not only do people need to understand
the amount of angles, but also people need to understand how the angles are formed. In
particular, one may want to understand if an angle is formed by rotating an initial side in a
clockwise direction or counter clockwise direction.
1
2 CHAPTER 1. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
Definition 1.1.1. If an angle is obtained by rotating in the counter clockwise direction, then
the angle is a positive angle. Otherwise, the angle is a negative angle. If the terminal side
stays on the initial side without moving, then the angle is a zero angle.
(7:37 minutes)
y
β and γ are in the third quadrant.
B β = 2100
A
O x
0 A
α = 30 γ = −1500
O B
By the definition above, the value of an angle will no longer be restricted in between
0 and 360. Instead, the value of an angle can be any real numbers. In order to discuss
mathematical questions conveniently, the vertex of angles will be put on the origin of the
xy-coordinate plane. The initial side will be aligned on the positive side of x-axis. An
angle in the position will be called in the standard position. If the terminal side of an angle
is in the first quadrant, then the angle will be called a quadrant one angle. If the terminal
side is in the third quadrant, the angle will be called a quadrant three angle. If the terminal
side of an angle is on x-axis or y-axis, the angle will be called the quadrant angle.
1.1. ARBITRARY ANGLES AND RADIAN MEASURE 3
The angle in figure 1.2 is −320 . The angle

can be obtained by rotating the terminal side
in the counter clockwise direction with 3280 .
y By rotating the terminal side in the clockwise
direction, one may get an angle of −3920
with the same terminal side. If angles have
A the same terminal side, then the angles are
O −320 x called co-terminal angles. In general, the
co-terminal angles of α can be expressed by
a set
B
S = {β |β = α + k · 3600 , k ∈ Z}
A quadrant IV angle.
If α = −320 and k = 1, then
Figure 1.2: Co-Terminal Angles
β = −320 + 1 · 3600 = 3280
(3:24 minutes)
Example 1.1.1. In the range of 00 ∼ 3600 , find an angle which is the co-terminal angle of
−9500 120 . Please tell which quadrant the angle is in.
Solution: Please note −9500 120 = 1290 480 +(−3)·3600 . Hence in the range of 00 ∼ 3600 ,
the co-terminal angle of −9500 120 is 1290 480 , which is in the second quadrant.
Readers may wonder how the integer −3 was found in the above expres-
sion. Actually, 950 divided by 360 is approximately 2.6, which tells that
950 is more than 2 times of 360. Round 2.6 up. One shall get 3.
(8:58 minutes)
Example 1.1.2. Find all quadrant angles with the terminal side on y-axis.
Solution: In the range of 00 ∼ 3600 , there are two quadrant angles with their terminal
sides on y axis. These two angles are 900 and 2700 . The co-terminal angles of 900 is
S1 = {β |β = 900 + k · 3600 , k ∈ Z}
The co-terminal angles of 2700 is
S2 = {β |β = 2700 + k · 3600 , k ∈ Z}
y
Hence all the quadrant angles with the termi- B
nal sides on y-axis is the the union of sets S1
and S2 .
S = S1 ∪ S2
900 A
0 0
= {β |β = 90 + 2k · 180 , k ∈ Z} O x
0 0 0
∪ {β |β = 90 + 1 · 180 + 2k · 180 , k ∈ Z}
= {β |β = 900 + 2k · 1800 , k ∈ Z}
∪ {β |β = 900 + (2k + 1) · 1800 , k ∈ Z}
= {β |β = 900 + k · 1800 , k ∈ Z}
Example 1.1.3. Find set S of the angles with their terminal sides on the line y = x. List all
possible angles β ∈ S such that −3600 ≤ β < 7200 .
Solution:
y y=x
In figure 1.3, one may draw the line y = x. It
is clear that there is an angle of 450 between
2250 x-axis and the line y = x. In the range 00 ∼
3600 , there are two angles with the terminal
1800 450 A sides on the line y = x: 450 and 2250 . Hence
x set S of all angles with their terminals on the
O
line y = x is the union of two sets.
S = {β |β = 450 + k · 360, k ∈ Z}
∪ {β |β = 2250 + k · 360, k ∈ Z}
= {β |β = 450 + 2k · 180, k ∈ Z}
∪ {β |β = 450 + (1 + 2k) · 180, k ∈ Z}
= {β |β = 450 + k · 180, k ∈ Z}
Figure 1.3: The terminal sides are on y = x.
For 450 , the two co-terminal angles are 450 − 3600 = −3150 and 450 +
3600 = 4050 . For 2250 . The two co-terminal angles are 2250 − 3600 =
−1350 and 2250 + 3600 = 5850 . In total, there are six angles which are
in the range of [−3600 , 7200 ). (6:34 minutes)
1. (3pts ) Please answer the following questions.
(a) The right angle is

in quadrant one and two. a quadrant angle.
(b) The acute angles are in

quadrant one. quadrant two.
(c) The obtuse angles are in

quadrant one. quadrant two.
2. (1pts ) Quadrant one angles are acute angles

True False
3. (2pts ) Today is Friday.
(a) Then 7k, (k ∈ N) days later, it will be

Friday. Saturday.
(b) 100 days later, it will be

Friday. Saturday. Sunday.
4. (3pts ) In the range of 00 ∼ 3600 , find the co-terminals of the following angles.
(a) The co-terminal angle of −600 is degrees.
(b) The co-terminal angle of 3950 is degrees.
(c) The co-terminal angle of −11800 is degrees.
5. (2pts )List all co-terminal angles β of −2250 such that −7200 ≤ β < 3600 .
Correct Answers:
1.1.2 Radian Measure
An angle obtained by rotating the terminal side a whole circle is called the circumferential
1
angle. amount of the circumferential angle is called one degree. A angle can be
360
measured by the unit of degree, which is called the degree measure. It may be also
measured by another unit of radian, which is called the radian measure.
A central angle is the angle that forms when

two radii meet at the center of a circle. A cen-
tral angle is one radian if the length of the
arc corresponding to the central angle equals
1 rad that of the radius. See figure 1.4. Here is
the table that may describe the relationships
radius amount degrees, radians, the circumference
and the area of the circle.
Table 1.1: Relationships
degrees radians arc length sector area

0
360 2π 2πr πr2
1 2
1800 π πr πr
Figure 1.4: One radian angle 2
From table 1.1, one may draw the most important information as follows.
10 = π/180 ≈ 0.01745 rad,

(
(1.1) 1800 = π rad
1 rad = 180/π ≈ 57.300
(14:43 minutes)
Example 1.1.4. Convert 670 300 to the radian measure in both the exact value and the
approximate value at accuracy 0.001.
Solution: Please note 670 300 is 67.50 = 1350 /2. By formula 1.1, one may have the fol-
lowing table.
1800 π
67.50 θ
135/2 ∗ π 3
Hence θ = = π rad ≈ 1.178 rad.
180 8
To convert 670 300 to the radian measure with Ti-83 calculator. Readers need to do
Step 1:
Set the Ti-83 calculator in the mode of radian measure.
MODE→H→H→(flashing word “Radian”)ENTER→2nd→QUIT
Step 2:
a) Convert 670 300 to the form of 67.50 with the following steps.
Input number 67 followed by 2nd→ANGLE→1.
Then input number 30 followed by 2nd→ANGLE→2→ENTER.
b) Input 67.50 , hit the key ENTER to have the angle in radian measure.
(4:35 minutes)
Example 1.1.5. Please convert the angle of 3.14 rad into the unit of degree at accuracy
0.001.
Solution: By looking at formula 1.1, one may have the following table.
1800 π
α 3.14
(8:33 minutes)
180 · 3.14
Hence α = = 179.90874770 ≈ 179.9090 .
π
One may convert 3.14 rad to degree measure by Ti-83 calculator as well. The first step is
to set the calculator in degree mode rather than in radian mode by
Step 1:
MODE→H→H→I→(flashing word “Degree”)ENTER→2nd→QUIT
Step 2:
Input 3.14r by first input the number 3.14 followed by the steps
2nd→ANGLE→3→ENTER
to get the angle in degree measure.
Based on the examples above, one may find the relationships of special angles be-
tween the two units of degree measure and radian measure.
Table 1.2: Corresponds between degree and radian measure

Degree 00 300 450 1200 1350 1500 3600
π π 3π
Radian π
3 2 2
To see the hidden correct values in the above table, please click here.
In table 1.1, the discussions have been made between the units of degree measure
and radian measure by pulling out the correspondence 1800 ⇐⇒ π. On may also pull out
the correspondence π ⇐⇒ πr −→ 1 rad ⇐⇒ r to consider the relationship between an
angle in radian measure and the related arc length. It is clear in the table that an central
angle of π rad or 1800 corresponds to the arc length of πr. The natural question to ask
here is how long the arc length l would be if the corresponding central angle is θ rad.
θr = l
Table 1.3: For Arc Length
θ
π πr r
θ l ←− find the arc length
From table 1.3, one may see one radian angle will correspond to the arc length of
one radius. If the central angle is θ rad, it will then corresponds to the arc length of θ r.
That is
(1.2) l = θ r, where l is the arc length, r is the radius.

(6:58 minutes)
1 1
Similarly, by the correspondence of π ⇐⇒ πr2 −→ 1 rad ⇐⇒ r2 , one may have
2 2
another table
Table 1.4: For Sector Area

1 2
π πr
2
θ S ←− find the sector area
Therefore, one may get
1
(1.3) S = θ r2 , where S is the sector area, r is the radius.
2
Example 1.1.6. Let the radius of a circle be 1 in. If the central angle is 600 , how long is
the corresponding arc length?
π
Solution: 600 of a central angle is rad. By formula 1.2, one may have the corresponding
3
arc length
π π
l = θ r = · 1 = ≈ 1.047 in.
3 3
Example 1.1.7. A belt connects a pulley of 2 in. radius with a pulley of 1.5 in. radius.
If the larger pulley turns through 900 , through how many degrees will the smaller pulley
turn?
Solution: Readers may refer figure 1.1 on page 1 to see the pulley motion. Please note
π
900 is rad. By formula 1.2, the belt will run the length of
2
π
l = θr = · 2 = π in.
2
Since the arc length of the smaller pulley will run π in. as well. It is clear that
π = α1.5 −→ α = π/1.5 = 2π/3 rad = 1200
The smaller pulley will run 1200 .
Example 1.1.8. An irrigation sprinkler is a field of lettuce sprays water over a distance of
40 feet as it rotates through an angle of 1350 . What area of the field receives water? Round
the answer to two decimal places if possible.
3π
Solution: Basing on the given condition, θ = 1350 = 135 · π/180 = rad and r = 40 ft.
4
By formula 1.3, the area of sector is
1 3π
S= · · 402 = 1884.96 ft2
2 4
1. (3pts ) Convert the degree measure to the radian measure of the exact value.
(a) 220 300 = π.
(b) −2100 = π.
(c) 12000 = π.
2. (3pts ) Convert the radian measure to the degree measure.
π
(a) = degrees.
12
4π
(b) − = degrees.
3
3π
(c) = degrees.
10
3. (2pts ) By radian measure, express the following sets (use letter k as an integer, PI as π)
(a) The terminal sides are on x-axis:
(b) The terminal sides are on y-axis:

4. (2pts ) Compare two values by finding the values with a calculator.
(a) cos 0.750 and cos 0.75
cos 0.750 > cos 0.75 cos 0.750 < cos 0.75
(b) tan 1.20 and tan 1.2

tan 1.20 > tan 1.2 tan 1.20 < tan 1.2
5. (1pts ) Let θ = 600 be a central angle in a circle of radius r = 1 foot. By formula 1.3,
please find the corresponding sector area at accuracy 0.0001.
The sector area is square feet. .
6. (1pts ) A central angle corresponds to the arc length of 144 in. in a circle with the radius
of 120 in. Please find the value of the central angle in radian measure at accuracy 0.1.
The central angle is rad. .
Correct Answers:
Points: Percent:
1. In the range of 00 ∼ 3600 , find the co-terminal angles of the following angles. Please
also tell if they are quadrant angles or which quadrant these angles belong to.
(a) −2650 (c) −8430 100
(b) −10000 (d) 39000
2. Find the sets of the co-terminal angles for the following given angles. List all co-
terminal angles which are in the range of −3600 ∼ 3600 .
(a) 600 (c) −8240 300 (e) 900 (g) 1800
(b) −750 (d) 4750 (f) 2700 (h) 00
3. Let angle β be an acute angle, that is 00 < β < 900 . Then the set of angles in the first
quadrant can be written as {β |k · 3600 < β < 900 + k · 3600 , where k ∈ Z}. Write the
sets of angles which are in the second quadrant.
4. Please make the correct choice
(a) Let angle α be an acute angle. Then 2α will be
(i) in quadrant one (iii) less than 1800
(ii) in quadrant two (iv) in quadrant one or two

α
(b) If angle α is in quadrant one, then will be
2
(i) in quadrant one (iii) in quadrant one or two
(ii) in quadrant two (iv) in quadrant one or three
5. Two ends of a line segment AB sit on a circle. The length of the segment equals the
length of the radius. Is the corresponding central angle ∠AOB equal to 1 rad? If it is
not, how large is the central angle?
6. Convert the degree measure to the radian measure for the following angles.
(a) 360 (b) −1500 (c) 10950 (d) 14400
7. Convert the radian measure to the degree measure for the following angles.
7 10 (c) 1.4 2
(a) − π (b) − π (d)
6 3 3
8. Cut a sector with a arc length of 112 in. from a metal disk of radius 100 in. Please find
how large the corresponding central angle should be in degree measure.
9. An central angle of 2000 corresponds to the arc length of 50 in. How long is the radius?
10. The area of a smaller disk is 50% of that of a lager disk. Is the radius of the smaller
disk is one half of that of the larger disk?
1.2. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF ARBITRARY ANGLES 13
1.2 Trigonometric Functions of Arbitrary Angles
1.2.1 Trigonometric Functions of Arbitrary Angles
In the previous section, angles other than in the range of 0 rad ∼ 2π rad have been dis-
cussed. In this section, the trigonometric functions of arbitrary angles will be introduced.
The definitions are actually conducted just in a unit circle. Why it can be done in such a
easy way. Let’s start with an example
Example 1.2.1. The national average gas price of rank 87 is now $2.38/gallon. The cost
x of gasoline is the function of the amount y of gas pumped into a car. That is y = 2.38x.
One may draw the function graph as follows.
y
y = 2.38x PM 35.7
40 = = 2.38
OM 15
P x y = 2.38x
30
1 y = 2.38 ∗ 1 = 2.38
20
10 y = 2.38 ∗ 10 = 23.8
10
α 15 y = 2.38 ∗ 15 = 35.7
M
O 5 10 15 x
Figure 1.5: Slope and tan α
From figure 1.5, one may see it does not matter if x = 1, 10, 15, the ratios of rise over
run are equal to the slope 2.38.
2.38 23.8 35.7

= =
1 10 15
(8:56minutes)
In the trigonometry of a right triangle 4POM, it basically tells that tan α can be
PM
defined as tan α = when the length of line segment OM is one. The value of tan α
OM
only depends on how large angle α is. The facts are held for sin α and cos α as well.
y
Definition 1.2.1. In the unit circle of figure
B(0, 1)
1.6, sin α is the y-coordinate of point P.
cos α is the x-coordinate of the point. tan α
is the ratio of y to x. P(x, y)
1
y α x
sin α = y, cos α = x, tan α =
x C(−1, 0) O M A(1, 0)
D(0, −1)
(10:42 minutes)
See P(x, y) in quadrant I, II, III, IV.

Figure 1.6: Trigonometric Fun. Definitions
Please note point P may coincide with points B(0, 1) or D(0, −1). In these two cases, the
x coordinates are zero. Since tan α is the ratio of y to x and denominators cannot be zero,
π 3π
tan α is not defined at 900 , 2700 or , . To be more accurate, the domain of tan α is
2 2
π
{α|α 6= + k · π, k ∈ Z}.
2
π π π
Example 1.2.2. Please find the values of sin , cos and tan .
6 6 6
π y
Solution: One may recall is 300 by re-
6 B(0, 1)
ferring table 1.2. In figure 1.7, if one adds
another triangle, which is symmetric to trian-
gle 4POM with respect to x-axis, a new big P(x, y)
triangle 4POE will be an equilateral trian- 1
1 300 M x
gle. It then tells |PM| = y = , which gives
2 C(−1, 0) O A(1, 0)
π 1
sin = .
6 2
By applying Pythagorean theorem to the
right triangle 4PMO, one may have |PM|2 +
2 D(0, −1)
2 2 1 2 2
|OM| = |OP| , that is + |OM| = 1 .
√ 2 √
3 π 3
So |OM| = x = . That gives cos = . π
2 6 2 Figure 1.7: Values for α =
π 6
tan is the ratio of y to x, therefore
6
√ √
π y 1 3 1 3
tan = = ÷ =√ =
6 x 2 2 3 3 (6:20 minutes)
Readers may also want to find the trigonometric function values for the special an-
π π
gles α = , . Then the following table can be completed.
4 3
y
B(0, 1)
Table 1.5: Values of special angles
π π π π
0
6 4 3 2 x
1 C(−1, 0) O A(1, 0)
sin 1
√2
3
cos 0
√2
3 D(0, −1)
tan undefined
3
Figure 1.8: Values for the special angles

5π
Example 1.2.3. Let α = , find the
3
trigonometric function values of sin α, cos α
and tan α. y
Solution: In the coordinate plane, ∠AOP = B(0, 1)
5π
. The intersection of the terminal
3
side with
√ the unit circle P has coordinate
1 3 5π
( ,− ). Hence M x
2 2 3
√ C(−1, 0) O A(1, 0)
5π 3
sin =− 1
3 2
5π 1
cos = P(x, y)
3 2√ D(0, −1)
5π 3 1 √
tan =− ÷ =− 3
3 2 2
5π
Note: to see more details√about why point P Figure 1.9: Values for α =
3
1 3
has the coordinate ( , − ). Readers may
2 2
click here.
Example 1.2.4. The terminal side of an angle passes through point P0 (−3, −4). Please
find the trigonometric function values.
Solution: By Pythagorean theorem, one may

have
y
2 2 2
|OP| = |OM| + |PM|
= (−3)2 + (−4)2
= 9 + 16 = 25 −→ |OP| = 5

−3 2
2 2
−4 5 M α x
It is clear + = . O
5 5 5
The geometrical meaning is that two legs 5
and one hypotenuse in the right triangle
4OMP are all shrunk to the one fifth of P0 (−3, −4)
their original lengths. Thus, the trigonomet-
ric function values are:
4 3
sin α = − , cos = − , tan α = 4/3.
5 5
Example 1.2.5. Angle θ satisfies the following two conditions currently.
(
sin θ < 0
tan θ > 0
(4:39 minutes)
Please tell which quadrant angle θ belongs to.
Solution: From figure 1.6 in the definition of trigonometric functions on page 14, one may
see y coordinate is negative when point P is below x-axis. It then tells that sin θ is negative
when θ is in quadrant III and IV since y-coordinate of P is defined as sin.
tan θ is defined as the ratio of y to x. Hence tan θ is positive only if the signs of y
and x are the same. Therefore, θ needs to be in quadrant I or III.
Since θ needs to satisfy two conditions currently, angle θ must be in quadrant III.
By definitions of trigonometric functions on page 14, one may see co-terminal angles
will have the equal trigonometric function values. Thus the following formulas hold.
(1.4) sin(θ + k · 2π) = sin θ

(1.5) cos(θ + k · 2π) = cos θ
(1.6) tan(θ + k · 2π) = tan θ
where k ∈ Z
Example 1.2.6. For the following four expressions, please determine if they are positive
or negative. Then compare your answers with the answers from a calculator.
π
(1) cos 2500 (2) sin(− )
4
(3) tan(−6720 ) (4) tan(3π) (13:00 minutes)
Solution:
(1) 2500 is in the range of 1800 and 2700 . So 2500 is in the third quadrant. x-coordinate of
a point in the third quadrant is negative. Based on definition 1.2.1 for cos, it is then clear
cos 2500 < 0.
π π
(2) − is in the fourth quadrant. Hence sin(− ) < 0.
4 4
(3) Please note −6720 = 480 − 2 × 3600 . Based on the formula 1.6, one may have
tan(−6720 ) = tan(480 − 2 × 3600 ) = tan 480 > 0
(4) Based on formula 1.6 again, it is clear
tan(3π) = tan(π + 2π) = tan π = 0
Example 1.2.7. Find the trigonometric function values.
9π 11π

0 0
(1) sin(1480 10 ) (2) cos (3) tan −
4 6
Solution: (1) sin(14800 100 ) = sin(400 10√0 + 4 × 3600 ) = sin(400 100 ) ≈ 0.645
9π π π 2
(2) cos = cos + 2π = cos =
4 4 4 2 √
11π π π 3
(3) tan − = tan − 2π = tan =
6 6 6 3
In some other PreCalculus textbooks, sec x, csc x and cot x are introduced. The def-
initions of these functions are simply the reciprocals of functions cos x, sin x and tan x,
respectively.
1 1 1
sec x = , csc x = , cot x =
cos x sin x tan x
π 1 1
For example, sec = π = 1 = 2. csc π is not defined as sin π = 0 and a denominator
3 cos 3 2
π 1 1
cannot be zero. cot = π = = 1. To make our text not complex, the text will not
4 tan 4 1
discuss these functions further.
1. (3pts ) Please find the trigonometric function values by definition 1.2.1.

7π 7π 7π
(a) sin = (b) cos = (c) tan =
6 6 6
2. (3pts ) The terminal side of angle θ passes through point P(−12, 5). By referring to
example 1.2.4, please find
(a) sin θ = (b) cos θ = (c) tan θ =
3. (2pts ) Assume α is an angle in a triangle. Which of the following could be negative.
(a) sin α could be negative. (c) tan α could be negative.

True False True False
α
(b) cos α could be negative. (d) tan could be negative.
2
True False True False
4. (3pts ) Locate which quadrant the angles belong to. Determine the sign of the trigono-
metric function values.
(a) sin 1560 is 17π 4π

(c) tan(− ) is (e) sin(− ) is
+ − 8 3
− 0 + − 0 +
16π
(b) cos is (d) cos(−4500 ) is (f) tan 5560 is
5
+ − − 0 + − 0 +
5. (2pts ) Find the exact values of trigonometric functions if possible. If not, approximate
the values at accuracy 0.0001 by a calculator.
(a) cos 11090 = 19π

(c) tan =
3
(b) sin(−10500 ) = 31π

(d) tan(− )=
4
Answers:
Points: Percent:
1. Fill in the blanks. Please refer to the animation figure 1.10 if necessary.
α 00 900 1800 2700 3600
α rad π π π π π
sin α
cos α
tan α
Answers:
Points: Percent:
y y
B(0, 1)
P T
α = 00 x α x
C(−1, 0) O A(1, 0) O M A(1, 0)
D(0, −1)
Figure 1.10: Special Function Values Figure 1.11: Trigonometric Function Lines
In figure 1.11, the length of line segment MP is the y-coordinate of point P(x, y). So
y
MP is called the sin line. Similarly, OM is called the cos line. Moreover, tan α = =
x
AT
= AT . So AT is called the tan line.
1
1. Draw the sin lines, cos lines and the tan lines of the following angles.
π 5π 2π 13π
(a) (b) (c) − (d) −
3 6 3 6
1.2.2 Relationship among the Trigonometric Functions
In figure 1.11, one may see that sin line MP and cos line OM are the two legs of a right
triangle 4PMO. The radius OP is the hypotenuse with length 1. Based on Pythagorean
theorem, it is clear
OM 2 + MP2 = 1 −→ sin2 α + cos2 α = 1
tan α was defined as the ratio of y to x. It basically tells that tan α is the ratio of sin α to
cos α. Hence, there are following identities.
(1.7) sin2 α + cos2 α = 1

sin α
(1.8) tan α =
cos α (12:56 minutes)
3
Example 1.2.8. Given sin α = − , please find cos α and tan α.
5
Solution: Since sin α < 0, it tells that α may be either in quadrant III or IV. By formula
1.7, one may have
2
2 2 3 25 9 16
cos α = 1 − sin α = 1 − − = − =
5 25 25 25
sin α
 r
16 4 3 4 3 5 3
If α is in quadrant III −→ cos α = − = − −→ tan α = = − ÷ (− ) = × =


r 25 5 cos α 5 5 5 4 4
16 4 3 4 3
If α is in quadrant IV −→ cos α = = −→ tan α = − ÷ = −


25 5 5 5 4
cos x 1 + sin x
Example 1.2.9. Prove identity = .
1 − sin x cos x
Proof: The identity requires cos x 6= 0. That means the terminal side of angle x cannot be
on the y-axis. It tells sin x can neither be 1 nor −1. Therefore, neither 1 − sin x nor 1 + sin x
can be 0. Thus one may perform the following operation.
cos x cos x 1 + sin x

= ·
1 − sin x 1 − sin x 1 + sin x
(cos x) · (1 + sin x)
=
1 − sin2 x
cos x · (1 + sin x)
= By Theorem 1.7 (7:22 minutes)
cos2 x
1 + sin x
=
cos x
4
1. (2pts ) Given cos α = − and α is in quadrant III, please find sin α and tan α.
5
(a) sin α = (b) tan α =
√
2. Given tan β = − 3, please find sin β and cos β .
(a) (2pts ) If β is in quadrant II, then (b) (2pts ) If β is in quadrant IV, then
(i) sin β = (i) sin β =
(ii) cos β = (ii) cos β =
3. Given sin γ = 0.35, please find cos γ and tan γ with a calculator at accuracy 0.0001.
(a) (2pts ) If γ is in quadrant I, then (b) (2pts ) If β is in quadrant II, then
(i) cos β = (i) cos β =
(ii) tan β = (ii) tan β =
4. (2pts ) Simplify the expressions
(a) cos x tan x = 2 cos2 x − 1

(b) =
1 − 2 sin2 x
5. (1pts ) Fill in the blank

sin4 x − sin2 x cos2 x = sin2 x · (1 − )
Answers:
Points: Percent:
1. Please find the trigonometric function values of the following angles by definitions,
formulas or calculator.
17π 21π 23π (d) 15000
(a) − (b) (c) −
3 4 6
2. Given the terminal side of angle α passes through point (3a, 4a), where a 6= 0, find the
values of sin α, cos α and tan α.
3. Calculate
(a) 6 sin(−900 ) + 3 sin 00 − 8 sin 2700 + 12 cos 1800
(b) 10 cos 2700 + 4 sin 00 + 9 tan 00 + 15 cos 3600

π π 3 π π π 3π
(c) 2 cos − tan + tan2 − sin + cos2 + sin
2 4 4 6 6 6 2
π 3π π
(d) sin2 + cos4 − tan2
3 2 3
4. Simplify the following expressions.
(a) a sin 00 + b cos 900 + c tan 1800
(b) −p2 cos 1800 + q2 sin 900 − 2pq cos 00

3π π
(c) a2 cos 2π − b2 sin + ab cos π − ab sin
2 2
1 3
(d) m tan 0 + n cos π − p sin π − q cos π − r sin 2π
2 2
5. Evaluate the function values for the given x-values.
π π 3π
f (x) = sin(x + ) + 2 sin(x − ) − 4 cos 2x + 3 cos(x + )
4 4 4
π 3π
(a) x = (b) x =
4 4
6. Please determine the signs of the following function values.
(a) sin 1860 (c) sin 7.6π (e) cos 9400

23 59
(b) tan 5050 (d) tan(− π) (f) cos(− π)
4 17
7. Please determine the signs of the following expressions.

(a) tan 1250 · sin 2730 tan 1080

(c)
cos 3050
cos 56 π · tan 11
6π
5 4 11 (d)
(b) sin π · cos π · π sin 23 π
4 5 6
8. Please find the trigonometric function values with calculator if needed.
67 15

(a) sin − π (c) tan − π
12 4
(b) cos 3980 130 (d) tan 7660 150
9. Please check if the following statements are true

(a) θ is in quadrant II or III if and only if sin θ tan θ < 0.
(b) θ is in quadrant III or IV if and only if cos θ · tan θ < 0.
sin θ
(c) θ is in quadrant I or IV if and only if > 0.
tan θ
(d) θ is in quadrant I or III if and only if sin θ · cos θ > 0.
10. Find the trigonometric function values
√
3
(a) Given sin α = − and α is in quadrant IV, please find the values of cos α and
2
tan α.
5
(b) Given cos α = − and α is in quadrant II, please find the values of sin α and
13
tan α.
3
(c) Given tan α = − , please find the values of sin α and cos α.
4
(d) Given cos α = 0.68, please find the values of sin α and tan α at accuracy 0.01.
1
11. Given sin x = − , find the values of cos x and tan x.
3
√ 3
12. Given tan α = 3, π < α < π, please find the value of cos α − sin α.
2
13. Prove the following identities
1 − 2 sin x cos x 1 − tan x
(a) =
cos2 x − sin2 x 1 + tan x
(b) tan2 α − sin2 α = tan2 α · sin2 α
(c) (cos β − 1)2 + sin2 β = 2 − 2 cos β
(d) sin4 x + cos4 x = 1 − 2 sin2 x cos2 x
1.3 Formulas from the Definition
Once definition 1.2.1 on page 14 is introduced, more formulas like 1.5 on page 16 can be
directly derived from definition 1.2.1. In the section, one may see the definition in the unit
circle really makes the study process relatively easy.
In figure 1.12, the terminal sides of angle π + α and α are symmetric with respect
to the origin (0, 0). It is then clear that
y
sin α = y cos α = x tan α =
x
−y
sin(π + α) = −y cos(π + α) = −x tan(π + α) = (14:42 minutes)
−x
y
P1 (x, y)
π +α
(1.9) sin(π + α) = − sin α α x
(1.10) cos(π + α) = − cos α
(1.11) tan(π + α) = tan α P3 (−x, −y)
Figure 1.12: Angle is π + α

y
Similarly, one may derive the following for- P1 (x, y)

mulas by referring to figure 1.13.
α x
−α
(1.12) sin(−α) = − sin α
(1.13) cos(−α) = cos α P4 (x, −y)
(1.14) tan(−α) = − tan α
Figure 1.13: Angle is −α

1.3. FORMULAS FROM THE DEFINITION 25
By referring to figure 1.14, one may have the P2 (−x, y)

following formulas as well. π −α
x
−α
(1.15) sin(π − α) = sin α
(1.16) cos(π − α) = − cos α P4 (x, −y)
(1.17) tan(π − α) = − tan α
Figure 1.14: Angle is π − α

Example 1.3.1. Find the following trigonometric function values.
11π
(1) cos 2250 (2) sin
3
16π

(3) sin − (4) cos(−20400 ) (17:00 minutes)
3
Solution:
11π π
(1) cos 2250 = cos(1800 + 450 ) (2) sin = sin 4π −
3 π3
= − cos 450 = sin −
√ 3
2 π √
=− 3
2 = − sin =−
3 2
16π 16π (4) cos 20400 = cos(6 × 3600 − 1200 )

(3) sin − = − sin
3 3 = cos(−1200 )
π
= − sin 4π + 1 · π + = cos 1200
3
π π = cos(1800 − 600 )
= − sin π + = sin
3 3
√ = − cos 600
3
= 1
2 =−
2
In general, converting angles follows the steps below
Formulas Formulas 1.15,1.16,1.17

−−−−−→ −3600 ∼ 3600 −−−−−−−−→ 00 ∼ 3600 −−−−−−−−→ 00 ∼ 900
1.4,1.5,1.6 1.12,1.13,1.14 1.9,1.10,1.11
Example 1.3.2. Simplify the expression
cos(1800 + α) · sin(α + 3600 )

sin(−α − 1800 ) · cos(−1800 − α)
Solution:
cos(1800 + α) · sin(α + 3600 )

sin(−α − 1800 ) · cos(−1800 − α)
− cos α · sin α − cos α · sin α
= =
sin(−(α + 180 )) · cos(−(180 + α)) (− sin(α + 1800 )) · cos(1800 + α)
0 0
cos α · sin α cos α · sin α

= = =1
sin(α + 1800 ) · cos(1800 + α) − sin α · (− cos α)
(9:57 minutes)
In figure 1.15, the terminal sides of angle y
π
α and − α are symmetric with respect to P0 (y, x)
2 π
line y = x. The xy-coordinates of P0 is (y, x). −α
2
Therefore
P1 (x, y)
α
cos α = x sin α = y x
π π α
cos −α = y sin −α = x
2 2
Thus, one may have the following formulas
π
(1.18) sin − α = cos α
π2
(1.19) cos − α = sin α π
2 Figure 1.15: Angle is −α
2
y
π
0 +α
In figure 1.16, the terminal sides of angle −α P (−y, x) 2
π
and + α are symmetric with respect to line
2 α
y = x. The xy-coordinates of P0 is (−y, x). x
Therefore −α
cos(−α) = x sin(−α) = −y P4 (x, −y)
π π
cos + α = −y sin +α = x
2 2
Thus, one may have the following formulas
π
Figure 1.16: The angle is +α
2
π
(1.20) sin + α = cos(−α) = cos α
π2
(1.21) cos + α = sin(−α) = − sin α
2
Example 1.3.3. Prove
3π 3π

(1) sin −α = − cos α (2) cos −α = − sin α
2 2
Proof:
3π
π π
3π

(1) sin −α = sin π + −α

2 2 (2) cos − α = cos π + − α
π 2 2
π
= − sin − α = − cos α

2 = − cos − α = − sin α
2
Example 1.3.4. Simplify the expression of f (α).

π 11π
sin(2π − α) cos(π + α) cos + α cos 2 − α

2
f (a) = 9π
cos(π − α) sin(3π − α) sin(−π − α) sin 2 +α
Solution:
sin(2π + (−α))(− cos α)(− sin α) cos 5π + ( π2 − α )

f (a) =
(− cos α) sin(π − α)(− sin(π + α)) sin 4π + ( π2 + α )

− sin2 α cos α(− cos( π2 − α))

=
(− cos α) sin α(−(− sin α)) sin π2 + α

sin α
=− = − tan α
cos α
1. Convert the following trigonometric functions to the acute trigonometric functions.

13π (c) sin(1 + π) =
(a) cos =
9
π
(b) sin − = (d) cos(−700 60 ) =
5
2. Find the exact trigonometric function values with formulas.
(a) cos(−4200 ) = 7π

(c) sin − =
6
79π

(b) sin(−13200 ) = (d) cos − =
6

(a) sin(x + 1800 ) cos(−x) sin(−x − 1800 ) =
(b) sin3 (−x) cos(2π + x) tan(−x − π) =
4. Convert the following trigonometric functions to the acute trigonometric functions.

3π (c) tan(1000 210 ) =
(a) tan =
5
31π
(b) tan = (d) tan(3240 320 ) =
36
5. Find the exact values if possible.

65π 26π

(a) cos = (d) tan − =
6 3
(b) sin 6700 390 =
(e) cos(−11820 130 ) =
31π

(c) sin − = (f) tan(5800 210 ) =
4

cos(x − π2 )
(a) · sin(x − 2π) · cos(2π − x) =
sin( 5π
2 + x)
tan(3600 + x)
(b) cos2 (−x) − =
sin(−x)
Answers:
Points: Percent:
1. Fill in the blanks.

4π 5π 5π 7π 8π 11π
α − − − − − −
3 4 3 4 3 4
sin α
cos α
tan α
Answers:
Points: Percent:
1. Convert the following functions to the acute trigonometric functions.
(a) cos 2100 (e) sin 2630 420

π
5π

(b) cos − (f) sin −
6 3
11π

(c) cos − (g) cos(−1040 260 )
9
17π
(d) tan 6320 240 (h) tan
6
2. Find the trigonometric function values with the derived formulas.

17π (d) sin(−15740 )

(a) cos −
4
(e) cos(−17510 360 )
(b) sin(−21600 520 )
26π

(c) cos 16150 80 (f) sin −
3
3. Simplify the expressions
(a) sin(−10710 ) · sin 990 + sin(−1710 ) · sin(−2610 )
(b) 1 + sin(α − 2π) · sin(π + α) − 2 cos2 (−α)
4. Prove
(a) sin(3600 − α) = − sin α (c) cos(3600 − α) = cos α

(b) tan(3600 − α) = − tan α
5. Compute the following expressions
(a) sin 4200 · cos 7500 + sin(−3300 ) · cos(−6600 )
(b) tan 6750 + tan 7650 − tan(−3300 ) + tan(−6900 )

25π 25π 25π

(c) sin + cos + tan −
6 3 4
1
6. Given sin(π + α) = − , please compute
2
π
(a) sin(5π − α)

(c) sin +α
2
3π

π
(b) cos α −

2 (d) tan −α
2
1.4 Graphs and Properties of Trigonometric Functions
1.4.1 Graphs of functions sin x and cos x
Now one may draw the trigonometric function graphs. If necessary,

please refer to table 1.5 and the table on page 19 to recall what has been
learned.
(13:36 minutes)
√ !y f (x) = sin x
y 3 1 1
,
2 2
π
x
6
(1,0) 0 π x
0
6
−1
π 1
sin =
6 2
π π π π 2π 3π 5π 7π 5π 4π 3π 5π 7π 11π
x 0 π 2π
6 √4 √3 2 √3 √4 6 6 √4 √3 2 √ 3 √4 6
1 2 3 3 2 1 1 2 3 3 2 1
sin x 0 1 0 − − − −1− − − 0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Figure 1.17: The graph of sin x

π
For the graph of f (x) = sin x, it is clear to see sin x first is increasing from [0, ],
2
π
reaches its local maximum value f (x) = 1 at x = . It then goes down to hit the x-
2
3π
axis at x = π and keeps going down till x = , where sin x chooses the minimum value
2
3π 3π

f = −1. After x passes x = , sin x goes back up to hit the x-axis again at x = 2π.
2 2
This kind of graph features
repeats. On interval [0, 2π], there are five key points (0, 0),
π 3π
, 1 , (π, 0), , −1 and (2π, 0). By connecting the five points with a smooth curve,
2 2
1.4. GRAPHS AND PROPERTIES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 33
one may sketch the graph of the function easily. The graph of the function is like a reversed
S written in the horizontal direction on interval [0, 2π]. If one looks at the graph of the
π 3π
function from on interval [− , ], the graph would look like a up-side-down of shape
2 2
V . Moreover, the graph would look like S on the interval [−π, π] written in the horizontal
direction. By combining formula 1.12, sin(−x) = − sin x, one may see function y = sin x
is an odd function. The graph of y = sin x is symmetric with respect to the origin (0, 0).
y
f (x) = sin x
1
−π π 0 π π 3π 2π x
−
2 2 2
−1
π 3π
x 0 π 2π
2 2
sin x 0 1 0 −1 0
Follow the similar steps of drawing the graph of function y = sin x, one
may draw the graph of y = cos x. The details are as follows.
(15:04 minutes)
√ !y f (x) = cos x
y 3 1 1
,
2 2
π
x
6
(1,0) 0 π x
0
6
√ −1
π 3
cos =
6 2
π π π π 2π 3π 5π 7π 5π 4π 3π 5π 7π 11π
x 0 π 2π
√6 √4 3 2 3 √ 4 √6 6 √
√ 4 3 2 3 √4 √6
3 2 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1 2 3
cos x 1 0 − − − −1− − − 0 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Figure 1.18: The graph of cos x

From the graph of f (x) = cos x, one may see cos x is decreasing from [0, π]. The
π
graph goes across at x-axis through x = , reaches its local minimum value f (x) = −1 at
2
3π
x = π. It then goes up to hit the x-axis at x = and keeps going up till x = 2π, where
2
cos x chooses the maximum value f (2π) = −1. This kind of graph features repeats. Again
π 3π
(0, 1), , 0 , (π, −1), , 0 and (2π, 1) are five key points on interval [0, 2π]. By
2 2
connecting the five points with a smooth curve, one may sketch the graph of the function
easily. The graph of the function looks like a letter V with the round deep bottom on
π 3π
interval [0, 2π]. If one looks at the graph of the function on interval [− , ], the graph
2 2
would look like a reversed S written in the horizontal direction. Moreover, the graph would
look a up-side-down letter V with the round top on interval [−π, π]. By combining formula
1.13, cos(−x) = cos x, one may see function y = cos x is an even function. The graph of
y = cos x is symmetric with respect to the y-axis. Please refer to the following graph.
Example 1.4.1. Draw the trigonometric function graphs
y = − cos x
(1.22)
y = 1 + sin x
Solution: (1) In drawing the graph of function y = − cos x, every value y is found by
putting the negative sign in front of cos x for each input of x values. That means the graph
of y = − cos x is got by flipping the graph of y = cos x based on the x-axis.
y
f (x) = − cos x
1
−π π 0 π π 3π 2π x
−
2 2 2
−1
π 3π
x 0 π 2π
2 2
cos x 1 0 −1 0 1
− cos x −1 0 1 0 −1
π
(2) For each input of values of x, for example x = , one may first get the value of
2
sin x, in this case the value of sin x is 1. Then the value of sin x is added by 1, which gives
π
2 when x = . Since the function value of y = sin x + 1 is found by every value of sin x
2
added by 1 for every x value. It is clear that the graph of function y = sin x + 1 is actually
got by shifting the graph of function y = sin x 1 unit up.
y
2
f (x) = 1 + sin x
1
0 π π 3π 2π x
2 2
−1
π 3π
x 0 π 2π
2 2
sin x 0 1 0 −1 0
1 + sin x 1 2 1 0 1
From the previous contents, it is clear that functions sin x and cos x change their
values periodically. One may see this fact from graphs 1.17 and 1.18. The trend can be
seen from formula sin(x + 2kπ) = sin x as well. To be more accurate, sin x repeats its
values if x is increased by amount of ±2π or the integer amount of 2π. This kind of
property is called the periodic property of functions. Mathematically, a function f (x) is
called a periodic function if
f (x + T ) = f (x)
for every x in its domain. T is called the period of function f (x). Although f (x + 2T ) =
f (x) if f (x + T ) = f (x), the smallest positive integer T is called the period of function
f (x) rather than 2T . Lets’ see some examples.
Example 1.4.2. Find the period of each function below.
(1)y = 3 cos x, x ∈ R
(2)y = sin 2x, x ∈ R
1 π

(3)y = 2 sin x− ,x ∈ R
2 6
Solution: (1) Let f (x) = 3 cos x. Since f (x + 2π) = 3 cos(x + 2π) = 3 cos x = f (x) by
formula 1.5, the period of f (x) is 2π.
(2) Let f (x) = sin 2x. f (x + π) = sin(2(x + π)) = sin(2x + 2π) = sin 2x by formula 1.4.
Hence, the period of function f (x) = sin 2x is π.
1 π

(3) Let f (x) = 2 sin x− .
2 6
1 π

f (x + 4π) = 2 sin (x + 4π) −
2 6
1 π

= 2 sin x + 2π −
2 6
1 π

= 2 sin x− = f (x)
2 6
1 π

Hence, the period of function f (x) = 2 sin x− is 4π.
2 6
In general, if function f (x) = sin(ωx), then the period of the trigonometric function is
(1.23) T = 2π ÷ ω
In example f (x) = sin 2x, the

coefficient
of x is 2. The period of function sin 2x is 2π ÷ 2 =
1 π 1
π. In example f (x) = 2 sin x− , the coefficient of x is . The period of the function
2 6 2
1 2
is 2π ÷ = 2π × = 4π.
2 1
1. (2pts ) Please make the correct choices.
(a) Is sin(300 + 1200 ) = sin 300 true? (b) If it is true, is 1200 a period of sin x?
Yes No Yes No
2. (6pts ) Please find the period of the following functions.

3 1 π
(a) y = sin x (d) y = sin( x + )
4 3 4
(b) y = cos 4x (e) y = sin(πx)
1 1
(c) y = cos x (f) y = sin( πx)
2 2
Answers:
Points: Percent:
Example 1.4.3. Please tell where f (x) chooses its maximum and minimum values and
what the maximum and minimum values are.
(1)y = cos x + 1
(2)y = −3 sin 2x
Solutions: (1) cos x chooses its maximum value 1 and the minimum value −1 at
x = 2kπ and x = (2k +1)π, respectively, where k is an integer. Hence y = cos x +1 chooses
its maximum value 2 and the minimum value 0 when x is in set {x|x = 2kπ} and {x|x =
(2k + 1)π}, respectively.
(2) Let z = 2x, then the original function y = −3 sin 2x comes to be y = −3 sin z. Since sin z
π
chooses its maximum value 1 at z = + 2kπ, function y = −3 sin z chooses its minimum
2
value −3 at these z values. As z = 2x, one may have
π π
2x = + 2kπ −→ x = + kπ
2 4
n π o
Hence, when x is in set x|x = + kπ , y = −3 sin 2x chooses its minimum value −3.
4
3π
Similarly, y = −3 sin z chooses its maximum value 3 when z = + 2kπ. Therefore,
2
3π

function y = −3 sin 2x choose its maximum value 3 when x is in set x|x = + kπ .
4
Example 1.4.4. Compare the values of the following two pairs of values without using
calculator.
π π
(1) sin − and sin −
18 10
23π 17π

(2) cos − and cos −
5 4
π π π
Solution: (1) Please note − < − < − < 0 and function f (x) = sin x is an increasing
2 10 18
function. Hence π π
sin − < sin −
10 18
23π 23π 3π 3π

(2) First note cos − = cos = cos + 4π = cos .
5 5 5 5
17π 17π π π

cos − = cos = cos 4π + = cos .
4 4 4 4
π 3π
0< < < π and f (x) = cos x is a decreasing function on interval [0, π]. Hence
4 5
17π π 3π 23π

cos − = cos > cos = cos −
4 4 5 5
Example 1.4.5. Please find the monotonic increasing interval for function
1 π

y = sin x+ , x ∈ [−2π, 2π]
2 3
1 π
Solution: Let z = x + . The monotonic increasing intervals of function f (z) = sin z are
2 3
π π
[− + 2kπ, + 2kπ], where k is an integer. It gives
2 2
π 1 π π 5π π
− + 2kπ ≤ x + ≤ + 2kπ −→ − + 4kπ ≤ x ≤ + 4kπ, k ∈ Z
2 2 3 2 3 3
5π π
When k = 0, interval [− , ] ⊂ [−2π, 2π] is the monotonic increasing interval for func-
3 3
1 π

tion y = sin x+ , x ∈ [−2π, 2π].
2 3
1. (4pts ) Based on the graphs of sin x and cos x, please find the intervals in which the
following inequalities are true on [0, 2π].
(a) (1pts ) sin x > 0
(b) (1pts ) cos x > 0
(c) (1pts ) sin x < 0
(d) (1pts ) cos x < 0
2. (2pts ) Determine if the following equations could possibly be true.

(a) 2 cos x = 3
possible impossible
(b) sin2 x = 0.5

possible impossible
3. (8pts ) Please find the maximum and minimum values of the functions. Tell at which
places the functions will choose their maximum and minimum values.
(a) y = 2 sin x
The minimum value is ,
which will be chosen at x =
The maximum value is ,
x
(b) y = 2 − cos
3
The minimum value is ,
The maximum value is ,
Correct answers:
Points: Percent:
1. (4pts ) Let f (x) = 4 sin x, x ∈ [−π, π]. Please tell which one is true.
(a) On interval [−π, 0], the function is increasing. On interval [0, π], the function is
decreasing.
true false
π π
(b) The function is increasing on interval [− , ]. The function is decreasing on
2 2
π π
intervals [−π, − ] ∪ [ , π].
2 2
true false
(a) On interval [−π, 0], the function is decreasing. On interval [0, π], the function is
increasing.
true false
π π
(b) The function is decreasing on interval [− , ]. The function is increasing on
2 2
π π
intervals [−π, − ] ∪ [ , π].
2 2
true false
2. (4pts ) Compare two values by the monotonic property of sin x and cos x.
(a) sin 2500 < sin 2600 sin 2500 > sin 2600
15π 14π 15π 14π
(b) cos < cos cos > cos
8 9 8 9
(c) cos 5150 < cos 5300 cos 5150 > cos 5300
54 63 54 63

(d) sin − π < sin − π sin − π > sin − π
7 8 7 8
pts
π
3. (2 ) Please find the monotonic increasing interval of function y = 3 sin 2x + on
4
x ∈ [0, π].
Correct answers:
Points: Percent:
1.4.2 Graph of function f (x) = tan x
By formula 1.11 on page 24, it tells that function f (x) = tan x is a periodic function with
period T = π. The function is defined as the ratio of function sin x to cos x 1.8. By looking
at the table values in figures 1.17 and 1.18, one may draw the graph of function y = tan x
π π
in one period on interval [− , ] as follows.
2 2
y y
√
3 f (x) = tan x
1
π
−
x 4
(1,0) π π 0 πππ π π 3π x
0 − −
3 6 6 4 3 2 2
−1
π √
tan = 3
3
π π π π π π π 2π 3π 5π 7π 5π 4π 3π
x − − − 0 π
3 4 6 6 3
√ √ √4 √
2
√3 √4 6 6 √ 4 √3 2
3 2 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1 2 3
sin x − − − 0 1 0 − − − −1
2 √2 √2 √2 √2 2 2 √2 √2 √2 √2 2
1 2 3 3 2 1 1 2 3 3 2 1
cos x 1 0 − − − −1− − − 0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 √2 √2 2 2
√ 1 1 √ √ 3 3 √
tan x − 3 −1− √ 0 √ 1 3 u − 3 −1− 0 1 3 u
3 3 3 3
Figure 1.19: The graph of tan x
(18:31 minutes)
n π o
From the graph, one may see the domain of the function is x|x 6= + kπ . The
2
π
function has asymptotes at x = + kπ. From formula 1.14, one may see tan(−x) = tan x.
2
Function f (x) = tan x is an odd function. The graph is symmetric
π with respect tothe origin.
π
The function is an increasing function on the open interval − + kπ, + kπ . There is
2 2
neither a maximum value nor a minimum value in its domain. The graph of the function
goes across the x-axis at x = kπ, where k is an integer. The domain of the function is all
real numbers R.
Example
π 1.4.6. Please find the domain, period and monotonic interval of function y =
π
tan x+ .
2 3
π π π
Solutions: Let z = x + . The domain of function y = tan z is z 6= + kπ, where k ∈ Z.
2 3 2
It then gives
π π π 1
x + 6= + kπ −→ x 6= 2k +
2 3 2 3
π π
Hence, the domain of function f (x) = tan x+ is
2 3
1

x|x 6= 2k +
3
Due to
π π
f (x + 2) = tan (x + 2) +
π2 π
3
= tan x+π +
π2 π
3
= tan x+ = f (x)
2 3
the period of function f (x) is 2.

π π
The monotonic increasing interval of function y = tan z is − + kπ < z < + kπ,
2 2
where k ∈ Z. It gives
π π π π 5 1
− + kπ < x + < + kπ −→ − + 2k < x < + 2k, where k ∈ Z
2 2 3 2 3 3
Therefore, the monotonic increasing intervals are
5 1

− + 2k, + 2k , where k ∈ Z
3 3
In general, the period of function f (x) = tan(ωx) is
(1.24) T = π ÷ ω
1. (3pts ) Based on the graph of tan x where x ∈ (−π/2, π/2), please find the interval on
which
(a) (1pts ) tan x > 0
(b) (1pts ) tan x = 0
(c) (1pts ) tan x < 0
2. (2pts ) Please find the domain of function y = tan 3x.

Domain: x 6=
3. (2pts ) y = tan x is an increasing function on interval (−π/2, π/2).

Yes, the statement is true. No, it is not true.
4. (8pts ) Please find the domains, periods and monotonic intervals of functions below.
(a) y = tan 2x, Period: Domain: x 6=
Monotonic Interval: ( , )
x
(b) y = 5 tan , Period: Domain: x 6=
2
Monotonic Interval: ( , )
5. (2pts ) Compare two values by looking at the graph of tan x without using a calculator.
(a) tan 1380 < tan 1430 tan 1380 > tan 1430
13 17 13 17

(b) tan − π < tan − π tan − π > tan − π
4 5 4 5
Correct answers:
Points: Percent:
1. Draw the graphs of the functions below
(a) y = 1 − sin x, x ∈ [0, 2π], x ∈ [0, 2π] (b) y = 3 cos x + 1, x ∈ [0, 2π], x ∈ [0, 2π]
2. Please find the sets of x where functions choose their maximum values and minimum
values. Please find the maximum values and minimum values as well.
1 π
π
(a) y = 1 − cos x, x ∈ R (c) y = 3 sin 2x + ,x∈R
2 3 4
3 1 π 1 1 π

(b) y = − cos x− ,x∈R (d) y = sin x+ ,x∈R
2 2 6 2 2 3
3. Find the periods of the following functions

2 1
(a) y = sin x, x ∈ R (b) y = cos 4x, x ∈ R
3 2
4. Please compare the trigonometric function values
(a) sin 1030 150 and sin 1640 300 47 44

(c) cos − π and cos − π
10 9
(b) sin 5080 and sin 1440 (d) cos 7600 and cos(−7700 )
5. Please find the monotonic intervals
(a) y = 1 + sin x, x ∈ R (b) y = − cos x, x ∈ R

π
6. Please find the domain of function y = − tan x + + 2, x ∈ R.
6
π
7. Please find the period of function y = tan 2x − , x ∈ R.
3
8. Compare the function values by the monotonic property without using a calculator.
1 3 (c) tan 15190 and tan 14930

(a) tan − π and tan − π
5 7
9 3

(b) tan 6 π and tan −5 π 7π π
11 11 (d) tan and tan
8 6
9. Based on the graph of tan x, please find the sets of x which satisfies
√
(a) 1 + tan x ≥ 0 (b) tan x − 3 ≥ 0
2
10. Given the period
of function f (x) is 2. f (x) = (x − 1) , x ∈ [0, 2]. Please find values of
7
f (3) and f .
2
11. Please find the sets of x which satisfies
√ √
3 (b) 2 + 2 cos x ≥ 0, x ∈ R
(a) sin x ≥ ,x∈R
2
3π

12. Find the monotonic intervals of function f (x) = − tan 2x − .
4
1.5. GRAPH OF FUNCTION Y = A SIN(ωX + φ ) 47
1.5 Graph of function y = A sin(ωx + φ )
Previously, the graph of function y = sin x has been discussed. In this section, let’s study
a little bit more about the graphs when constants A, ω and φ are in the equation. It would
be nice to know what role each constant plays when drawing the graphs. Later in the
following section, one may see the actually meanings in applications of the trigonometric
functions.
Case I: φ 6= 0
π
It is necessary to notice that φ = − , which is called the initial phase in physics, is
6
negative. The graph is shifted to the positive direction to the right from the original graph
y = sin x. With the animation in the graph, one may see how this actually happens. For
4π 2π
example, in order to choose the maximum value 1, x value = needs to be bigger
6 3
π 3π π
than = instead of .
2 6 2
y
π
f (x) = sin x −
6
1
x
0 π π 2π π 7π 3π 5π 2π 13π
6 2 3 6 2 3 6
−1
π 4π 3π π 7π 6π π 10π 9π π 13π 12π π

x = + = + = + = +
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
π π 3π
x− 0 π 2π
6 π 2 2
sin x − 0 1 0 −1 0
6
Figure 1.20
(8:38 minutes)
Case II: ω 6= 0
Let’s see an example when ω = 2. Form the table in the animation graph of y =
sin(2x), one may see the function completes one period from 0 to π. Referring to formula
1.23 on page 37, it is clear that the period of function f (x) = sin ωx is less than 2π if
ω > 1. Otherwise, the period of function is greater then 2π if ω < 1. If ω is bigger, e.g.
1
ω = 10π, then the period of a function f (x) will be very small T = 2π/(10π) = < 1. In
5
this case, function f (x) = sin(10πx) will complete five periods in a unit. So the reciprocal
of T , which is
1 ω
f= =
T 2π
is defined as the frequency.

y
f (x) = sin 2x
1
0 π π 3π π 3π 2π x
4 2 4 2
−1
(5:45 minutes)
π π 3π
x 0 π
4 2 4
π 3π
2x 0 π 2π
2 2
sin 2x 0 1 0 −1 0
Case III: ω 6= 0 and φ 6= 0

π π
Let’s consider the graph of function y = sin 2x − , where ω = 2 and φ = − .
3 3
By looking into the table of the animation graph, one may see the graph of the function
can be found by first shrinking the graph of function f (x) = sin x from the period of 2π to
π
π, then shifting the shrunk graph with units to the right.
6
y
π
f (x) = sin 2x −
3
1
0 π 5π π 2π 11ππ 7π 3π 2π x
6 12 2 3 12 6 2
−1
2π 5π 8π 11π 14π
x
12 12 12 12 12
π 3π 6π 9π 12π
x− 0
6π 12
π
12 12 12
3π
2 x− 0 π 2π
6 2 2
π
sin 2x − 0 1 0 −1 0
3
Case IV: A 6= 0, ω 6= 0 and φ 6= 0

Now, it is time to draw the graph of function
1 π
(1.25) f (x) = sin 2x −
2 3
1 π 1 π
where A = , ω = 2 and φ = − . One may see the graph of function f (x) = sin 2x −
2 3 2 3
π
is found by compressing the graph of function f (x) = sin 2x − vertically. A is called
3 π
the amplitude. If A > 1, e.g. A = 3, then the graph of function f (x) = 3 sin 2x −
3
π
would be found by elongating vertically the graph of function f (x) = sin 2x − .
3
y
1 π
f (x) = sin 2x −
2 3
1
0 π 5π π 2π 11ππ 7π 3π 2π x
6 12 2 3 12 6 2
−1
2π 5π 8π 11π 14π
x
12 12 12 12 12
π 3π 6π 9π 12π
x− 0
6 π 12
π
12 12 12
3π
2 x− 0 π 2π
6 π 2 2
sin 2x − 0 1 0 −1 0
3
1 π 1 1
sin 2x − 0 0 − 0
2 3 2 2
Case V: f (x) = A sin(ωx + φ ) + b

Referring to examples 1.25 and 1.22, one may see the graph of function
3 π
f (x) = − sin 2x − +1
2 3
3 π
where A = − , ω = 2, φ = − and b = 1, can be found by first elongating the graph of
2 3
π
function f (x) = sin(2x − ) in case III with 1.5 units; then flip the elongated graph of the
3
function based on the x-axis; finally, shift the the flipped graph 1 unit up.
Example 1.5.1. Please find the amplitude of the function with the given graph, the phase
shift, the function period T and the frequency f . Write the expression of the vibration.
y
2
1
7π
12 x
0 ππ 5π π 2π 11ππ 7π 3π 2π
12 6 12 2 3 12 6 2
−1
−2
π
Solution: The amplitude of vibration is A = 2. The phase shift is φ = . From point
12
π 7π
x= to x = , the movement completes one period. So the period of the function is
12 12
6π π 2π 2
T= = = , which gives ω = 4. The frequency is f = . The expression of the
12 2 4 π
function is π
f (x) = 2 sin 4(x − )
12
1

1. To graph function f (x) = cos x + , one may need to move the curve of y = cos x.
3
Readers may refer to figure 1.20 before make the choice.
π π 1 1
units to the left units to the units to the left units to the
3 3 3 3
right right
y
1
1
−
3 x
0 π π 3π 2π
2 2
−1
1 π 1 1 3π 1 1
x − − π− − 2π −
3 2 3 3 2 3 3
1 π 3π
x+ 0 π 2π
3 2 2
1

cos x + 1 0 −1 0 1
3
Correct answers:
Points: Percent:
x
1. To graph function f (x) = cos , one may need to move the points of y = cos x.
5
stretch the shrink the stretch the shrink the
x-coordinate 5 x-coordinate 5 y-coordinate 5 y-coordinate 5
times times times times
1
2. To graph function f (x) = cos x, one may need to move the points of y = cos x.
4
stretch the shrink the stretch the shrink the
x-coordinate 4 x-coordinate 4 y-coordinate 4 y-coordinate 4
times times times times
3. Please find the amplitude, the period and the phase shift.
x π
(a) y = 8 sin − amplitude: period: phase shift:
4 8
1 π
(b) y = sin 3x + amplitude: period: phase shift:
3 7
4. Electricity I in unit Ampere (amp) is the function of time t in unit second.

π
I = 5 sin 100πt + where t ∈ [0, ∞)
3
(a) Please find the electricity I changes’ period, frequency, amplitude.
period: frequency: per second amplitude:
1 1 7 1
(b) Find the electricity at time t = 0, , , and seconds at accuracy 0.001.
600 150 600 60
1 1
t = 0, I = (amp). t= , I= (amp). t= , I=
600 150
(amp).
7 1
t= ,I= (amp). t= ,I= (amp).
600 60
Correct answers:
Points: Percent:
1. A ball hung to a spring moves up and down. The position h centimeter of the object is
the function of time t seconds. (please keep three digits after the decimal point.)
π
h = 2 sin 6t +
3
(a) At time t = 0, where is the object? (cm).
(b) What is the distance between the highest point and the lowest point?
(cm).
(c) How long does it take for the ball to complete an up-and-down cycle?
(seconds).
(d) How many cycles can the ball accomplish in one second? .
Correct answers:
Points: Percent:
3 1
1. Graph function y = sin x.
2 2
graph (a) is correct graph (b) is correct
y y
(a) (b)
1 x 1 x
π π π π
−1 0 3π 2π 5π 3π 7π 4π −1 0 3π 2π
2 2 2 2 2 2
1
2. Graph function y = cos 3x.
2
y y
(a) 7π 9π 11π (b)
1 x 1 x
2 4π 2 5π 2
π π 6π −1 0 π π
−1 0 3π 2π 5π 3π 3π 2π
2 2 2 2 2
3 π
3. Graph function y = sin 2x + .
2 6
y y
π 3π (a) π 3π (b)
π 1 x π 1 x
2 2 2 2
− −
12 0 π 2π 6 0 π 2π
−1 −1
3 1 π

4. Graph function y = cos x− .
2 2 4
y y
(a) 5π 3π (b)
1 x 1
2 2 x
π π 3π 7π 4π 9π 5π −1 0π π
−1 0 3π 2π 2π
2 2 2 2 2
Correct answers:
Points: Percent:
1. Please find the sets of the co-terminal angles. List all elements in the range [−2π, 4π).
π 2π 12π
(a) (b) − (c) (d) 0
4 3 5
2. In a circle with radius r = 15cm, a central angle has the measure of 540 . Please find
the corresponding arc length and the area of the sector.
3. Determine the sign of the following trigonometric functions.
(a) sin 4 (b) cos 5 (c) tan 8 (d) tan(−3)
1
4. Given cos φ = , find the values of sin φ and tan φ .
4
5. Given sin x = 2 cos x, find the values of sin x, cos x and tan x.
6. Express sin4 α − sin2 α + cos2 α with cos α.
7. Prove the following identities.
(a) 2(1 − sin α)(1 + cos α) = (1 − sin α + cos α)2
(b) sin2 α + sin2 β − sin2 α · sin2 β + cos2 α cos2 β = 1
8. Assume tan α = 3, compute

4 sin α − 2 cos α (b) sin α cos α (c) (sin α + cos α)2
(a)
5 cos α + 3 sin α
9. Compute the expressions

25 25 25

(a) sin π + cos π + tan − π
4 4 4
(b) sin 2 + cos 3 + tan 4 (by calculator)
1
10. Given sin(π + α) = − , compute
2
(a) cos(2π − α) (b) tan(α − 7π)
11. Compare values and then confirm your answers with a calculator
(a) sin 3780 210 , tan 11110 , cos 642.50

33π 13

0
(b) sin(−879 ), tan − , cos − π
8 10
(c) sin 3, cos(sin 2)

12. Let x ∈ (π, 2π), fill in the blanks.
7π 7π
x
6 4
sin x −1
√ √
2 3
cos x −
2 √ 2
tan x 3
13. Please tell if the following expressions can be true

π
(a) cos2 x = 1.5 (b) sin3 x = −
4
14. Please find the maximum values and the minimum values of the functions. Find the
sets of x-values at which functions choose the maximum and minimum values.
√ sin x
(a) y = 2 + ,x ∈ R
π
(b) y = 3 − 2 cos x, x ∈ R
15. Given 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π, please find the sets of x-values which satisfy
(a) both y = sin x and y = cos x are increasing
(b) both y = sin x and y = cos x are decreasing
(c) y = sin x is increasing and y = cos x is decreasing
(d) y = sin x is decreasing and y = cos x is increasing
16. Draw the graphs of the following functions in one period.
1 π
(a) y = sin 3x − ,x ∈ R
2 3
π
(b) y = −2 sin x + ,x ∈ R
4
π
(c) y = 1 − sin 2x − ,x ∈ R
5
π x
(d) y = 3 sin − ,x ∈ R
6 3
17. Based on the graph of function y = sin x, how can one find the graph of function
y = sin(x + 2) + 2
18. Please find the amplitude, period and phase shift of the following functions
π 1
(a) y = sin 5x + (b) y = 2 sin x
6 6
1. Given the terminal side of angle α is in quadrant four, please determine where the
terminal side should be for angles
α α
(a) (b) (c) 2α
2 3
2. Both the arc length and the area of the corresponding sector are 5. Please find the
measure of the central angle.
3. Given α is in the second quadrant, please simplify
1 − sin α 1 − cos α
r r
cos α + sin α
1 + sin α 1 + cos α
1
4. Given tan α = − , compute
3
sin α + 2 cos α 1
(a) (b)
5 cos α − sin α 2 sin α cos α + cos2 α
5. Prove the identity

1 + sin α + cos α + 2 sin α cos α
= sin α + cos α
1 + sin α + cos α
y
6. Given x cos θ = a, = b, where a 6= 0 and b 6= 0, prove
tan θ
x2 y2
− =1
a2 b2
7. Given tan θ + sin θ = α, tan θ − sin θ = b, prove (a2 − b2 )2 = 16ab.

π
8. (a) Given function y = 3 cos 2x − , please tell where the function is decreasing.
3
π
(b) Given function y = sin −3x + , please tell where the function is increasing.
4
9. The equation of a circle with center at the origin and radius r is x2 + y2 = r2 . Given
(
x = r cos θ
y = r sin θ
what kind of graph is the given function? (r is a constant, θ ∈ [0, 2π).)

2
2.1 Vectors
In physics, force is a quantity which has both direction and magnitude. Correspondingly
in mathematics, such kind of quantity will be called vector.
Definition 2.1.1. A vector v is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction. A vector,
which originates at the origin and ends at point (a, b), is denoted by a pair of numbers
v =<p a, b >, where a and b are real numbers. The magnitude of v is denoted by the length
|v| = a2 + b2 .
Let’s see a few examples.

Example 2.1.1. Please draw vector < −2, 3 > in xy-coordinate plane and find its magni-
tude.
Solution:
y
|v| = | < −2, 3 > |
q
= (−2)2 + 32
√ √
= 4 + 9 = 13
0 x
(4:55 minutes)
Example 2.1.2. Find a unit vector which is opposite to the direction of vector v =<
−2, 3 >. Draw the unit factor.
y
Solution: The vector of < 2, −3 > has the
opposite direction with vector < −2, 3 >.
By previous example,
√ the length of vector
0
< −2, 3 > is 13. Hence the unit vector,
x
which has the oppositedirection with
2 −3

v =< −2, 3 >, is u = √ , √ .
13 13
61
62 CHAPTER 2. VECTORS AND TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
One may check the length of vector u as follows.

s 2 2
2 −3

√ + √
13 13
r
4 9
= +
13 13 (4:42 minutes)
r
13
= =1
13
Definition 2.1.2. Let u =< u1 , u2 > and v =< v1 , v2 > be two vectors,
where u1 , u2 , v1 and v2 are real numbers. c is a real number. Then
u + v =< u1 , u2 > + < v1 , v2 > is defined as < u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 > .

u − v =< u1 , u2 > − < v1 , v2 > is defined as < u1 − v1 , u2 − v2 > . (6:47 minutes)
c · u = c· < u1 , u2 > is defined as < c · u1 , c · u2 > .
Example 2.1.3. Let a =< 1, 4 > and b =< 3, −2 > . Find the vectors of
1
a + b, a − b, · a and −2b. Draw all these vectors.
2
y
a Solution:
a+b a + b =< 1, 4 > + < 3, −2 >
=< 1 + 3, 4 + (−2) >
0
x =< 4, 2 >
b Vectors a and b form two adjacent sides

of the parallelogram. The sum of a + b
is the diagonal vector.
a−b a − b =< 1, 4 > − < 3, −2 >

y
a =< 1 − 3, 4 − (−2) >
=< −2, 6 >
0 The vector of a−b is equal to the dashed

x vector since they have the same direc-
tion and the same magnitude or length.
b Hence the subtraction of a and b pro-
duces a new vector that starts at the end
of vector b and ends at the end of vector
a.
2.1. VECTORS 63
1 1
· a = · < 1, 4 >=< 0.5, 2 >
y 2 2
−2 · b a
−2 · b = −2· < 3, −2 >=< −6, 4 >
1
·a The scalar multiplication of c times vec-
2
0 tor v is denoted by cv without a dot in be-
x tween two letters. When |c| > 0, it will
stretch the original vector. When |c| < 1,
b
it will shrink the original vector. If c > 0,
the new vector will have the same di-
rection with the original one. The new
vector will have the opposite direction if
c < 0.
There are two special unit vectors. One is i =< 1, 0 >. The other is j =< 0, 1 >.
Since any vector u =< a, b >= a < 1, 0 > +b < 0, 1 >, the vector u = ai + bj. The
expression basically tells a vector can be decomposed into two perpendicular vectors. The
decomposition is very useful in physics.
(4:19 minutes) (5:36 minutes)

1. (7pts ) Let a =< 4, 2 >, b =< 6, y >, and a = λ b, where λ is a constant. Please find
(a) λ =
(b) y =
(c) |a| =
(d) |b| =
(e) (2pts ) Are a and b in the same direction.

in the opposite direction. in the same direction.
(f) The unit vector u which has the opposite direction with a. u =
2. (3pts ) Given vectors a =< 2, 1 > and b =< −3, 4 >. Find
(a) a + b =
(b) a − b =
(c) 3a + 4b =
b y
0 x
→ 3 −
− →
3. (2pts ) Let A(2, 3), B = (4, −3). Point P is on the ray of AB and AP = · BP. Find point
2
P. Point P =
Correct answers:
Points: Percent:
2.1. VECTORS 65
y
−→
OA
0 x
−→
OB
−5
−10
−
→
BP
−15 −→
OP
−
→
AP
2.2 Dot Product of Vectors
An object moves when force applies to it. The work W done by force F is
(2.1) W = |F||s| cos θ
where s is the displacement due to the applied force F, θ is the angle between two vectors.
F
θ s
(11:13 minutes)
The magnitude of F times cos θ is actually the horizontal decomposition magnitude

of vector F. The quantity multiplied by the magnitude of the displacement actually a
number. From here, one may define the dot product of two vectors.
Definition 2.2.1. Let a and b two vectors. The dot product of these two vectors is
(2.2) a · b = |a||b| cos θ , where θ is the angle between two vectors of a and b
By convention, the dot product of vector 0 with any vector is number 0. Since angle
θ can be greater than 900 between any two vectors, it is clear that the dot product can be
negative as well. In this case, the direction of the decomposition of vector b along vector
a is opposite to the direction of vector a. For the case in equation 2.1, the work done by
force F may be negative.
√ Let a =< 4, 0 > and
Example 2.2.1.
5 5 3
b =< − , >. Please find a · b.
2 2
b y
a·b
=|a||b| cos 1200
1200 a
√ !2
v
0 x u 2
p u 5 5 3 1
= 42 + 02 × t − + × −
2 2 2
r
25 25 · 3 1

= + ×4× −
4 4 2
=5 × (−2) = −10
2.2. DOT PRODUCT OF VECTORS 67
Properties of vector dot production

Given vectors a and b, then
(2.3) a·b = b·a
(2.4) (λ a) · b = λ (a · b) (12:26 minutes)
(2.5) (a + b) · c = a · c + b · c
Let’s prove property 2.5.

A
θ2 Proof. Draw vectors a, b and c. One may see
b the projection of a + b on vector c equals the
B
projection of vector a plus that of vector b.
|a + b| cos θ = |a| cos θ1 + |b| cos θ2
a which gives
a+b
|a + b||c| cos θ = |a||c| cos θ1 + |b||c| cos θ2
Therefore,
θ1 (a + b) · c = a · c + b · c
θ C
O c
For the projection of vector a on vector c, please click here.
For the projection of vector b on the horizontal direction, please click here.
For the projection of the sum of vectors a and b on vector c, please click here.
At the end of the previous section, it was mentioned that any vector can be expressed
by two perpendicular unit vectors i and j. Let a =< x1 , y1 >= x1 < 1, 0 > +y1 < 0, 1 >=
x1 i + y2 j and b =< x2 , y2 >= x2 < 1, 0 > +y2 < 0, 1 >= x2 i + y2 j. With the distributive
property 2.5, one may have
y a · b = (x1 i + y1 j) · (x2 i + y2 j)
b =< x2 , y2 > a =< x1 , y1 > = x1 x2 i2 + x2 y1 j · i + x1 y2 i · j + y1 y2 j2
Note i · i = |i||i| cos(00 ) = 1 and similarly j ·

j
j = 1. j · i = i · j = |i||j| cos(900 ) = 12 × 0 = 0.
0 i x It then gives
(2.6) a · b = x1 x2 + y1 y2
The dot product of two vectors is the sum

of products of their corresponding coordi-
nates.
p
Recall example 2.1.1, the length of a vector a =< x, y > is |a| = x2 + y2 . Based on
identity 2.6 and the definition 2.2 , one may see |a||b| cos θ = a · b = x1 x2 + y1 y2 . It then
gives
a·b x1 x2 + y1 y2
(2.7) cos θ = =q
|a||b|
q
x1 + y1 x22 + y22
2 2
(19:48 minutes)
Formula 2.7 tells the angle between two vectors a and b can be found even without
y1 y2
graphing the vectors. Moreover, if x1 x2 + y1 y2 = 0 ←→ y1 y2 = −x1 x2 ←→ · = −1,
x1 x2
then the dot product a · b = 0 ←→ cos θ = 0 ←→ θ = 900 , which means two vectors of a
and b are perpendicular.
It is worth noting that if u =< x, y >, then u2 = u · u = x · x + y · y =

x2 + y2 = |u|2 . Hence
u2 = |u|2
(15:49 minutes)
Example 2.2.2. Given |a| = 6, |b| = 4, angle θ between two vectors a and b is θ = 600 .
Find (a + b)2 .
Solution:
(a + b)2
=(a + b) · (a + b)
=a · a + a · b + b · a + b · b
=a2 + 2a · b + b2
=|a|2 + 2|a||b| cos θ + |b|2
=62 + 2 × 6 × 4 × cos 600 + 42
=36 + 24 + 16 = 76
Example 2.2.3. Assume a =< 5, −7 >, b =< −6, −4 >. Please find a · b and the angle
between vectors a and b.
Solution: By formula 2.6, the dot product of two vectors a and b is

a·b
=5 × (−6) + (−7) × (−4)
= − 30 + 28 = −2
q √ q √
|a| = 52 + (−7)2 = 74 and |b| = (−6)2 + (−4)2 = 52.
By formula 2.7,
−2
cos θ = √ √ ≈ −0.03
74 52
With the help of a calculator in degree mode, one may have cos−1 (−0.03) = 920 .
2.2. DOT PRODUCT OF VECTORS 69
Example 2.2.4. Let a =< 1, 2 > and b =< −2, 1 >. Please find the angle between these
two vectors.
Solutions: a · b =< 1, 2 > · < −2, 1 >= 1 × (−2) + 2 × 1 = 0
By formula 2.7, it gives cos θ = 0. Therefore, two vectors a and b are perpendicular.
Example 2.2.5. A river is about 0.5 miles in width. A boat wants to reach point B from
point A. The boat’s linear speed is 10miles/hour in still water. The speed of river stream is
2 miles/hour. What the angle should the boat take? How long does it take for the boat to
reach point B on the other side of the river?
D B
v
v2
θ
A v1 C
To toggle the river on and off, click here.

Solution: Vector v is the sum of vectors v1 + v2 . The magnitude of v equals
q p √
|v| = |v2 |2 − |v1 |2 = 102 − 22 = 96miles/hour
|v1 | 2
From tan θ = = √ ≈ 0.204, it gives θ = tan−1 0.204 = 11.530 .
|v| 96
Time t spent across the river is
0.5
t = √ = 0.051(hours) = 0.051 ∗ 60 ≈ 3.1(minutes).
96
Back to equation 2.1 at the beginning of the section, if the distance is five meters
produced by 100 newton force at the angle θ = 300 , then work will be
W = 100 × 5 × cos 300 = 433(Joul)
If the angle between the force and the displacement is 450 , then the work done will be
353.5(Joul). One may see the bigger the angle, the less the work produced by the force
F. If the angle between two vectors is 900 , then the force cannot produce any work on the
object along the horizontal direction.
1. (5pts ) Let a =< −3, 4 >, b =< 5, 2 >. θ is the angle between vectors a and b. Find
(a) |a| = (d) cos θ =

(at accuracy 0.0001)
(b) |b| =
(e) θ =
(with a calculator, at accuracy 0.1 in de-
(c) a · b =
gree)
2. (4pts ) Assume a =< 2, 3 >, b =< −2, 4 > and c =< −1, −2 >. Find
(a) a · b = (c) a · (b + c) =
(b) (a + b) · (a − b) = (d) (a + b)2 =
3. (3pts ) Let |a| = 3, |b| = 4, angle θ between vectors a and b is θ = 1500 . Find
(a) a · b = (c) |a + b| =
(b) (a + b)2 =
4. (2pts ) Let |a| = 2, |b| = 5, a · b = −3. Find the exact value
(a) |a + b| = (b) |a − b| =
√
5. (2pts ) Given |a| = 12, |b| = 9, a · b = −54 2. Find angle θ between vectors a and b.
θ= degree
6. (2pts ) Given |a| = 8, |b| = 10, |a + b| = 16. Find angle θ between vectors a and b.
(a) cos θ = (b) θ = degree

(at accuracy 0.1)
Correct answers:
Points: Percent:
2.3. SUM AND DIFFERENCE FORMULAS 71
2.3 Sum and Difference Formulas
Typically, the formula of cos(α − β ) will be studied first. After the identity is found, other
trigonometric function values of the difference or the sum of two angles will come out
naturally.
2.3.1 An Important Identity cos(α − β )
Let’s take the vector approach to study the formula. This might be the most efficient way
to find the identity
y
A(cos α, sin α)
θ B(cos β , sin β )
α β x
O (1, 0)
(11:47 minutes)
−→ −→
In the unit circle, vector OA =< cos α, sin α >, vector OB =< cos β , sin β >. The
angle between two vectors is θ . By formula 2.7, one may have
−→ −→
OA · OB < cos α, sin α >< cos β , sin β >
cos θ = −→ −→ = p q = cos α cos β + sin α sin β
|OA||OB| 2
cos α + sin α cos β + sin β
2 2 2
Note θ = α − β , therefore it gives.
(2.8) cos(α − β ) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β
Identity 2.8 is the most important formula. Almost all other identities come from the
formula. Before going to discuss other identities, let’s look at some examples.
Example 2.3.1. Find the exact value of cos 150 .

Solution: If one has noticed that 150 = 450 − 300 , then it is clear
cos 150 = cos(450 − 300 )

= cos 450 cos 300 + sin 450 sin 300
√ √ √
2 3 2 1
= · + ·
2 2 2 2
√ √
6+ 2
=
4
Please note 150 = 600 − 450 as well. One may use the formula to solve the problem and
get the same answer.
4 π 5
Example 2.3.2. Given sin α = , α ∈ , π , cos β = − and β is in the third quadrant.
5 2 13
Find the value of cos(α − β ).
4 π
Solution: From sin α = and α ∈ , π , one may get
5 s 2
2
p
2 4 3
cos α = − 1 − sin α = − 1 − =−
5 5
5
From cos β = − and β is in the third quadrant, one may get
13 s 2
5 12
q
sin β = − 1 − cos2 β = − 1 − − =−
13 13
Therefore,
cos(α − β ) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β

3 5 4 12

= − × − + × −
5 13 5 13
33
=−
65
1. (4pts ) Use formula 2.8 to prove

π π π
(a) cos − x = sin x cos − x = cos + sin x
2 2 2
(b) cos(2π − x) = cos x cos(2π − x) = cos(2π) + sin x
3 π
2. (2pts ) Given cos α = − , α ∈ , π , find
5 2
π
cos −α =
4
15
3. (2pts ) Given sin θ = , θ is in quadrant two, find
17
π
cos θ − =
3
2 3π 3 3π

pts
4. (2 ) Assume sin α = − , α ∈ π, , cos β = , β ∈ , 2π , find
3 2 4 2
cos(β − α) =
Correct answers:
Points: Percent:
2.3.2 Sum and Difference Formula for sin, cos and tan
Referring to formulas 1.13, 1.12 and 2.8, the first formula that comes out easily is the sum
formula of two angles for cos. Here are the details.
cos(α + β ) = cos(α − (−β ))

= cos α cos(−β ) + sin α sin(−β )
= cos α cos β − sin α sin β (15:49 minutes)
(2.9) cos(α + β ) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β
Referring to formulas 1.18, 1.19 and 2.8, one may find

π
sin(α + β ) = cos − (α + β )
2π
= cos ( − α) − β
π2 π
= cos − α cos β + sin − α sin β
2 2
= sin α cos β + cos α sin β
Similarly, one may derive the formula of sin(α − β ). Hence, there are two more formulas.
(2.10) sin(α + β ) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β

(2.11) sin(α − β ) =
tan is the ratio of sin over cos. Since the sum and difference formula of sin and cos
have been found, the sum and difference formula of tan can then be written as follows.
Readers may want to figure out the middle steps.
(2.12) tan(α + β ) =
(2.13) tan(α − β ) =
3
Example 2.3.3. Let sin α = − , where α is in quadrant four. Find the following trigono-
5
metric function values.
Solution: One may first figure out the absolute trigonometric function values of cos α and
tan α. Then based on the quadrant number of the angle, the signs of cos α and tan α can
3
be determined. | sin α| = , one may assume |AB| = 3 and OB = 5.
5
p
B Therefore, the length |OA| = 52 − 32 =
√ 4
16 = 4. It then gives | cos α| = . By the
5
given condition that α is in quadrant four, so
5 3 4
cos α = . tan α is the opposite side 3 over
5
α the adjacent side 4. Again α is in quadrant
3
O A four. Hence tan α = − .
4
π π π
sin − α = sin cos α − cos sin α
4 √ 4 √ 4
2 4 2 3
= · − · −
2 5 2 5
√ (8:32 minutes)
7 2
=
10
π π π
cos + α = cos cos α − sin sin α
4 √ 4 √ 4
2 4 2 3
= · − · −
2 5 2 5
√
7 2
=
10
π tan α − tan π4
tan α − =
4 1 + tan α tan π4
− 34 − 1
=
1 + − 34

− 47
= 1
= −7
4
Example 2.3.4. Evaluate the values of the following expressions:

(1) sin 720 cos 420 − cos 720 sin 420
(2) cos 200 cos 700 − sin 200 sin 700
1 + tan 150
(3)
1 − tan 150
Solutions: Based on formula 2.11, one may have
sin 720 cos 420 − cos 720 sin 420

= sin(720 − 420 )
1
= sin 300 =
2
Based on formula 2.8, one may have
cos 200 cos 700 − sin 200 sin 700

= cos(200 + 700 )
= cos 900 = 0
Based on formula 2.12, one may have
1 + tan 150
1 − tan 150
tan 450 + tan 150
=
1 − tan 450 tan 150
= tan(450 + 150 )
√
= tan 600 = 3
1. (4pts ) Find the exact values of the following expressions based on the sum or difference
formulas.
(a) sin 150 = (c) cos 750 =
(b) sin 750 = (d) tan 150 =
3 π
2. (2pts ) Given cos θ = − and θ ∈ , π , find the exact value of the expression.
5 2
π
sin θ + =
3
12 3π

pts
3. (2 ) Given sin θ = − and θ ∈ π, , find the exact value of the expression.
13 2
π
cos +θ =
6
4. (2pts ) Assume tan α = 3, find the exact value of

π
tan α + =
4
5. (6pts ) Evaluate the exact values of the following expressions
(a) sin 720 cos 180 + cos 720 sin 180 =
(b) cos 720 cos 120 − sin 720 sin 120 =
tan 120 + tan 330

(c) =
1 − tan 120 tan 330
(d) cos 740 sin 140 − sin 740 cos 140 =
(e) sin 340 sin 260 − cos 340 cos 260 =
(f) sin 200 cos 1100 + cos 1600 sin 700 =
6. (3pts ) Simplify the following expressions:

√
1 3
(a) cos x − sin x = cos 600 cos x − sin 600 sin x = cos(600 + x)
2 2
√
(b) 3 sin x + cos x =
√
(c) 2(sin x − cos x) =
√ √
(d) 2 cos x − 6 sin x =
3 3π 5π

pts
7. (2 ) Given sin(α −β ) cos α −cos(β −α) sin α = , β ∈ (π, ). Find sin β + =
5 2 4
Correct answers:
Points: Percent:
2.3.3 Double Angle Formulas
If α = β in formula 2.10, then one may have sin(α + α) = sin α cos α + cos α sin α. which
gives sin(2α) = 2 sin α cos α. Similarly, the double angle formulas can be found for cos
and tan. Readers may fill in blanks in the formula tables.
(2.14) sin(2α) = 2 sin α cos α

(2.15) cos(2α) =
(2.16) tan(2α) = (12:58 minutes)
Formula 2.15 can be expressed only containing sin or cos with the help of Pythagorean
sin2 α + cos2 α = 1. Readers may figure out the details.
(2.17) cos(2α) =
(2.18) cos(2α) =
5 π π
Example 2.3.5. Given sin(2α) = , < α < . Evaluate sin(4α), cos(4α) and tan(4α).
13 4 2
π π π
Solution: < α < −→ < 2α < π.
4 2 2 s 2
5 5
q
2
From sin(2α) = , one may have cos(2α) = − 1 − sin (2α) = − 1 − =
13 13
12
− .
13
Therefore,
sin(4α) = sin(2 · 2α)

= 2 sin(2α) cos(2α)
5 12 120

= 2· · − =− (12:49 minutes)
13 13 169
cos(4α) = cos(2 · 2α)

= 1 − 2 sin2 (2α)
2
5 119
= 1−2· =
13 169
sin(4α)
tan(4α) =
cos(4α)
120 119 120

= − ÷ =−
169 169 119
4
Example 2.3.6. In 4ABC, it is given that cos A = and tan B = 2. Evaluate tan(2A + 2B).
5
4
Solution: From cos A = and 0 < A < π in triangle 4ABC, one may have sin A =
s 5
2
p 4 3 sin A 3 4 3
1 − cos2 A = 1 − = . Therefore, tan A = = ÷ = .
5 5 cos A 5 5 4
Hence
2 tan A 2 · 34 24
tan(2A) = = 2
=
1 − tan2 A 1 − 3 7
4
2 tan B 2·2 4
From tan B = 2, one may get tan(2B) = 2
= 2
=− .
1 − tan B 1 − 2 3
tan(2A) + tan(2B)
tan(2A + 2B) =
1 − tan(2A) · tan(2B)
24 4
7 + (− 3 )
=
1 − 24 4
7 · (− 3 )
44
=
117
α 4
1. (3pts ) Given cos = − , 8π < α < 12π, Find
8 5
α α α
(a) sin = (b) cos = (c) tan =
4 4 4
3
2. (2pts ) sin(α − π) = , find cos(2α) =
5
π
3. (2pts ) Given sin(2α) = − sin α and α ∈ , π , find tan α =
2
1
4. (2pts ) Assume tan α = , find tan(2α) =
3
5. (4pts ) Evaluate the following expressions:
(a) sin 150 cos 150 =

π π
(b) cos2 − sin2 =
8 8
tan 22.50
(c) =
1 − tan2 22.50
(d) 2 cos2 22.50 − 1 =
Correct answers:
Points: Percent:
1. Based on the sum or difference formulas to prove

3π 3π

(a) cos − α = − sin α (c) sin − α = − cos α
2 2
(b) cos(π − α) = − cos α (d) sin(π − α) = sin α
3 π
2. Assume cos α = , 0 < α < π. Find the value of cos α − .
5 6
2 3 π
3π

3. Given sin α = and cos β = − , α ∈ , π , β ∈ π, . Find cos(α − β ).
3 4 2 2
1 11
4. Assume α, β are acute angles, cos α = , cos(α + β ) = − . Find cos β . (Hint:
7 14
β = (α + β ) − α)
3
5. Assume sin(300 + α) = , 600 < α < 1500 , find cos α.
5
6. Find the exact values of the given expressions
7π 61π 35π

(a) sin − (b) cos − (c) tan
12 12 12
2 3 π
7. Given sin α = , cos β = − , α = , π , β is in quadrant three. Please find the
3 4 2
values of cos(α + β ) and sin(α − β ).
5 3
8. In 4ABC, given sin A = , cos B = , find cosC.
13 5
3 π 1
9. Given sin θ = , θ ∈ , π , tan φ = . Find the values of tan(θ + φ ) and tan(θ − φ ).
5 2 2
10. Assume tan α and tan β are two real number roots of function 2x2 + 3x − 7 = 0. Find
the value of tan(α + β ).
11. Assume tan(α + β ) = 3, tan(α − β ) = 5. Find tan(2α) and tan(2β ).
12. In 4ABC, AD is the height on the side of BC. BD : DC : AD = 2 : 3 : 6. Find the

measure of angle ]BAC.
13. Simplify the given expressions.

√ √ √
(a) 3 15 sin x + 3 5 cos x 3 3
(c) cos x − sin x
2 2
√ x x √
(b) 3 sin + cos 2 π √6 π
2 2

(d) sin −x + cos −x
4 4 4 4
(e) sin 3470 cos 1480 + sin 770 cos 580
(f) sin 1640 sin 2240 + sin 2540 sin 3140
(g) sin(α + β ) cos(γ − β ) − cos(β + α) sin(β − γ)
(h) sin(α − β ) sin(β − γ) − cos(α − β ) cos(γ − β )
tan 5π 5π
4 + tan 12
(i)
1 − tan 5π
12
sin(α + β ) − 2 sin α cos β

(j)
2 sin α sin β + cos(α + β )
π
14. Given sin α = 0.80, α ∈ 0, . Find sin(2α), cos(2α).
2
√
3
15. Given cos ψ = − , 1800 < ψ < 2700 . Find sin(2ψ), cos(2ψ) and tan(2ψ).
3
5
16. The sin value of one bottom angle is in an equilateral triangle . Find the sin, cos
13
and tan value of the top angle.
1 1
17. Given tan α = , tan β = , Find tan(α + 2β ).
7 3
1 3π

18. It is known that cos(α + β ) cos β + sin(α + β ) sin β = , where α ∈ , 2π . Find
3 2
π
cos(2α + ).
4
19. Simplify the expressions:
(a) (sin α + cos α)2
(b) cos4 θ − sin4 θ
(c) sin x cos x cos 2x

1 1
(d) −
1 − tan θ 1 + tan θ
20. Prove the identities.
(a) sin(3α) = 3 sin α − 4 sin2 α
(b) cos(3α) = 4 cos3 α − 3 cos α
21. In 4ABC, it is known that tan A and tan B are the two real number roots of equation
x2 + p(x + 1) + 1 = 0 with respect to variable x. Find ]C.
2.4 Trigonometric Function Identities

After the sum (difference) formulas and the double angle formulas are introduced, a set of
new tools has been provided. It then enriches the trigonometric function transformations.
With such a new platform, one may be more capable of evaluating trigonometric function
values.
α α α
Example 2.4.1. Express sin2 , cos2 and tan2 by cos α.
2 2 2
α
Solution: α is twice as much as . In the double angle formula of 2.18 cos(2α) =
2
α
1 − 2 sin2 α, one may replace 2α with α, and α with . It then gives
2
α
cos α = 1 − 2 sin2
2
Hence,
α 1 − cos α (10:29 minutes)
(2.19) sin2 =
2 2
Similarly, from the double angle formula of 2.17 cos(2α) = 2 cos2 α − 1, one may
have
α
cos α = 2 cos2 −1
2
Hence,
α 1 + cos α
(2.20) cos2 =
2 2
From identities 2.19 and 2.20, one may get
α 1 − cos α
(2.21) tan2 =
2 1 + cos α
Referring to the double angle formulas, one may get the half angle formulas. If one
refers to formulas 2.10 and 2.11, the following identities will come out naturally.
Example 2.4.2. Prove the following identities:
1
(1) sin α cos β = [sin(α + β ) + sin(α − β )]
2
θ +φ θ −φ
(2) sin θ + sin φ = 2 sin cos
2 2
Proof.
(1) Formulas 2.10 and 2.11 give
sin(α + β ) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β

sin(α − β ) = sin α cos β − cos α sin β ( 8:57 minutes )
2.4. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION IDENTITIES 85
One may add two identities together. The right hand sides of two identities have
cos α sin β , but signs are opposite. They will cancel each other. Hence
sin(α + β ) + sin(α − β ) = 2 sin α cos β
Both sides divided by 2, one may get
1
(2.22) sin α cos β = (sin(α + β ) + sin(α − β ))
2
(2) If one lets α + β = θ and α − β = φ , then
θ +φ θ −φ
α= ,β =
2 2
Replace α and β with the above quantities in formula 2.22, one may have
θ +φ θ −φ
sin θ + sin φ = 2 sin cos
2 2
√ Please find the period, the maximum and the minimum value of function
Example 2.4.3.
y = sin x + 3 cos x.
Solution: One may first make the necessary transformation, then finds the values the ques-
tion asks.
√
y = sin x + 3 cos x
√ !
1 3
=2 sin x + cos x
2 2
π π
= 2 sin x cos + cos x sin (8:48 minutes)
3 3
π
= 2 sin x +
3
Therefore, the period is T = 2π. The maximum value is 2 and the minimum value is −2.
Q
Example 2.4.4. Given OPQ is a sector of radius 1 and
π
the central angle . Point C is a moving point on the
3 α
_ D C
arc of PQ. ABCD is the rectangle embedded in the
sector. Let ]COP = α. What value will α choose to
make the rectangle area be the maximum? What is the
maximum area? P
O A B
Solution:
Figure 2.1
The area S of rectangle ABCD is the function of α. The area S is the product of length BC
and AB.
S = AB · BC
sin α
OB − OA AD
(15:18 minutes)
cos α
From the above diagram, one may have

√ !
3
S = cos α − sin α · sin α
3
√
3 2
= sin α cos α − sin α
√3
1 3
= sin(2α) − (1 − cos(2α))
2 √6 √
1 3 3
= sin(2α) + cos(2α) −
2 6 6!
√ √
1 3 1 3
=√ sin(2α) + cos(2α) −
3 2 2 6
√
1 π 3
= √ sin 2α + −
3 6 6
π π π 5π
Since 0 < α < , one may have < 2α + < . Therefore, if
3 6 6 6
π π
2α + =
6 2
π
that’s when α = ,
6 √ √
1 3 3
Smax = √ − =
3 6 6
√
3 π
Hence, the rectangle ABCD reaches the maximum value when α = .
6 6
1. Prove identities by filling the blanks.

By formula 2.21, one may have
1 − cos x 1 − cos x 1 −
tan2 x = = ·
1 + cos x 1 + cos x 1 − cos x
(1 − cos x)2 (1 − cos x)2
= =
1−
1 − cos x 1 − cos x 1 +
tan2 x = = ·
1 + cos x 1 + cos x 1 + cos x
1−
= =
(1 + cos x)2 (1 + cos x)2
2. Referring example 2.4.2, prove the identities by filling the blanks.

1
(sin(s + t) − sin(s − t))
2
1
= (sin s cost + cos s sint − sin s cost + ) =
2
1
(cos(s + t) + cos(s − t))
2
1
= (cos s cost − sin s sint + cos s cost + ) =
2
1
− (cos(s + t) − cos(s − t))
2
1
= − (cos s cost − sin s sint − cos s cost − ) =
2
u+v u−v
3. If s + t = u and s − t = v, then s = and t = .
2 2
1 u+v 1 u+v
(sin u−sin v) = cos (cos u+cos v) = cos
2 2 2 2
1 u+v
− (cos u − cos v) = sin
2 2
4. Find the period and the maximum value.
(a) y = sin(2x) cos(2x) T = ymax =

x
(b) y = 2 cos2 + 1 T = ymax =
2
√
(c) y = 3 cos(4x) + sin(4x) T = ymax =
Correct answers:
Points: Percent:
1. Prove the following identities:
(a) (sin 2α − cos 2α)2 = 1 − sin(4α)

θ 1 2
(b) tan − = −
2 tan θ2 tan θ
x π x π
(c) tan + + tan − = 2 tan x
2 4 2 4
1 + sin 2φ
(d) = cos φ + sin φ
cos φ + sin φ
1 − 2 sin α cos α 1 − tan α
(e) =
cos2 α − sin α2 1 + tan α
(f) 1 + cos 2θ + 2 sin2 θ = 2

1 − cos 2θ
(g) = tan2 θ
1 + cos 2θ
1 + sin 2θ − cos 2θ
(h) = tan θ
1 + sin 2θ + cos 2θ
1 1
2. It is known that sin(α + β ) = and sin(α − β ) = .
2 3
(a) Prove: sin α cos β = 5 cos α sin β ;
(b) Prove: tan α = 5 tan β

1 − tan θ π
3. Assume = 1. Prove tan 2θ = −4 tan θ + .
2 + tan θ 4
√ π √ π
4. Given x + y = 2 sin θ + and x − y = 2 sin θ − . Prove x2 + y2 = 1.
4 4
5. Find the period and the monotone decreasing intervals of function
π π
f (x) = sin + 4x + cos 4x −
3 6
1. Prove the following identities:
(a) 3 + cos 4α − 4 cos 2α = 8 sin4 α

tan α tan 2α √ π
(b) + 3(sin2 α − cos2 α) = 2 sin 2α − .
tan 2α − tan α 3
2. Assume sin 760 = m. Use m to express cos 70 .
3. Find the minimum and maximum values
(a) y = 3 sin x + 4 cos x
(b) y = a sin x + b cos x, where a and b are constants.

4 5
1. Assume α and β are acute angles. sin α = and cos(α + β ) = . Find the value of
5 13
sin β .
π 3

5π

12

π 3π
π
2. Given cos − α = , sin + β = − , where α ∈ , , β ∈ 0, .
4 5 4 13 4 4 4
Find the value of sin(α + β ).
√
1 10
3. Let’s assume α, β are acute angles. tan α = and sin β = . Find the value of
7 10
tan(α + 2β ).
4. (a) Prove: tan α + tan β = tan(α + β ) − tan α tan β tan(α + β )

√
(b) Find the value of tan 200 + tan 400 + 3 tan 200 tan 400
3π
(c) Assume α + β = . Find the value of (1 − tan α)(1 − tan β )
4
tan 200 + tan 400 + tan 1200
(d) Find the value of
tan 200 + tan 400
5. Simplify the following expressions:
√
1 3
(a) 0
−
sin 10 cos 100
√
(b) sin 400 (tan 100 − 3)
√
(c) tan 700 cos 100 ( 3 tan 200 − 1)
√
(d) sin 500 (1 + 3 tan 100 )
3 3π θ θ 2

6. (a) Given cos θ = − , π < θ < . Find the value of sin − cos .
5 2 2 2
α α 1
(b) Given sin − cos = . Find the value of sin α.
2 2 5
5
(c) Given sin4 θ + cos4 θ = . Find the value of sin 2θ .
9
3
(d) Given cos 2θ = . Find the value of sin4 θ + cos4 θ .
5
1 3
7. Given cos(α + β ) = and cos(α − β ) = . Find the value of tan α tan β .
5 5
8. Prove the following identities.
(a) cos 4α + 4 cos 2α + 3 = 8 cos4 α

1 + sin 2α 1 1
(b) = tan α +
2 cos α + sin 2α
2 2 2
sin(2α + β ) sin β
(c) − 2 cos(α + β ) =
sin α sin α
3 − 4 cos 2A + cos 4A
(d) = tan4 A
3 + 4 cos 2A + cos 4A
9. Given function y = (sin x + cos x)2 + 2 cos2 x.
(a) find the monotone decreasing intervals of the function.
(b) find the maximum and minimum value.
10. Given function f (x) = cos4 x − 2 sin x cos x − sin4 x
(a) find the period of the function

h πi
(b) When x ∈ 0, , find the minimum of f (x) and the set of x which chooses the
2
minimum of f (x).
11. Given function f (x) = 2 sin x(sin x + cos x),
(a) Find the function period and the maximum value.

h π πi
(b) Draw the graph of the function on interval − , .
2 2
π π
12. It is known that 1 is the maximum value of function f (x) = sin x + +sin x − +
6 6
cos x + a
(a) find the value of constant a.
(b) find the set of x where f (x) ≥ 0.
13. Given lines l1 k l2 . Point A is in between l1 and l2 . The distances from A to l1 and l2
are h1 and h2 , respectively. Point B moves on line l2 . AC ⊥ AB and AC intersects l1 at
C. Find the minimum value of the area 4ABC.
1 π
1. Given sin α − cos α = , 0 ≤ α ≤ π, find the value of sin 2α − .
5 4
1 1
2. Assume cos α + cos β = , sin α + sin β = . Find the value of cos(α − β ).
2 3
√
π 4 3 π
3. It is known that sin α + + sin α = − , − < α < 0. Find the value of cos α.
3 5 2
π 3 17π 7π sin 2x + 2 sin2 x
4. Let cos +x = , <x< . Evaluate the value of .
4 5 12 4 1 − tan x
5. If one have sin θ + cos θ = 2 sin α, sin θ cos θ = sin2 β , then please prove 4 cos2 2α =
cos2 2β .
√
6. hFunction f (x) = 3 sin 2x + 2 cos2 x + m choose the maximum value of 6 on interval
πi
0, . Find the value of constant m and the minimum value of f (x) in the range of R.
2
Write the set of such x which chooses the minimum value.
1
7. Given sin β + cos β = , β ∈ (0, π). Find the value of tan β .
5
2.5 Law of sin

In an triangle 4ABC, there are six quantities: three angles and three sides. Let’s look at
the first two left triangles below. h denotes the height of the triangles.
B B B
β β β
a c h a h c a c
γ
γ α π −α γ α α
C b A C b A C b A
h
In these two triangles, = sin γ =⇒ h = a sin γ
a
h
In the middle triangle, = sin α =⇒ h = c sin α
c
h (18:00 minutes)
In the left triangle, = sin(π − α)=⇒ h = c sin(π − α) = c sin α
c
In either one of these two triangles, one may have a · sin γ = h = c · sin α. Therefore,
sin α sin γ sin α sin β sin β sin γ
= . Similarly, one may prove either = or = . The third
a c a b b c
triangle is a right triangle. It is clear that
a b
sin α = , sin β =
c c
sin α sin β 1
It then gives = = . Note sin γ = sin 900 = 1. Hence, the following theorem
a b c
follows
Theorem 2.5.1. [Law of sin] In triangle 4ABC, let α, β and γ represent three angles that
correspond to three sides a, b and c, respectively. Then
sin α sin β sin γ

(2.23) = =
a b c
Among the six quantities, if the values of three quantities are appropriately given,
then one may find the other three quantities. Here let’s see some examples.
Case I: Angle, Angle, Side
Example 2.5.1. Solve 4ABC given α = 230 , γ = 110 and a = 10.5. (Round answers to
one decimal place)
Solution: Since two angles are given, one may always find the third angle by the sum of
three angles is 1800 in a triangle.
α + β + γ = 1800 ⇒ 230 + β + 110 = 1800 ⇒ β = 1460
2.5. LAW OF SIN 95
A
b α
c
γ β
C a B (14:36 minutes)
By the law of sin, one may have
sin α sin β sin 230 sin 1460

= ⇒ =
a b 10.5 b
10.5 · sin 1460
⇒b= = 15.0
sin 230
By the law of sin again, one may have
sin α sin γ sin 230 sin 110

= ⇒ =
a c 10.5 c
10.5 · sin 110
⇒c= = 5.1
sin 230
Case II: Side, Side, Angle
Example 2.5.2. Solve 4ABC given γ = 71.70 , a = 17.34 and c = 20.22. (Round answers
to two decimal places)
Solution: By law of sin, one may have
sin α sin γ sin α sin 71.70

= ⇒ =
a c 17.34 20.22
sin 71.70
⇒ sin α = 17.34 · = 0.814195736
20.22
(9:48 minutes)
α = sin−1 (0.814195736) = 54.507915540 ≈ 54.510
α + β + γ = 1800 ⇒ 54.510 + β + 71.70 = 1800 ⇒ β = 1800 − (54.510 + 71.70 ) = 53.790
By law of sin, one may have
sin β sin γ sin 53.790 sin 71.70

= ⇒ =
b c b 20.22
20.22 · sin 53.790
⇒b= = 17.18371096 ≈ 17.18 (6:44 minutes)
sin 71.70
Please note that α could also be 1800 −54.510 = 125.490 since sin(1800 −54.510 ) =
sin 54.410 = 0.814195736. But if that were the case, then the sum of three angles would
be α + β + γ = 125.490 + β + 71.70 > 1800 . Hence α cannot be 125.490 .
Example 2.5.3. Solve 4ABC given α = 42.120 , a = 5.01 and b = 6.12. (Round answers
to two decimal places)
sin α sin β sin 42.120 sin β

= ⇒ =
a b 5.01 6.12
6.12 · sin 42.120
⇒ sin β = = 0.8192805845 (10:28 minutes)
5.01
Case A:
β = sin−1 0.8192805845 = 55.01284221 ≈ 55.010
β = 55.010
c = 7.41 a = 5.01
α = 42.12 γ = 82.870
A b = 6.12 C
α + β + γ = 1800 ⇒ 42.120 + 55.010 + γ = 1800 ⇒ γ = 82.86715779 ≈ 82.870

sin α sin γ sin 42.120 sin 82.870

= ⇒ =
a c 5.01 c
5.01 · sin 82.867157790
⇒c= = 7.41 (14:53 minutes)
sin 42.120
Case B:
Please note from sin β = 0.8192805845, one may also have
β = 1800 − sin−1 0.8192805845 = 1800 − 55.01284220 = 124.9871578 ≈ 124.990
(One may check sin 124.990 = 0.8192521398)
α + β + γ = 1800 ⇒ 42.120 + 124.990 + γ = 1800 ⇒ γ = 12.89284220 ≈ 12.890

2.5. LAW OF SIN 97
sin α sin γ sin 42.120 sin 12.89284220

= ⇒ =
a c 5.01 c
5.01 · sin 12.89284220
⇒c= = 1.666761629 ≈ 1.67 (8:18 minutes)
sin 42.120
Example 2.5.4. Solve 4ABC given γ = 650 , c = 18 and b = 25. (Round answers to one
decimal place)
sin β sin γ sin β sin 650

= ⇒ =
b 18 25 18
25 · sin 650
⇒ sin β = ≈ 1.25876 > 1 (6:56 minutes)
18
There is no solution for β . Therefore, there are no solutions for α and the side of c.
Example 2.5.5. (Land Survey) To find the distance between two points A and B that lie
on opposite banks of a river, a surveyor lays off a line segment AC of length b = 235
yards along one bank and determines that the measures of ]BAC and ]ACB are 630 200
and 540 100 , respectively, Approximate the distance between A and B. (Round the answer
to the nearest whole number).
Solution:
α + β + γ = 1800 ⇒ 630 200 + β + 540 100 = 1800

⇒ β = 1800 − (630 200 + 540 100 ) = 62.50
B
c =?
α = 630 200 γ = 540 100

(10:24 minutes)
A b = 235 yards C
sin β sin γ sin 62.50 sin 540 100

= ⇒ =
b c 235 c
0
235 · sin 54 100
⇒c= = 214.7887987 ≈ 215yards
sin 62.50
The distance between A and B is 215 yards.
Example 2.5.6. The tall trees in Redwood National Park in California are even taller than
a football field. At the accuracy of feet, find the height of one of these trees based on the
angles of elevation at two different spots B and C which are 100 ft apart.
Solution:
A
370 100
440
B
100ft C T
]A + ]B + ]ACB = 1800
)
−→ ]A + ]B = ]ACT −→ ]A = ]ACT − ]B
]ACT + ]ACB = 1800
]A = 440 − 370 100 = 60 500

By law of sin,
|AC| |BC| |BC| · sin B 100 · sin 370 100

= −→ |AC| = −→ |AC| =
sin B sin A sin A sin 60 500
In triangle 4ACT ,
h 100 · sin 370 100

= sin 440 −→ h = |AC| sin 440 −→ h = · sin 440 ≈ 353ft
|AC| sin 60 500
2.5. LAW OF SIN 99
1. Let BC = 10cm, ]C = 550 and ]B = 420 in a triangle 4ABC. Find the lengths of the
remaining sides and the angle in 4ABC at accuracy 0.01. (See example 2.5.1 for hint.)
A= degree AC = cm AB = cm
2. Assume ]A = 37.480 , ]B = 20.320 and c = 14.94m in a triangle 4ABC. Find the

lengths of remaining sides and the measure of angle ]C at accuracy 0.01.
a≈ m b≈ m ]C = degree
3. Determine the number of triangles 4ABC possible with the given conditions A =
41.90 , a = 8.7 f t and b = 10.1 f t. (See example 2.5.3 for hint.)
The number of possible triangles is
(5:16 minutes)
√
4. Given CA = 6 f t, ]A = 450 and BC = 6 2 f t in a triangle 4ABC. Please find the
measure of angle ]B without using calculators.
]B = degree
5. Given ]B = 133.70 , b = 14.199 f t and c = 7.496 f t in a triangle 4ABC, solve the

triangle 4ABC if possible. (Angle at accuracy 0.1. Side length at accuracy 0.001)
]A = degree ]B = degree c= ft
6. It has been determined that a communication satellite is straight above the line AB.
The elevation angle from A is 88.90 . The elevation angle from point B is 86.40 . If the
distance between points A and B is 689km. What is the distance between the satellite
and point A at accuracy 0.01?
The distance is km
(9:53 minutes)
Correct answers:
Points: Percent:
1. (2pts ) A land surveyor is walking toward a mountain. At point A, the angle of elevation
is 290 . 200ft closer to the mountain at point C, the angle of elevation is 380 . How tall
is the mountain at accuracy 0.1ft?
The height of the mountain is h = ft
290 380
B 200ft C
Correct answers:
Points: Percent:
2.6. LAW OF COS 101
2.6 Law of cos

In law of sin 2.23
sin α sin β sin γ
= =
a b c
if two sides and one angle are given in a way like a, b and γ, it appears that there is no way
to find other three quantities. If one looks more closely, the solutions of the triangle does
exist. That’s why the law of cos needs to be introduced. Let’s attack the question from the
vector perspective.
−
→ −→ −→ A
Let vectors CB = a, CA = b and AB = c. Then,
α
|c|2 = c · c = (a − b) · (a − b)
b c
= a · a + b · b − 2a · b
γ β
= |a|2 + |b|2 − 2|a||b| cos γ
C a B
Thus, one may have the law of cos as follows.
(2.24) c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos γ
Similarly, one may find the other two identities as follows:
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos α
b2 = a2 + c2 − 2ac cos β
The law says that if the lengths of two sides with the angle in between the two sides are
known, then the length of the side opposite to the angle can be found. Let’s see some
examples.
Case I: Side, Angle, Side
Example 2.6.1. Solve triangle 4ABC given β = 1530 , a = 140 and c = 27. (Round
answers to two decimal places)
Solution:
Two sides of a and c and the angle of γ in between two sides are given. By law of cos, one
may have
b2 = a2 + c2 − 2ac cos β
= 1402 + 272 − 2 · 140 · 27 · cos 1530
= 27065.00932 ⇒ b = 164.5144654 ≈ 164.51
(9:55 minutes)
sin α sin β sin α sin 1530

= ⇒ =
a b 140 164.5144654
140 · sin 1530
⇒ sin α = = 0.3863409203
164.5144654
α = sin−1 (0.3863409203) ≈ 22.727011490 ≈ 22.730
α + β + γ = 1800 ⇒ 22.730 + 1530 + γ = 1800 ⇒ γ = 1800 − (22.730 + 1530 ) = 4.270
Case II: Side, Side, Side
Example 2.6.2. Solve 4ABC given a = 12, b = 16 and c = 14.

Solution: The lengths of three sides in triangle 4ABC are given. By low of cos, one may
have
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos α
122 = 162 + 142 − 2 · 16 · 14 · cos α
122 + 2 · 16 · 14 · cos α = 162 + 142
2 · 16 · 14 · cos α = 162 + 142 − 122
162 + 142 − 122
cos α =
2 · 16 · 14
(12:45 minutes)
= 0.6875
α = cos−1 (0.6875)
= 46.567463440
= 46.570
b2 = a2 + c2 − 2ac cos β
162 = 122 + 142 − 2 · 12 · 14 · cos β
162 + 2 · 12 · 14 · cos β = 122 + 142
2 · 12 · 14 · cos β = 122 + 142 − 162
122 + 142 − 162
cos β =
2 · 12 · 14
= 0.25
β = cos−1 (0.25)
= 75.522487810
= 75.520
2.6. LAW OF COS 103
α + β + γ = 1800
46.570 + 75.520 + γ = 1800
γ = 1800 − (46.570 + 75.520 ) = 57.910
Example 2.6.3. A ship leaves port at 1 : 00PM and travels S350 E at the rate of 25miles/hour.
Another ship leaves the same port at 1 : 30 PM and travels S200W at 22miles/hour. Ap-
proximately how far apart are the ships at 3 : 00 PM? (Keep two decimals.)
Solution:
Two hours later after 1 : 00PM, the first ship has traveled 2hours · 25miles/hour = 50miles.
One and half hours later after 1 : 30PM, the second ship has traveled 1.5hours·22miles/hour =
33miles.
The angle between the two paths are 350 +
200 = 550 . By law of cos, the distance d be-
Port tween two ships two hours after 1 : 00 PM
West East would be
350 30 min d 2 = 332 + 502 − 2 · 33 · 50 · cos 550

0
20 = 1696.19776
√
d = 1696.19776
≈ 41.18(miles)
120 min
South
(7:50 minutes)
1. Given ]A = 290 , AC = 15ft and AB = 20ft in a triangle 4ABC. Solve the triangle at
the integer level. (See example 2.6.1 for hint.)
(a) a = ft (b) B = degree (c) C = degree
2. Given a = 2, ]B = 450 and c = 4 in a triangle 4ABC. Solve the triangle at the integer
level. (See example 2.6.1 for hint.)
(a) A = degree (b) b = (c) C = degree
3. Given BC = 1380in. AC = 850in. and AB = 855in. in a triangle 4ABC, find the

measures of three angles at accuracy 0.1. (See example 2.6.2 for hint.)
(a) A = degree (b) B = degree (c) C = degree
4. Given BC = 6 AC = 5 and AB = 8 in a triangle 4ABC, find the measures of three

angles at accuracy 0.1. (See example 2.6.2 for hint.)
5. Given a = 9, b = 7 and c = 10, find all angles in the triangle 4ABC.

−→ −→ −→
6. Given vectors OA =< 9, 12 > and OB =< 12, 5 >, find |AB|2 and angle θ between
−→ −→
vectors OA and OB at accuracy 0.01. See example 2.6.2 for hint.
A(9, 12)
B(12, 5)
(10:35 minutes)
θ
(a) |AB|2 = (b) θ = degree
Correct answers:
Points: Percent:
2.6. LAW OF COS 105
1. A weight is supported by cables attached to both ends of an horizontal beam as shown

in the figure. Find the angles between the beam and the cables.
α 85ft β
40ft 55ft
(9:22 minutes)
(a) α = degree (b) β = degree
2. The distance between Chicago and Louisville is 330 miles. A pilot inadvertently took
a wrong course that was 100 different from the right course at the correct speed of 220
miles. 15minutes later, the pilot found the mistake. Through what angle and with what
new speed, should the pilot turn to head toward Louisville on schedule?
Chicago
West 15 min East
90 min
South Louisville
(a) To head toward the Louisville , the pilot should turn through degrees.
(b) At accuracy of 0.1 miles, the new speed is miles.
Correct answers:
Points: Percent:
2.7 Application of Trigonometric Functions
a h
γ
C b A
Figure 2.2
With the knowledge of rectangle, parallel and triangle, it might be relatively easy to
prove the area of triangle 4ABC is
1
(2.25) S4ABC = ab sin γ
2
(11:06 minutes)
Note the triangle area is one half of a parallel area. The parallel area is b · h = b · a sin γ.
To see why the area of the parallel is h · b, readers may play with the following links.
To mark the left triangle, click here.
To mark the right triangle, click here.
To cut the right triangle and put on the left, click here.
To see formula 2.25 is true for acute triangles, the following three toggled graphs will
help.
To toggle the height, please click here.
To toggle the acute triangle, please click here.
To see the height for the acute triangle, click here.
To see formula 2.25 is true for obtuse triangles, the following two toggling graphs will
help.
To toggle the obtuse triangle, please click here.
To see the height for the obtuse triangle, click here.
Readers may toggle out the right triangle and see why the formula is true as well for right
triangles.
Example 2.7.1. Approximate the area of triangle 4ABC given α = 650 , b = 5, c = 45.
(Round the answer to two decimal places.)
Solutions: By formula 2.25,
2.7. APPLICATION OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 107
1
Area = bc sin α
2
1
= · 5 · 45 · sin 650
2 (9:12 minutes)
≈ 101.96
By the law of cos 2.24 a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos α and the triangle area formula 2.25
1
Area = bc sin α, one may prove Heron’s Formula.
2
Heron’s Formula
p a+b+c
(2.26) Area = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c), where s =
2
Example 2.7.2. Approximate the area of 4ABC a = 30.0, b = 80.0 and c = 60.0. (Round
to one decimal place.)
Solution:
a + b + c 30 + 80 + 60
s= = = 85
2 2
By Heron’s formula 2.26,
p
Area = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
p
= 85(85 − 30)(85 − 80)(85 − 60)
√
= 85 · 55 · 5 · 25
≈ 764.4442426 (8:42 minutes)
= 764.4
Example 2.7.3. Find the area of triangle 4ABC given α = 38.20 , β = 55.30 and b = 6.21.
(Keep two decimals.)
Solution: Step one: find side a of triangle 4ABC by law of sin: formula 2.23
sin α sin β sin 38.20 sin 55.30

= ⇒ =
a b a 6.21
6.21 · sin 38.20
⇒a= ≈ 4.671
sin 55.30
Step two: find angle γ
α + β + γ = 1800 ⇒ 38.20 + 55.30 + γ = 1800

⇒ γ = 1800 − (38.20 + 55.30 ) = 86.50
γ Step three: find the area by formula 2.25

1
b = 6.21 a Area = ab sin γ
2
1
= · 4.671 · 6.21 · sin 86.50
2
α = 38.20 β = 55.30 ≈ 14.48
c
2.7. APPLICATION OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 109
1. Find the area of triangle 4ABC at accuracy 0.1 if ]C = 130.10 , a = 47.1 f t and
b = 37.5 f t.
Area = f t2
2. Find the area of triangle 4ABC if the lengths of three sides are a = 341mm, b = 232mm
and c = 423mm.
Area = mm2
3. Find the area of triangle 4ABC at accuracy 0.01 if ]B = 52.80 , ]C = 75.80 and
b = 16cm.
Area = cm2
4. Given α = 720 , β = 480 , c = 2.6 f t, find the triangle area.

Area = f t2
5. The lengths of three sides are 50, 60 and 70 units long, respectively, in a quadrilateral
as shown below in the figure. There are two angles which are 1270 and 1320 . Find the
area of the quadrilateral at accuracy 0.01. Click here for hint.
60
1320
1270
50 70
Area = cm2
Correct answers:
Points: Percent:
1. An airplane, which flies at the altitude of 5000 meters, finds the two angles of de-
pression are 270 and 390 , respectively. Find the width of the island at accuracy 0.1.
(1m = 3.28 f t)
A
270
390
The island length is m
P Q
Correct answers:
Points: Percent:
3
3.1 Parabola
Definition 3.1.1. A parabola is the set of all points which are equidistant from a fixed point
F and a fixed line l on a plane. The fixed point is called the focus. The fixed line is called
the directrix. The line which goes across the focus and is perpendicular to the directrix
is called the axis of the parabola. The intersection between the axis and the parabola is
called the vertex.
A(x, y)
Focus
(0, p) (3:55 minutes)
Vertex x
Directrix y = −p
Parabola has a very nice optical property. Light rays or electric signals which are
parallel to the axis of the parabola will reflect back to the focus after the signals hit the
paraboloid mirror or wall. Please refer to figure 3.1.
In order to study the parabola conveniently, one may put the vertex on the origin
of the xy-coordinate plane and align the axis of the parabola with y-axis. First, one may
consider the case that the focus is above x-axis. Assume the distance between the vertex
and the focus is p. Then the directrix has the equation y = −p. Let A(x, y) be a point on
the parabola. Then the squared distance between point A(x, y) and the focus (0, p) is
(x − 0)2 + (y − p)2 = x2 + (y − p)2

= x2 + y2 − 2py + p2
(13:48 minutes)
111
112 CHAPTER 3. CONIC CURVES
The squared distance between point A(x, y) and the directrix is
(y − (−p))2 = (y + p)2
= y2 + 2py + p2
By the definition of parabola, the two distances are equal. One may have
x2 + y2 − 2py + p2 = y2 + 2py + p2
x2 = 4py
Hence, if the focus is above x-axis, the equation is
1 2
(3.1) y= x (Open direction upward)
4p
Similarly, one may find the equation with the focus below the origin.
1 2
(3.2) y=− x (Open direction downward)
4p
(6:10 minutes)
Readers may also find the equations with focus on the right (positive direction) and
on the left (negative direction) of the origin, respectively
1 2
(3.3) x= y (Open direction right)
4p
1
(3.4) x = − y2 (Open direction left)
4p
Example 3.1.1. Find the vertex, focus, and directrix of the given parabola.
a) 36y = x2
Solution: Both sides of the equation divided by 36, one may get
1 2
y= x
36
1 2
y= x
4· 9 (9:38 minutes)
Hence value p = 9. The vertex is (0, 0). The focus is (0, 9). The equation of the
directrix is y = −9.
b) 3y2 = −5x
Solution: Both sides of the equation divided by −5, one may get
3.1. PARABOLA 113
1 1
3y2 · = −5x·
−5 −5
3 2
− y =x
5
1 2 (12:37 minutes)
x=− y
5/3
5
Let 4p = . Both sides divided by 4, then
3
1 5 1
4p· = ·
4 3 4
5
p=
12
Comparing with the standard equation 3.4, one may see the focus is on the left hand side
5
of the origin with the coordinates (− , 0). The open direction is on the left. The equation
12
5
of the directrix is x = . The vertex is (0, 0).
12
Example 3.1.2. Find the vertex, focus and directrix of parabola (x + 2)2 = −20(y − 1).
Solution: One may rewrite the equation as
(x − (−2))2 = −20(y − 1)
The graph can be found by shifting the graph of
x2 = −20y
with 2 units to the left and 1 unit up. The vertex is then (−2, 1). Both sides of equation
x2 = −20y divided by −20, one may have
1 1
x2 · = −20y·
−20 −20
1
y = − x2
20
1 2
y=− x
4·5
By comparing with the standard equation 3.2, one may know the open direction of the
graph is downward and p = 5
1 2
For y = − x : focus: (0, −5); directrix: y = 5
20
+ +
shifting (−2, 1) 1
⇓ ⇓
For (x + 2)2 = −20(y − 1) : focus: (−2, −4); directrix: y = 6.
Example 3.1.3. Find the vertex, focus and directrix of parabola (y + 4)2 = −20(x + 5).
Solution: One may rewrite the equation as
(y + 4)2
= − 20(x + 5) ⇒ (y − (−4))2
= − 20(x − (−5)) ⇒ Vertex: (−5, −4) (14:50 minutes)
The original equation without shifting is
1 1
y2 = −20x ⇒ y2 · = −20x·
−20 −20
1
⇒ x = − y2 (Comparing with formula 3.4, open direction left)
20
⇒ 20 = 4p
⇒ p=5
⇒ Focus: (−5, 0) Directrix: x = 5 ( for y2 = −20x)
⇒ Focus: (−5 + (−5), 0 + (−4)) or (−10, −4)
Directrix: x = 5 + (−5) or x = 0
Example 3.1.4. Find the vertex, focus, and directrix of the parabola.
y2 − 4y − 2x − 4 = 0
Solution: One needs to make a complete square for variable y and put the rest of quantities
3.1. PARABOLA 115
to the other side of the equation.

y2 − 4y = 2x + 4 (put quantities without y to the right hand side)
2
y − 4y + 4 = 2x + 4 + 4 (add 4 to both sides)
(y − 2)2 = 2x + 8
(y − 2)2 = 2(x + 4)
(y − 2)2 = 2(x − (−4))
⇒ Vertex: (−4, 2)
The original equation without shifting is

1 1
y2 = 2x ⇒ y2 · = 2x ·
2 2
1 2
⇒ x = y (Comparing with formula 3.3, open direction right)
2
⇒ 2 = 4p
1
⇒ p=
2
1 1
⇒ Focus: ( , 0) Directrix: x = − for y2 = 2x
2 2
1 7
⇒ Focus: ( + (−4), 0 + 2) = (− , 2)
2 2
1 9
Directrix: x = − + (−4) or x = −
2 2
Example 3.1.5. Find the equation for the parabola shown in the figure.
(12:49 minutes)
Solution:
One may notice that the distance between the
y vertex and the focus is 2, which gives p = 2.
The open direction is to the right. The for-
mula 3.3 applies. That is, the function with-
out shifting is
Vertex Focal Point 1 2 1 2

x= y ⇒x= y
(1, 0) (3, 0) x 4p 4·2
The vertex (1, 0) is shifted from (0, 0).

Hence the equation is
1 1
(x − 1) = (y − 0)2 ⇒ x − 1 = y2
8 8
Example 3.1.6. Find an equation of the parabola that satisfies the given conditions: focus
F(3, 0), directrix x = −3.
Solution:
y
The distance between the focus
F(3, 0) and the directrix x = −3 is
6. Therefore, the vertex is at the ori-
gin (0, 0). The distance between the
vertex and the focus is p = 3. The
open direction is to the right. For-
(3, 0) mula 3.3 applies.
x
x = −3 Focus
1 2
x= y
4p
1 2
Directrix x= y
4·3
1
x = y2
12
Example 3.1.7. Find an equation of the parabola that satisfies the given conditions: focus
F(5, 4), directrix y = −2.
4 + (−2) 2
Solution: The y-coordinate of the vertex is = = 1. The point of the vertex is
2 2
at (5,1). The distance between the focus and the vertex is p = 3. The open direction is
upward. Without graph shifting, the original equation is
y 1 2
y= x (by formula 3.1)
4p
1 2
y= x
4·3
1
y = x2
Focus (5, 4) 12
With the graph shifting from the origin (0, 0)
Directrix x to (5, 1), the equation is
y = −2 1
y−1 = (x − 5)2
12
(12:28 minutes)
3.1. PARABOLA 117
Example 3.1.8. A mirror for reflecting telescope has the shape of a (finite) paraboloid
of diameter 4 inches and depth 1 inch. How far from the center of the mirror will the
incoming light collect?
Solution: Let’s put this parabola on the xy-coordinate plane as shown. By formula 3.1,
the equation would be
1
y = x2
4p
Since the diameter is 4 inches and the depth is 1 inch, the point (2, 1) is on the parabola.
Or say x = 2 and y = 1 satisfy the equation. That is
y 1 2 1 2
y= x →1= ·2
Focus 4p 4p
P(2, 1) 1
1= ·4
4p
x 1
1= → p=1
p
The vertex is at (0,1). The incoming light
Figure 3.1 will collect 1 inch away from the center of
the mirror.
Example 3.1.9. Find an equation of the parabola that satisfies the given conditions: the
vertex is at the origin, the graph is symmetric with respect to y-axis, and passing through
the point (4, −2).
Solution: If the graph is symmetric with respect to y-axis, then either formula 3.1 or for-
mula 3.2 applies. Point (4, −2) is below the origin. The open direction of the parabola is
downward. Hence only formula 3.2 applies. Point (4, −2) is on the curve. It tells x = 4
and y = −2 satisfy the equation.
1 2 1
y=− x → −2 = − · 42
y 4p 4p
1
Focus x −2 = − · 16
4p
1
−2 = − · 4
p
2
(4, −2) 1= → p=2
p
1 2
⇒y=− x
4·2
1
⇒ y = − x2
8
1. (10pts ) Find the vertex and the open direction of the given parabola functions
(a) x − 3 = (y + 4)2 Vertex: (c) y − 3 = (x + 4)2 Vertex:

The open direction is The open direction is
to the left to the right upward downward
(b) y − 4 = −(x + 3)2 Vertex: (d) y − 3 = −(x + 4)2 Vetex:

The open direction is The open direction is
upward downward upward downward
(e) x − 3 = −(y + 4)2 The vertex is

The open direction is
to the left to the right
(9:15 minutes)
2. (2pts ) Find the equation

√ of the parabola that has the vertex at the origin,
passes through ( 5, 20) and opens up.
The equation is
(14:40 minutes)
3. (2pts ) Given vertex (4, −3) and focus (4, −6) of a parabola, find the equation of the
parabola.
The equation is
4. (2pts ) Draw the parabola graph of equation −4x = y2 . Find the ranges of both x and y.
(a) The range of x is:
(b) The range of y is:

(9:58 minutes)
5. (2pts ) Draw the graph of function x = y2 + 10y + 23 and find the ranges of both x and
y.
(a) The range of x is:
(b) The range of y is:

(12:57 minutes)
Correct answers:
Points: Percent:
3.1. PARABOLA 119
1. (3pts ) Find the focus, directrix and axis for the parabola y2 = −3x.
(a) Focus:
(b) Directrix:
(c) The axis of the parabola is (6:43 minutes)

x-axis y-axis
2. (2pts ) An arch in the shape of a parabola has the dimensions as shown in the figure.
How wide is the arch 19 f t up at accuracy 0.001?
The width is ft
19 f t 21 f t
(11:29 minutes)
26 f t
Correct answers:
Points: Percent:
3.2 Ellipse
Definition 3.2.1. An ellipse is the set of all points whose sum of distances from the two
fixed points is a constant. The two fixed points are called foci. The line containing the foci
is called the major axis. The middle point of the line joining the foci is the center. The
intersections between the major axis and the ellipse are called vertices. The line, which
goes through the center and is perpendicular to the major axis, is called the minor axis.
(0, b)
a a
(−a, 0) (−c, 0) Major (c, 0) (a, 0)
Vertex Focus 0 Focus Vertex
Minor (14:53 minutes)
P(x, y)
(0, −b)
An ellipse has a very nice sound property. Sound originated from one focus of an
ellipse can be reflected back to the other focus point after the sound hit the ellipse wall.
In order to study the equation of ellipse conveniently, one may first put the center
of the ellipse on the origin of a xy-coordinate plane, and put two foci on x-axis. Assume
the distance between two foci is 2c. Then the coordinate of the left focus is (−c, 0). The
coordinate of the right focus is (c, 0). One may assume the constant, the sum of distances
from two foci, is 2a. Then the distance between a focus and an intersection of the ellipse
with y-axis is a. It is clear that the distance
p between the center of the ellipse and an
intersection
p of the ellipse with y-axis is a2 − c2 , which may be named as b. That’s
a2 − c2 = b.
(3.5) a2 − c2 = b2
(3.6) a2 = b2 + c2
Let P(x, y) be a point on the ellipse. Then the distance between P and the left focus is
q
(x − (−c))2 + (y − 0)2
The distance between P and the right focus is

q
(x − c)2 + (y − 0)2
3.2. ELLIPSE 121
By the definition of ellipse, one may have
q q
(3.7) (x − (−c))2 + (y − 0)2 + (x − c)2 + (y − 0)2 = 2a
From here, one may find the ellipse equation
x2 y2
(3.8) + =1
a2 b2
Here are the details from equation 3.7 to equation 3.8.

Both sides of equation 3.7 subtracting the red quantity, one may get
q q
(x − (−c)) + (y − 0) + (x − c)2 + (y − 0)2 = 2a
2 2
q q
− (x − c) + (y − 0) = − (x − c)2 + (y − 0)2
2 2
q q
(x − (−c))2 + (y − 0)2 = 2a − (x − c)2 + (y − 0)2
q 2 q 2
2
(x + c) + y 2 2
= 2a − (x − c) + y 2
q
2 2 2
(x + c) + y = (2a) − 2 · 2a · (x − c)2 + y2
q
↓ + ( (x − c)2 + y2 )2
↓ ↓
x2 + 2cx + c2 + y2 x2 − 2cx + c2 + y2
By cancelling x2 , c2 and y2 ; adding 2cx on both sides, one may have
q
2
4cx = 4a − 4a (x − c)2 + y2
1 1 2 1
q
·4cx−a = ·4a − ·4a (x − c)2 + y2 −a2
2
4 4 q 4
2
−a + cx = −a (x − c)2 + y2
Squaring both sides, one may then have

q 2
2 2 2 2
(−a + cx) = −a (x − c) + y
a4 − 2a2 cx + c2 x2 = a2 x2 − 2a2 cx + a2 c2 + a2 y2
a4 + c2 x2 = a2 x2 + a2 c2 + a2 y2 (Adding 2a2 cx on both sides)
(a2 − c2 )x2 + a2 y2 = a2 (a2 − c2 )
b2 x2 + a2 y2 = a2 b2 (By formula 3.5, a2 − c2 = b2 ) (16:02) minutes)
b2 x2 a2 y2 a2 b2
+ =
a2 b2 a2 b2 a2 b2
x2 y2
+ =1
a2 b2
In the equation formula 3.8, if one let y = 0, then
x 2 02
+ =1
a2 b2
x2
=1
a2
x 2 = a2
x = ±a
Hence the vertices have coordinates (−a, 0) and (a, 0).
Vertex (0, a)
Similarly, if one aligns the major axis of an
Focus (0, c) ellipse on y-axis, then the equation formula
would be
Major a x2 y2
(3.9) + =1
(−b, 0) (b, 0) b2 a2
0 Please note the constant a now is underneath
Minor variable y. As in formula 3.8, the formula
a
here does not contain the constant c. It is still
true that a2 = b2 + c2 . The foci have coordi-
Focus (0, −c) nates (0, ±c). The vertices have coordinates
(0, ±a).
Vertex (0, −a)
Example 3.2.1. Find the vertices and foci of ellipses:

x2 y2
a) + =1
16 4
Solution: The bigger number should be a. Hence a2 = 16 and the major axis is on x-axis
3.2. ELLIPSE 123
since a is underneath variable x.
a2 = 16 → a = 4 → Vertices: (4, 0) and (−4, 0)
a2 = 16
)
√ √ √
→ c2 = a2 − b2 = 16 − 4 = 12 → c = 12 = 4 · 3 = 2 3
b2 = 4
√ √ √ (9:20 minutes)
c = 2 3 → Foci: (−2 3, 0) and (2 3, 0)
(x − 7)2 (y + 8)2
b) + =1
64 49
(x − 7)2 (y + 8)2 (x − 7)2
Solution: The given function + = 1 can be rewritten as +
64 49 64
(y − (−8))2
= 1. The graph of the function is shifted from the graph of function
49
x2 y2
+ =1
64 49
from the center at the origin to center (7, −8). 64 is bigger than 49. Hence a2 = 64, that’s
a = 8. Since a is underneath variable x in the equation, the major axis is on x-axis when
the center of the ellipse is on the origin.
When the center of the ellipse is on the origin, vertices are: (−8, 0) and (8, 0).
When the center of the ellipse is at point (7, −8), vertices are: (−1, −8) and (15, −8).
a2 = 64
)
2 2 2
√
→ c = a − b = 64 − 49 = 15 → c = 15
b2 = 49
√ √
When the center is on the origin, foci are: (− 15,√0) and ( 15, 0). √
When the center is at point (7, −8), foci are: (7 − 15, −8) and (7 + 15, −8).
Example 3.2.2. Find the vertices and foci of ellipse y2 + 4x2 = 4.

Solution:
In the standard equations 3.8 and 3.9, the values on the right hand of the
equations are 1. If both sides of the given equation are divided by 4, then
one may rewrite the equation as
x2 y2 (11:04 minutes)
+ =1
1 4
The bigger number underneath variables x and y is 4. Hence a2 = 4 and the major
axis of the ellipse is on y-axis.
a2 = 4 → a = 2 → Vertices: (0, −2) and (0, 2).

a2 = 4
)
√ √ √
→ c2 = a2 − b2 = 4 − 1 = 3 → c = 3 → Foci: (0, − 3) and (0, 3).
b2 = 1
Example 3.2.3. Find the vertices and foci of ellipse 25x2 + y2 = −2y.
Solution: Variable y has the first power and the second power in the ellipse equation. One
may need to make a complete square for variable y first.
25x2 + y2 = −2y
25x2 + y2 + 2y = 0 (Both sides added 2y)
2 2
25x + y + 2y + 1 = +1 (Both sides added 1)
2 2
25x + (y + 1) = 1
x2 (y + 1)2
+ =1
1/25 1
One may rewrite the equation as
(x − 0)2 (y − (−1))2
+ =1
( 51 )2 12
Now it is clear that the center of the ellipse is at point (0, −1). a2 = 1 and then a = 1.
a2 = 1  √ √

2 2 2 1 24 24 2 6
2 1  → c = a − b = 1 − 25 = 25 → c = √ = 5
b = 25
25
If the center were at the origin, then one may have
√ ! √ !
2 6 2 6
Vertices: (0, −1), (0, 1); Foci: 0, − and 0,
5 5
Since the center is at (0, −1), one may have
√ ! √ !
2 6 2 6
Vertices: (0, −2), (0, 0); Foci: 0, −1 − and 0, −1 +
5 5
Example 3.2.4. Find the equation of the given ellipse in the picture.
3.2. ELLIPSE 125
y (0, 7)
Solution: Form the picture, one may see the

vertices are (0, −7) and (0, 7). a = 7 and
value a2 = 72 should be put underneath vari-
able y. It is clear b = 2. Hence the equation
is
x x2 y2
+ =1
(2, 0) 22 72
(15:55 minutes)
Example 3.2.5. Find the equation of the given ellipse with the graph on the left.
Solution: The center is at point (−2, 1). Two vertices are at (−6, 1) and (2, 1). The dis-
between one vertex and the center is 4, which
gives a = 4. And it is clear that b = 2. The
(−2, 3) equation of the graph with the center at origin
would be
x2 y2
V (−6, 1) C(−2, 1) V (2, 1) + =1
tance 42 22
The equation of the graph with the center at
point (−2, 1) will be
(x + 2)2 (y − 1)2
+ =1
42 22
Some readers have noticed that some ellipses are flatter than others. The flatter el-
c
lipses have smaller b values, which make values c bigger since a2 = b2 + c2 . If ratio is
a
c
close to 1, then the graph of the ellipse will be flatter. If is closer to 0, then the shape of
a
the ellipse will be more like a round circle. The eccentricity of an ellipse is defined as the
c
ratio , which is denoted by e.
a
Example 3.2.6. Find an equation for the ellipse that has its center at the origin and satisfies
3
the given conditions: eccentricity e = , vertices V (0, ±7).
7
Solution: Vertices (0, ±7) tell that a = 7 and a2 = 72 should be written underneath vari-
able y in the ellipse’s equation.
y V (0, 7)
c 3

e= =
a 7 →c=3
a=7

b2 = a2 − c2 = 72 − 32
) (
a=7
⇒
c=3 = 49 − 9 = 40
x
With values a2 = 72 and b2 = 40, one may
write the equation of the ellipse
x2 y2
+ =1
40 49
V (0, −7)
Example 3.2.7. The arch of a bridge is in semi-elliptical shape. The width of the river is
100 f t. A ship with 50 f t wide and 30ft high can pass through the arch.
a) Find the equation of the arch.
b) What is the height of the arch in the middle of the bridge? (Round the answer to one
decimal point).
Solution: The river width is 100 f t, which gives a = 50. The elliptical equation can be
written as
x2 y2
+ =1
502 b2
Point (25, 30) is on the ellipse
50 f t
100 f t 252 302
+ 2 =1
502 b
252 302 1 302 302 3
+ = 1 → + = 1 → = → b2 = 1200
502 b2 4 b2 b2 4
Hence, the equation is
x2 y2
+ =1
2500 1200
√
The height is b = 1200 ≈ 34.6 f t
3.2. ELLIPSE 127
1. (2pts ) Find the equation in the standard for of an ellipse centered at the origin that has
x-intercepts (±4, 0) and y-intercepts (0, ±3).
The equation is
(15:45 minutes)
2. (2pts ) Write an equation of the ellipse with focal points at (0, −4) and (0, 4) which
passes through (−15, −4).
The equation is
3. (8pts ) Draw the graph of equation y2 = 81 − 9x2 . Identify the main features.
(a) The vertices are one above x-axis One below x-axis
(b) The endpoints of the minor axes are (left:) (right)
(c) The focal point above x-axis is below x-axis is
(d) The range of x is The range of y is
(0, 9) y
(−3, 0) (3, 0)
x
(4:25 minutes)
(0, −9)
Correct answers:
Points: Percent:
r
y x2
1. (3pts ) Draw the graph of equation = 1−
4 25
(a) Does the equation define a function of x?
Yes, it does. No, it does not.
(b) Domain: (c) Range:
(0, 4)
(0, 5) y
y
(−5, 0) (5, 0)
x (−3, 0) (3, 0)
x
(1:38 minutes)
(0, −5)
(5:48 minutes)
x2 y2
2. (2pts ) Find the eccentricity of the ellipse with equation + = 1.
9 25
c
The eccentricity is e = =
a
3. (2pts ) Comet C has an elliptical orbit of eccentricity 0.9453 with the sun at one focus.
The greatest distance between the sun and the comet is 2703 million miles. Find the
least distance between them. a − c = million miles
400
Sun 200 Comet
−1000 −500 −200500 1000
−400 (6:28 minutes)
Correct answers:
Points: Percent:
3.3. HYPERBOLA 129
3.3 Hyperbola
Definition 3.3.1. Given two distinct fixed points in a plane, a hyperbola is the set of all
points whose difference of distances from the two given points is a constant. The two
fixed distinct points are called foci of the hyperbola. The line that goes through the foci is
called the transverse axis. The midpoint between the foci on the transverse axis is called
the center of the hyperbola. The line that goes through the center and is perpendicular to
the transverse axis is the conjugate axis. The intersections between the hyperbola and the
transverse axis are called vertices.
As parabola and ellipse, hyperbola has nice optical properties too. A light ray orig-
inated from one vertex is reflected in a way that the ray looks like directly from the other
vertex.
In order to study the equation of a hyperbola conveniently, one may put the center
of a hyperbola on the origin of the xy-coordinate plane and foci on x-axis. Assume the
distance of two foci is 2c, then the coordinate of the left focus is (−c, 0) and the right focus
is (c, 0). See figure 3.2. Let P(x, y) be a point on the curve of the hyperbola. Assume the
difference of the distances from point P(x, y) to two foci is 2a.
y
b b
y=− x y= x
a a
c b
Focus(−c, 0) Vertex Vertex Focus(c, 0)
(−a, 0) (a, 0) x
(3:47 minutes)
P(x, y)
Figure 3.2
There is a remark which needs to be made here. One may first assume the coordinate
of the right vertex is (?, 0). Then the distance between the vertex and the left focus is
(c+?). The distance between the vertex and the right focus is (c−?). Since the difference
of the distances is 2a, that is (c+?)−(c−?) = 2a or c+?−c+? = 2a → 2? = 2a, it tells that
? = a. Hence the right vertex has coordinate (a, 0). Similarly, one may find the coordinate
of the left focus is (−a, 0). From figure 3.2, one may see c > a.
The distance between point P(x, y) and the right focus is
q
(x − c)2 + (y − 0)2
and the distance between point P(x, y) and the left focus is
q
(x − (−c))2 + (y − 0)2
By definition, the difference between point P(x, y) and two foci is a constant 2a, that is
q q
(3.10) (x − c) + (y − 0) − (x + c)2 + (y − 0)2 = 2a
2 2
From equation 3.10 here, one may find the hyperbola equation is
x2 y2
(3.11) − =1
a2 b2
Please note a new constant b is introduced here as follows.
(3.12) b2 = c2 − a2
(3.13) a2 + b2 = c2
(13:36 minutes)
Here are more details. From equation 3.10, one may have
q q
(x − (−c)) + (y − 0) − (x − c)2 + (y − 0)2 = 2a
2 2
q q
+ (x − c) + (y − 0) = + (x − c)2 + (y − 0)2
2 2
q q
(x − (−c))2 + (y − 0)2 = 2a + (x − c)2 + (y − 0)2
q q
(x + c) + y = 2a + (x − c)2 + y2
2 2
q
(x + c) + y = 4a + 2 · 2a · (x − c)2 + y2 + (x − c)2 + y2
2 2 2
q
x + 2cx + c + y = 4a + 4a (x − c)2 + y2 + x2 − 2cx + c2 + y2
2 2 2 2
3.3. HYPERBOLA 131
By canceling x2 , c2 , y2 ; and adding −4a2 and +2cs, one may get

q
2
−4a + 4cx = 4a (x − c)2 + y2
q
2
cx − a = a (x − c)2 + y2
c2 x2 − 2 · cx · a2 + a4 = a2 (x2 − 2cx + c2 + y2 )
c2 x2 − 2ca2 x + a4 = a2 x2 − 2ca2 x + a2 c2 + a2 y2
a4 + c2 x2 = a2 x2 + a2 c2 + a2 y2 (Cancel −2ca2 x)
c2 x2 − a2 x2 − a2 y2 = a2 c2 − a4
(c2 − a2 )x2 − a2 y2 = a2 (c2 − a2 )
Note here c > 0. Let b2 = c2 − a2 . Then one may have
b2 x2 − a2 y2 = a2 b2
b2 x2 a2 y2 a2 b2
− =
a2 b2 a2 b2 a2 b2
x2 y2 (13:13 minutes)
− = 1
a2 b2
One may compare equation 3.13 with equation 3.6. In equation 3.6 for ellipse, a is
the biggest. In equation 3.13 for hyperbola, c is the biggest. By comparing two standard
equations 3.11 and 3.8, one can see the coefficient of y is positive for ellipse equation.
Meanwhile, the coefficient of y for hyperbola equation is negative.
y2
Adding and −1 on both sides of equation 3.11, one may get
b2
x2 y2
− 1 =
a2 b2
2
2 x

2
y =b −1
a2
2
2 x a2

2
y =b −
a2 a2
bp 2
y=± x − a2
a
b
(3.14) y = ± x, when x → ∞.
a
The linear equations 3.14 are called the hyperbola asymptotes.
One may put the center of a hyperbola on the origin of xy-coordinate plane and foci
on y-axis. The coordinates of foci will be (0, −c) and (0, c). The coordinates of vertices
will be (0, −a) and (0, a). Similarly, one may find the equation of the hyperbola
x2 y2
(3.15) − + =1
b2 a2
The asymptote equations are
a
(3.16) y=± x
b
Focus (0, c)
a a
y=− x y= x
b Vertex (0, a) b
c
b x
Vertex (0, −a)
Focus (0, −c)
x2 y2
Figure 3.3: − + =1
b2 a2
Example 3.3.1. Find the vertices, the foci, and the equations of the asymptotes of the
hyperbola with the given hyperbola equation
x2 y2
− =1
25 16
Solution: The negative sign is in front of variable y. Formula 3.11 applies. Hence, the
vertices and the foci are on x-axis.
a2 = 25 → a = 5 → Vertices: (±5, 0)
b

2 y = ± x
)
a = 25 → a = 5

→ a
b2 = 16 → b = 4 y = ± 4 x

5
a2 = 25
)
√ √
2 → c2 = a2 + b2 = 25 + 16 = 41 → c = 41 → Foci: (± 41, 0)
b = 16
3.3. HYPERBOLA 133
y
4 4
y=− x y= x
5 5
c b
Focus Vertex Vertex Focus
√ √ x
(− 41, 0) (−5, 0) (5, 0) ( 41, 0)
Example 3.3.2. Find the vertices, the foci, and the equations of the asymptotes of the
hyperbola
y2 − 9x2 = 81
Solution: In the standard equation of a hyperbola, the value on the right hand of an equa-
tion needs to be positive one. Both sides divided by 81, one may get
y2 9x2 81
− =
81 81 81
x2 y2
− + =1 (11:35 minutes)
9 81
The negative sign is in front of variable x. Formula 3.15 applies. Hence the vertices
and the foci are on y-axis.
a2 = 81 → a = 9 → Vertices: (0, ±9)
a2 = 81 → a = 9
)
a 9
→ y = ± x → y = ± x → y = ±3x
b2 = 9 → b = 3 b 3
a2 = 81
)
√ √ √
→ c2 = a2 + b2 = 81 + 9 = 90 → c = 90 = 3 10 → Foci: (0, ±3 10)
b2 = 9
√
(0, 3 10)
Vertex (0, 9)
c b
y = 3x y = −3x
Vertex (0, −9) √
(0, −3 10)
Example 3.3.3. Find the vertices, the foci and the equations of the asymptotes of the
hyperbola
(x − 3)2 (y − 1)2
− =1
9 4
Solution: The graph of the given equation is shifted from the graph with equation
x2 y2
− =1
9 4
from the origin to the center (3, 1). The negative sign is in front of y. Hence the hyperbola
equation 3.11 applies.
√
a2 = 9; b2 = 4 → c2 = a2 + b2 = 9 + 4 = 13 → c = 13
a = 3; b = 2.
x2 y2 (x − 3)2 (y − 1)2
Equation: − =1 Equation: − =1
9 4 9 4
Vertices: (−3, 0); (3, 0) Vertices: (0, 1); (6, 1)
√ √ √ √
Foci: (− 13, 0); ( 13, 0) Foci: (3 − 13, 1); (3 + 13, 1)
b 2 2
Asymptotes:y = x → y = ± x Asymptotes:y − 1 = ± (x − 3)
a 3 3
3.3. HYPERBOLA 135
y 2
y−1 = x−2
3
2
y−1 = − x+2
3
√ c b √
F(3 − 13, 1) (0, 1) (6, 1) F(3 + 13, 1)
x
Example 3.3.4. Find the equation of hyperbola basing on the given figure.
F(−10, 0) F(10, 0)
(−6, 0) (6, 0) x
(9:39 minutes)
Solution: One vertex is (6, 0). It then tells a = 6. One focal point is (10, 0). It then tells
c = 10.
By formula 3.13, that’s a2 + b2 = c2 , or
62 + b2 = 102 → b2 = 64 → b = 8
x2 y2
The center of the graph is at origin. Formula 3.11 applies, 2 − 2 = 1.
a b
x2 y2 x2 y2
− = 1 → − =1
62 82 36 64
To see the asymptotes and their equations, click here.
Example 3.3.5. Find the equation of hyperbola basing on the given figure.
x
F1 (−2, −1)
V1 (−2, −2)
V2 (−2, −4)
F2 (−2, −5)
Solution: The center of the graph is at (−2, −3). The distance between the center and one
of the vertices (−2, −2) is 1. It then tells a = 1. The distance between the center and one
of the foci (−2, −1) is 2. It tells that c = 2. By formula 3.12,
√
b2 = c2 − a2 → b2 = 22 − 12 = 4 − 1 = 3 or b = 3
The transverse axis is in vertical direction. If the graph were at the origin, then the hyper-
bola formula equation 3.15 applies and the equation would be
x2 y2
− √ + 2 =1
( 3)2 1
Since the center of the graph is at (−2, −3), then the equation of the graph is
(x + 2)2 (y + 3)2
− + =1
3 1
To see the asymptotes and their equations, click here.

Example 3.3.6. Find the equation for the hyperbola that has its center at the origin and
satisfies the given conditions. Foci: F(0, ±2); Vertices: V (0, ±1)
Solution: From the given conditions, one can see c = 2 and a = 1. By a2 + b2 = c2 , one
can have
a2 + b2 = c2 → 12 + b2 = 22 → b2 = 3
Please note vertices are on y-axis. By formula 3.15, the desired equation is
x2 y2
− + =1
3 1
(13:35 minutes)
3.3. HYPERBOLA 137
Example 3.3.7. Find an equation for the hyperbola that has its center at the origin and
satisfies the given conditions: Vertices (±3, 0), passing through (7, 1).
y
(7, 1)
(−3, 0) (3, 0) x
Solution: The vertices have coordinates (±3, 0). It tells that the center of the graph is
at the origin, a = 3 and the transverse axis is on x-axis. The hyperbola formula equation
x2 y2
3.11, 2 − 2 = 1, applies. Plugging in value a = 3 into equation 3.11, one may get
a b
x2 y2
− =1
32 b2
Since (7, 1) is on the graph, then x = 7 and y = 1 meet the equation, that is
72 12 72 1 49 9 1 40 1
2
− 2
= 1 → 2
= 1+ 2 → − 1· = 2 → = 2
3 b 3 b 9 9 b 9 b
y2 1
Please note 2
= 2 · y2 . The desired equation would be
b b
x2 40y2
− =1
9 9
Example 3.3.8. Find the hyperbola equation that has its center at the origin and satisfies
the given conditions: Vertices (±3, 0); asymptotes y = ±2x.
y
y = −2x y = 2x
V1 (−3, 0) V2 (3, 0)
x
Solution: The vertices are at (±3, 0), which tells


a=3

Center: (0, 0)

Vertices: (±3, 0) →
 x2 y2
 − = 1 (By formula 3.11)


a2 b2
The asymptotes have equations y = ±2x. By formula 3.14, one may have
b
2= → b = 2·a = 2·3 = 6
a
Then the desired equation is
x 2 y2
− =1
32 62
Example 3.3.9. An airplane is flying along the hyperbolic path illustrated in the figure. If
an equation of the path is 2y2 − x2 = 32, determine how close the airplane comes to a town
(3, 0) located at a position with 3 miles from the center (0, 0).
3.3. HYPERBOLA 139
(3, 0)
Town x
Solution: First one may note

1
2y2 − x2 = 32 → 2y2 = x2 + 32 → y2 = x2 + 16
2
Let d denote the distance between the airplane P(x, y) and the town (3, 0). Then
d 2 = (x − 3)2 + (y − 0)2
= x2 − 2 · 3x + 32 + y2
1 2

2
= x − 6x + 9 + x + 16
2
3 (12:46 minutes)
= x2 − 6x + 25
2
For the quadratic function f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, f (x) chooses the minimum value if
b
x=− .
2a
b −6 6
x=− =− 3 = =2
2a 2· 2 3
Hence d chooses the minimum value at x = 2.
√ √
r
3 2
d= · 2 − 6 · 2 + 25 = 6 − 12 + 25 = 19 ≈ 4.35 (miles)
2
Therefore, the airplane can be close to the town as near as 4.35 miles.
x2 y2
1. (2pts ) Draw the graph of function − = 1.
4 25
Graph I is correct Graph II is correct
y y
V1 (0, 5)
V1 (−2, 0) V2 (2, 0)
x x
V2 (0, −5) (13:41 minutes)
I II
2. (2pts ) Draw the graph of function 36y2 − 16x2 = 576.

Graph I is correct Graph II is correct
y y
V1 (0, 4)
V1 (−6, 0) V2 (6, 0)
x x
V2 (0, −4)
(15:45 minutes)
I II
r
y x2
3. (2pts ) Draw the graph of function = 1+ .
10 25
(a) Graph I is correct Graph II is correct
(b) The domain of the function is
y y
V1 (0, 10)
V1 (−5, 0) V2 (5, 0)
x x
V2 (0, −10)
(9:42 minutes)
I II
Correct answers:
Points: Percent:
3.3. HYPERBOLA 141
x2 y2
1. (2pts ) Find the eccentricity of the hyperbola − = 1.
16 14
c
e= =
a
(8:12 minutes)
2. (2pts ) Find the equation of a hyperbola with vertices at (0, ±16) and asymptotes y =
±4x.
The equation is
3. (2pts ) Find the equation of the hyperbola that has eccentricity 3, center at (0, 0) and
vertex at (0, 5).
The equation is
4. (2pts ) A ship is traveling on a course parallel to and 60 miles from a straight shoreline.
Two transmitting stations, S1 and S2 , are located 200 miles apart on the shoreline. By
timing radio signals from the stations, the ship’s navigator determines that the ship is
between the two stations and 50 miles closer to S2 than to S1 . Find the distance from
the ship to each station. Round answers to one decimal place.
(a) The distance to S1 is miles.
(b) The distance to S2 is miles.
Ship
60 miles
S1 200 miles S2
Correct answers:
Points: Percent:
3.4 Polar Coordinate
Point P on a plane may be expressed by (x, y), which is called the rectangular coordinate.
Point P may also be expressed by (r, θ ), which is called the polar coordinate of point P.
Here the relationships between x, y and r, θ are as follows:
r2 = x2 + y2
x
P (
r x = r cos θ
y (3.17)
θ y = r sin θ
Please note r here can be positive or negative.

So is the value of angle θ . Therefore, the
polar coordinate expression of a point is not
unique.
(14:43 minutes)
Example 3.4.1. Find another three different polar coordinates to express point P with the
polar coordinate (5, −2100 ).
Solution: Adding 3600 to −2100 gives 1500 . Hence, another expression is (5, 1500 ).
Rotating the terminal side of angle 1500 in the clockwise direction with 1800 , one may get
an angle of −300 . Changing the direction of the terminal side, one may have the second
expression of the same point (−5, −300 ). Rotating the angle of −300 in the clockwise
direction with 3600 , it gives the third expression of (−5, −3900 ).
y
(5, −2100 )
√ √
15 5
Example 3.4.2. Given the rectangular coordinates ( , ). find two pairs of polar
2 2
coordinates for the point with 0 ≤ θ < 3600 and plot the point.
3.4. POLAR COORDINATE 143
Solution:
y r2 = x2 + y2
√ √ √ !2 √ !2
15 5 15 5
( , ) = +
2 2 2 2
15 5
= +
4 4
x 20 √ √
= = 5 → r = 5, − 5
4
√
y 5 √
sin θ = = ÷ 5
r
√ 2
5 1 1
= ·√ =
2 5 2
√ √
It then gives θ = 300 , 1500 . The other two expressions are ( 5, 300 ) and (− 5, 2100 ).
An equation with rectangular coordinates is called the rectangular equation. Simi-
larly, an equation with polar coordinates is called the polar equation. With the relationships
3.17 between the rectangular coordinates and the polar coordinates, one may convert one
equation to another equation in different forms.
Example 3.4.3. Convert the rectangular equation 3x + y = 5 to a polar equation.
Solution: One may replace x with r cos θ and y with r sin θ based on the relationships 3.17.
Then the equation 3x + y = 5 comes to be
3r cos θ + r sin θ = 5
r(3 cos θ + sin θ ) = 5
5
r= (7:45 minutes)
3 cos θ + sin θ
One may convert a polar equation to a rectangular equation as well. The common
techniques are to rewrite a trigonometric function to either a sin or cos function, then apply
the relationships 3.17 to get the equation of rectangular coordinates. Here is the example.
Example 3.4.4. Convert the polar equation r = 8 csc θ into the rectangular equations.
Solution:
1
Please note csc θ = . Hence
sin θ
1
r=8
sin θ
r sin θ = 8
y = 8 (by relationship 3.17)
Hence the equation is actually a horizontal line.
Example 3.4.5. Draw the graph of the polar equation r = 5 cos(2θ ).

Solution:
π 2π 3π 4π 5π 6π 7π
θ 0+π +π +π +π +π +π +π +π π +π
8 8 8 8 8 8 8
π 2π 3π 4π 5π 6π 7π
2θ 0 2π
√4 4 4
√ 4 4
√ 4 √4
2 2 2 2
cos(2θ ) 1 0 − −1 − 0 1
2
√ √2 √2 √2
5 2 5 2 5 2 5 2
5 cos(2θ ) 5 0 − −5 − 0 5
2 2 2 2
y
π π
5 cos 2 · · 16 , · 16
8 8
x
(10:35 minutes)
Example 3.4.6. Graph the equation r = cos θ cot θ .

Solution: Please note cot θ = 1/ tan θ . In the video explanation, readers may see how to
draw the graph with Ti-83 calculator.
π π π 3π 5π
θ
6 √4 2 √4 6
3 2 2 3
cos θ cot θ 0 (9:29 minutes)
2 2 2 2
y
(cos(150.0) ∗ cot(150.0), 150.0)
Example 3.4.7. Find the polar coordinates of the intersection points for the given curves
in the interval [0, 2π].
(
r = 24 sin θ
r = 8 + 8 sin θ
(12:52 minutes)
Solution:
1
24 sin θ = 8 + 8 sin θ → 16 sin θ = 8 → sin θ = → θ = 300 , 1500
2
θ = 300 → r = 24 sin 300 = 24 · 1 = 12 → 1st intersection (12, 300 )



2
1
θ = 1500 → r = 24 sin 1500 = 24 · = 12 → 2nd intersection (12, 1500 )

2
From the graphs of two polar equations, one may see the third intersection is the origin
(0, 0). When θ = 0, r = 24 sin 0 = 24 ∗ 0 = 0. (0, 0) is on the graph of the polar equation
r = 24 sin θ . When θ = 2700 , r = 8 + 8 sin 2700 = 8 + 8 ∗ (−1) = 0. Point (0, 2700 ) in the
polar coordinate, which is the origin, is on the graph of the polar equation r = 8 + 8 sin θ .
θ = 360.0
x
1. (3pts ) Find another three different polar coordinates to express point P with the polar
coordinate (−3, 600 ). See example 3.4.1 for hint.
(a) ( , 2400 ) (b) ( , −3000 ) (c) ( , 4200 )
2. (2pts ) Find polar coordinates for the given rectangular coordinates with r > 0 and θ ∈
[0, 3600 ].
√ √
(a) For ( 2, 2), the polar coordinates are .
(b) For (−1, 1), the polar coordinates are .
3. (2pts ) Find the given linear equations, please find the corresponding polar equations
with r as radius and t as angle.
(a) For equation y = 2x, the polar coordinate equation is
(b) For equation x − 3y = 2, the polar coordinate equation is
4. (2pts ) Convert the following equations to the corresponding polar equations with r as
radius and t as angle.
(a) x2 + y2 = 3. The polar equation is
(b) (x + 1)2 + y2 = 4. The polar equation is
5. (2pts ) Convert the following polar equations to the corresponding rectangular equa-
tions. Please note sec θ = 1/ cos θ .
(a) For polar equation r = 2 sec θ , the rectangular equation is
1
(b) For polar equation r = , the rectangular equation is
3 − 3 sin θ
Correct answers:
Points: Percent:
1. (2pts ) Draw the graph of the polar equation r = θ , where θ ∈ [0, 2π].
Graph I is correct. Graph II is correct.
y y
I II
x x
2. (2pts ) Draw the graph of the polar equation r = cos θ . where θ ∈ [0, 2π].
y y
x x
Q1:I Q2:II Q3:I Q3:II
3. (2pts ) Draw the graph of the polar equation r = cos(3θ ), where θ ∈ [0, 2π].
4. (2pts ) In addition to the origin as one of the intersections in the following two function
graphs, please also find the other two intersections with angles in the range of [0, 2π].
(
r = 4 sin θ
where θ ∈ [0, 2π)
r = 1 + 2 sin θ
(a) The solution with the smaller angle is .
(b) The solution with the larger angle is .
5. (4pts ) (
r=1
where θ ∈ [0, 2π)
r2 = 2 cos(2θ )
The solutions from the smaller angle to the large angle are
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Correct answers:
Points: Percent:
3.5 Parametric Equation

Definition 3.5.1. Let x = x(t) and y = y(t) be two functions of t ∈ I, where I is an interval.
Then the set of points determined by (x(t), y(t)) will form a curve on xy-coordinate plane.
The direction of the curve is determined by values of t when t chooses values from smaller
ones to bigger ones. Functions
(
x = x(t)
y = y(t)
(14:14 minutes)
are called the parametric equations of the curve. t is called the parameter.
Example 3.5.1. Draw the graph of the given parametric equations. Find their correspond-
ing rectangular equation.
(
x = t −5
where 0 ≤ t ≤ 5.
y = 2t + 5
Sketch the graph of C, and indicate the orientation.

Solution:
One may first choose three different t values
in order to determine the orientation of curve
C. y
(0, 15)
t x y
0 x = 0 − 5 = −5 y = 2 · 0 + 5 = 5
1 x = 1 − 5 = −4 y = 2 · 1 + 5 = 7
5 x = 5−5 = 0 y = 2 · 5 + 5 = 15
Next, one may eliminate parameter t.
x = t −5 → t = x+5
(−4, 7)
Substituting x + 5 for t in y = 2t + 5, it gives
(−5, 5)
y = 2t + 5 = 2(x + 5) + 5
= 2 · x + 2 · 5 + 5 = 2x + 15
That is y = 2x + 15, which is the equation of x 0

a line. The graph is a line segment with the
direction from the bottom left to the top right.
Example 3.5.2. Draw the graph of the following parametric equations. Find the rectangu-
lar equation.
3.5. PARAMETRIC EQUATION 149
x = 4t 2 − 3
(
where t ∈ R
y = 2t + 4
(7:51 minutes)
Sketch the graph of C and indicate the orientation.
Solution: In order to determine the orientation of curve C, one may choose three different
values for t from smaller ones to bigger ones.
t x y
−1 4(−1)2 − 3 = 1 2 · (−1) + 4 = 2
0 4 · 02 − 3 = −3 2 · 0 + 4 = 4
1 4·1−3 = 1 2·1+4 = 6
(1, 6)
(−3, 4)
(1, 2)
To eliminate parameter t, one may solve for t in y = 2t + 4.

y−4
y = 2t + 4 → 2t = y − 4 → t =
2 (9:56 minutes)
y−4
Substituting for t in equation x = 4t 2 − 3, one may get
2
y−4 2 (y − 4)2

2
x = 4t − 3 = 4 −3 → x+3 = 4· → x − (−3) = (y − 4)2
2 22
The graph of equation x − (−3) = (y − 4)2 is a parabola, which is shifted from the graph
of equation x = y2 with the vertex at the origin to the vertex (−3, 4).
Example 3.5.3. Draw the graph of the given parametric equations. Convert the parametric
equations to the corresponding rectangular equation.
(
x = 3 sint
(3.18) 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π
y = 6 cost
(11:46 minutes)
Sketch the graph of C, and indicate the orientation.

Solution: One may need to choose three or more different values for t in order to deter-
mine the orientation of curve C.
t x y
0 3 sin 0 = 3 · 0 = 0 6 cos 0 = 6 · 1 = 6
π π π
3 sin = 3 · 1 = 3 6 cos = 6 · 0 = 0
2 2 2
π 3 sin π = 3 · 0 = 0 6 cos π = 6 · (−1) = −6
2π 3 sin(2π) = 3 · 0 = 0 6 cos(2π) = 6 · 1 = 6
P1 (0,6) y
(3sin360.00 cos360.00 )
x
P2 (3,0)
P3 (0,−6)
To eliminate t,
x 
x = 3 sint → = sint  x 2 y 2
3 → + = (sint)2 + (cost)2 = 1 →
y 3 6
y = 6 cost → = cost 
6
x2 y2
+ =1 (Major axis is on y-axis)
9 36
In example 3.5.3, if only two points P1 and P3 were chosen without choosing P2 , then
one might not really know P1 went to P3 clockwise or counter clockwise. Hence point P2
is indeed necessary to be chosen in order to determine the orientation of the ellipse. In
parametric equations, t often stands for time. Here is the example for the application of
parametric equations.
Example 3.5.4. The path of a projectile at time t can be modeled using the parametric
equations

x(t) = (s cos α)t
1 t ≥0
y(t) = − gt 2 + (s sin α)t + h
2
(12:22 minutes)
√
where s = 256 3 is the speed of the projectile in f t/sec at t = 0, α = 600 is the angle
of the path that makes with the horizontal at t = 0, and h = 400 is the height in feet. The
acceleration due to gravity is g = 32 f t/sec2 . Find the range and maximum altitude for the
given values. (Keep two decimals)
√
s = 256 3ft/sec
π
α=
3
height=400ft
x
√
Solution: With given values s = 256 3ft/sec, α = 600 and g = 32ft/sec2 ,
√ √ 1 √
x(t) = (s cos α)t = 256 3 cos 600t = 256 3 · · t = 128 3t
2
1
y(t) = − gt 2 + (s sin α)t + h
2
1 √
= − · 32 · t 2 + 256 3 · sin 600 · t + 400
2 √
1 2
√ 3
= − · 32 · t + 256 3 · · t + 400
2 2
= −16t 2 + 384t + 400
y(t) is the attitude at different time t. If the projectile reaches the ground, the attitude must
be 0. Assuming y(t) = 0, that’s, −16t 2 + 384t + 400 = 0, one may find t, which is the
amount of time the projectile takes to reach the ground.
−16t 2 + 384t + 400 = 0

−16(t 2 − 24t − 25) = 0
(
t − 25 = 0 → t = 25(seconds) (11:43 minutes)
−16(t − 25)(t + 1) = 0 →
t + 1 = 0 → t = −1(discard)
x(t) is the travel distance at different time t. At t = 25, the projectile has traveled
√ √
x(25) = 128 3t = 128 3 · 25 ≈ 5542.56(ft)
which is the range the projectile has traveled. In order to find how long it takes the projec-
tile to reach the highest point, one may need to find how long it takes for the projectile to
reach the other end 400 f t high above the ground. By looking at y(t) = −16t 2 + 384t + 400
again, one may assume −16t 2 + 384t = 0 to find t.
−16t 2 + 384t = 0 → −16t(t − 24) = 0 → t = 0;t = 24(seconds)
24
It then takes 12 = seconds to reach the maximum altitude, which is
2
y(12) = −16t 2 + 384t + 400 = −16 · 122 + 384 · 12 + 400 = 2704(ft)
1. (1pts ) Find coordinate values (x, y) that correspond to the equations at value t = 3.
(
x = 3t + 5
y = −3t + 1
(15:16 minutes)
2. (4pts ) Eliminate the parameter t, find the rectangular equations.
(
x = t −5
(a) (2pts )
y = 5t
(
x = 8 cos(t)
(b) (2pts )
y = 8 sin(t)
3. (2pts ) For the given rectangular equation of a parabola y = (x + 5)2 − 3,
if x = t + 5, then
(2:48 minutes)
4. (3pts ) A rocket launched from the ground can be described by the parametric equations
(
x(t) = (|v| cos θ )t
y(t) = −16t 2 + (|v sin θ |)t
(14:52 minutes)
where v is the initial speed, θ is the angle with respect to the ground. If v = 48ft/sec
and θ = 600 , find the rectangular equation. How long is the rocket in flight and how
far can it go?
(a) The rectangular equation is
y
v = 48ft/sec (b) The flying time is seconds.

π
α=
3
x (c) The horizontal travel distance is
ft.
Correct answers:
Points: Percent:
Find values of xy-coordinates based on the given cycloid parametric equations.

(
x(t) = 2t − 2 sint
y(t) = 2 − 2 cost
(11:01 minutes)
π
1. (2pts ) If t = , then
2
2. (2pts ) If t = π, then
3. (2pts ) If t = 2π, then
Figure 3.4: The graph of cycloid

Correct answers:
Points: Percent:
4
4.1 General sequence
Definition 4.1.1. A sequence is a series of numbers, which can be either finite as
a1 , a2 , · · · , aN , denoted by {an , n = 1, 2, · · · , N}
or infinite as
a1 , a2 , · · · , an , · · · , denoted by {an , n = 1, 2, · · · , n, · · · }
Each number in a series is called a term. an is called the nth term.
For example, {12 − 2n} is a infinite series. The nth term is an = 12 − 2n. The first
few terms in the series are
a1 = 12 − 2 · 1 = 10
a2 = 12 − 2 · 2 = 8
a3 = 12 − 2 · 3 = 6
··· (6:06 minutes)
a8 = 12 − 2 · 8 = −4
{8 + (−0.1)n } is a series. The nth term is an = 8 + (−0.1)n . The first few terms are
a1 = 8 + (−0.1)1 = 8 − 0.1 = 7.9

a2 = 8 + (−0.1)2 = 8 + 0.01 = 8.01
a3 = 8 + (−0.1)3 = 8 − 0.001 = 7.999
···
a8 = 8 + (−0.1)8 = 8 + 0.00000001 = 8.00000001
Example 4.1.1. Find the first five terms of the recursively defined infinite sequence.
a1 = 3, ak = 2ak−1 − 4
Solution:
155
156 CHAPTER 4. SEQUENCES
a1 = 3
a2 = 2 · a1 − 4 = 2 · 3 − 4 = 2
a3 = 2 · a2 − 4 = 2 · 2 − 4 = 0
a4 = 2 · a3 − 4 = 2 · 0 − 4 = −4 (11:18 minutes)
a5 = 2 · a4 − 4 = 2 · (−4) − 4 = −12
The sum of a finite sequence a1 , a2 , · · · , aN is denoted by
N
∑ ai = a1 + a2 + · · · + aN
i=1
The sum of an infinite sequence a1 , a2 , · · · , an , · · · , is denoted by

∞
∑ ai = a1 + a2 + · · · + aa + · · ·
i=1
Example 4.1.2.
5
∑ (7k − 8) = (7 · 1 − 8) + (7 · 2 − 8) + (7 · 3 − 8) + (7 · 4 − 8) + (7 · 5 − 8)
k=1
= −1 + 6 + 13 + 20 + 27
= 65
3
∑ (k2 − 9) = (12 − 9) + (22 − 9) + (32 − 9)
k=1
= −8 + (−5) + 0
= −13
618
1 1 1 1
∑ = + +···+
k=286 3 |3 3 {z 3}
There are 618−286+1=333 terms
1
= 333 ·
3
= 111
4.1. GENERAL SEQUENCE 157
n+3
1. (5pts ) Find the first five terms of the sequence an = .
n+2
(7:43 minutes)
(a) a1 = (c) a3 = (e) a5 =
(b) a2 = (d) a4 =
2. (2pts ) Is the sequence 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 finite?

Yes, it is a finite sequence. No, it is not.
3. (2pts ) Find a3 and a4 for the recursively defined sequence if a1 = 3, a2 = 4 and ak+1 =
ak + ak−1 .
(a) a3 = (b) a4 =
4. (2pts ) Evaluate the series

4
(a) ∑ (2i + 1) =
i=1
5
(b) ∑ (3i − 5) = (6:49 minutes)
i=1
5. (2pts ) Let x1 = −2, x2 = −1, x3 = 0, x4 = 1 and x5 = 2. Evaluate

5
xi + 1
∑ xi + 6 =
i=1
a2 a3 an
6. (2pts ) The series ea = 1 + a ++ + · · · + , where n! = 1 · 2 · 3 · · · · · n, can be used
2! 3! n!
to approximate the value of ea for any real number a. Use the first eight terms of this
series to approximate the value of e and e−1 .
(a) e =
(b) e−1 =
(13:26 minutes)
Correct answers:
Points: Percent:
4.2 Arithmetic sequence

Definition 4.2.1. A sequence {an , n = 1, 2, · · · , } is called an arithmetic sequence if one
term minus its previous term is a constant. That is,
an − an−1 = d, for all n ≥ 2
where d is a constant and called the common difference.
Example 4.2.1. Find the nth term, the fifth term and the tenth term of the arithmetic
sequence: 2, 6, 10, 14, · · · .
Solution:
Step one: Find the common difference of two adjacent numbers. (Remember, it is always
one term minus its previous term)
d = 6 − 2 = 10 − 6 = 14 − 10
Step two: Find the formula for the general term.
a1 = 2
a2 = 2 + 4 = 6 = a1 + 1 · d
a3 = 6 + 4 = 10 = a1 + 2 · d
a4 = 10 + 4 = 14 = a1 + 3 · d
(7:18 minutes)
a5 = 14 + 4 = 18 = a1 + 4 · d
···
Hence an = a1 + (n − 1) · d, which is true in general. The tenth term a10 = a1 + (10 −
1) · d = 2 + 9 · 4 = 38.
The nth term in the arithmetic sequence {an } is
(4.1) an = a1 + (n − 1)d
where a1 is the first term and d is the common difference.
Example 4.2.2. Find the nth term , the fifth term and the tenth term of the arithmetic
sequence. ln 3, ln 9, ln 27, ln 81, · · · .
Solution: Is this really a arithmetic sequence?
9
a2 − a1 = ln 9 − ln 3 = ln( ) = ln 3
3
27
a3 − a2 = ln 27 − ln 9 = ln( ) = ln 3
9
81 (14:17 minutes)
a4 − a3 = ln 81 − ln 27 = ln( ) = ln 3
27
4.2. ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE 159
Therefore, the common difference is d = ln 3. By formula 4.1, the nth term is
an = a1 + (n − 1) · d = ln 3 + (n − 1) · ln 3 = ln 3 + n ln 3 − ln 3 = n ln 3
a5 = 5 ln 3 = ln 35 = ln 243
a10 = 10 ln 3 = ln 310 = ln 59049
Example 4.2.3. Find the common difference for the arithmetic sequence with the specified
terms. a4 = 10 and a11 = 52.
Solution:
Plugging in n = 4 and n = 11 into formula 4.1, respectively, one may have
(
a4 = a1 + (4 − 1)d
a11 = a1 + (11 − 1)d
With the given conditions (

a4 = 10
a11 = 52
it is clear (
10 = a1 + 3d
52 = a1 + 10d
With the second equation minus the first equation, it gives
42 = 7d ⇒ 6 = d
Hence the common difference d = 6. Moreover, readers may find the first term by plugging
d = 6 back to one of the equations.
10 = a1 + 3 · 6 ⇒ 10 = a1 + 18 ⇒ a1 = −8
Hence the general term
an = a1 + (n − 1) · d
= −8 + (n − 1) · 6
= −8 + n · 6 + (−1) · 6
= −8 + 6n − 6
= 6n − 14
Readers may find every term in the arithmetic sequence by replacing n with different
values in the formula an = 6n − 14. How about the 4th term? Does it give the answer
a4 = 10.
Try yourself Find a1 in arithmetic sequence {an , n = 1, 2, · · · } given a8 = 49 and a9 = 55.

(Hint: the steps are the same as above. More details are in video. The answer is a1 = 7.)
Sum of arithmetic sequences An arithmetic sequence is a very special sequences since
the sequence has a common difference d. It may have a special formula for its summation.
One may look at how to find the sum of the following arithmetic sequence.
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 +7 +8 +9
| {z }
6+4=10
| {z }
7+3=10
| {z }
8+2=10 (11:58 minutes)
| {z }
9+1=10
There are four pairs of 10s. Hence the answer of the sum is 4 pairs of 10 plus the
middle number 5.
4 · 10 + 5 = 45
9−1
For a total of odd number 9 terms, the number of pairs can be found like 4 = . The
2
sum 10 is the first term plus the last term 9, that is, 10 = 9 + 1 or the second term plus the
9+1
second from the last term. 5 is the middle term, which can be found as . They are
2
all related to the number of terms 9. One may rewrite the above expression based on the
number 9. That is,
9−1 (9 + 1)
· (9 + 1) + = 45
2 2
How about adding the following 99 terms together?
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + · · · + 49 + 50 + 51 + · · · + 96 + 97 + 98 +99
| {z }
51+49=100
| {z }
98+2=100
| {z }
99+1=100
99 − 1 99 + 1
Would that be 49(pairs) = of 100 = 99 + 1 plus the middle term 50 = .
2 2
99 − 1 99 + 1
· (99 + 1) + = 49 ∗ 100 + 50 = 4950
2 2
Therefore, if n is odd, one may have the summation formula as follows:
n−1 (n + 1) n + 1 (n + 1)
· (n + 1) + = · ((n − 1) + 1) pull out
2 2 2 2
n+1
= ·n
2
If the number of terms is an even number, say n = 100, the case might be easier.
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + · · · + 49 + 50 + 51 +52 + · · · + 97 + 98 + 99 +100
| {z }
51+50=101
| {z }
52+49=101
| {z }
99+2=101
| {z }
100+1=101
100
Would that be 50(pairs) = of 101 = 100 + 1? That’s
2
100 n
50 ∗ 101 = · (100 + 1) = · (n + 1)
2 2
Hence, one may have a general formula for either n is even or odd as
n
n(n + 1)
(4.2) ∑ k = 1+2+···+n =
k=1 2
The sequence {k, k = 1, 2, · · · , n} = 1, 2, · · · , n is a special arithmetic sequence as the

common difference is 1. How does a general formula look like if the common difference
is not 1. One may use formula 4.2 to find the general formula as follows.
a1 = a1
a2 = a1 + d
a3 = a1 + 2d
a4 = a1 + 3d
··· (9:05 minutes)
an = a1 + (n − 1)d
By adding left hand side and right hand side, respectively, one may have
n
∑ ai = n · a1 + d · (1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + (n − 1))
i=1
(n − 1)((n − 1) + 1)
= n · a1 + d · by formula 4.2 with (n − 1) (not n) terms
2
2 (n − 1)n
= · na1 + ·d
2 2
n n
= (2a1 + (n − 1)d) pull out
2 2
n
= (a1 + (a1 + (n − 1)d))
2
n
= (a1 + an ) note a1 + (n − 1)d is an , see formula 4.1
2
That’s, for an arithmetic sequence {ak = a1 + (k − 1)d, k = 1, 2, · · · , n},

n
(a1 + an ) · n
(4.3) Sn = ∑ ak =
k=1 2
The formula can be read as “The first term plus the last term times the number of terms
divided by 2.” Please note there is no common difference d in the summation formula.
15
Example 4.2.4. Find ∑ (6k − 5).
k=1
Solution:
Note the general term is
ak = 6k − 5
(k + 1)th term would be
ak+1 = 6(k + 1) − 5 (6:57 minutes)

Therefore,
ak+1 − ak = 6(k + 1) − 5 − (6k − 5) = 6k + 6 − 5 − 6k + 5 = 6
That’s, the common difference d = 6 is a constant. Hence, the sequence {ak = 6k − 5, k =
1, 2, · · · , 15} is an arithmetic sequence.
The first term is
a1 = 6k − 5 = 6 · 1 − 5 = 1
The last term is
a15 = 6k − 5 = 6 · 15 − 5 = 85
By formula 4.3, the sum of 15 terms is
15
(a1 + a15 ) · 15 (1 + 85) · 15
S15 = ∑ (6k − 5) = = = 645
k=1 2 2
8
Example 4.2.5. In an arithmetic sequence, given a7 = , and the com-
3
15
2
mon difference d = − . Find S15 = ∑ ak .
3 k=1 (11:50 minutes)
Solution: In summation formula 4.3, it needs the first term, last term and number of terms.
Here it is given there are 15 terms. One needs to find the formula for the general term in
order to find the first term and the last term. In formula 4.1,
ak = a1 + (k − 1) · d
8 2
one may plug in k = 7, ak = and d = − . That’s
3 3
8 2 8 8 20
= a1 + (7 − 1) · (− ) ⇒ = a1 + (−4) ⇒ a1 = 4 + =
3 3 3 3 3
Therefore, the general formula for the given arithmetic sequence is

20 2
ak = a1 + (k − 1)d = + (k − 1)(− )
3 3
The last term would be
20 2 20 2 20 − 28 8
a15 = + (15 − 1)(− ) = + 14 · (− ) = =−
3 3 3 3 3 3
By summation formula 4.3,
(a1 + a15 ) · 15 ( 20 + (− 83 )) · 15 12
· 15 12 · 5
S15 = = 3 = 3
= = 30
2 2 2 2
Example 4.2.6. Express the sum in terms of summation notation. 2 + 8 + 14 + 20 + 26
Solution:
It is clear that 8 − 2 = 14 − 8 = 20 − 14 = 26 − 20 = 6 = d, the sequence is an arithmetic
sequence. By formula 4.1 to find the general term,
ak = a1 + (k − 1) · d
one may plug in a1 = 2 and d = 6. That’s
ak = 2 + (k − 1)6 = 2 + 6k − 6 = 6k − 4
Hence the summation formula would be

5
∑ (6k − 4)
k=1
Please note the summation formula below also works

4
∑ (2 + 6n)
n=0
Here the starting index is 0 rather than 1 and the ending index is 4 rather than 5. The
reason is as follows.
For n = 0, (2 + 6 · n) = 2 + 6 · 0 = 2
For n = 1, (2 + 6 · n) = 2 + 6 · 1 = 8
For n = 2, (2 + 6 · n) = 2 + 6 · 2 = 14
For n = 3, (2 + 6 · n) = 2 + 6 · 3 = 20
For n = 4, (2 + 6 · n) = 2 + 6 · 4 = 26
1. (2pts ) Find the common difference d for the arithmetic sequence −3, −7, −11, −15,
···.
d= (11:46 minutes) QR
2. (2pts ) Find a8 and an for the arithmetic sequence: 6, 8, 10, · · · .
(a) a8 = (b) an =
3. (2pts ) Find a1 for the arithmetic sequence with S16 = 256 and a16 = 31. a1 =
4. (2pts ) Find the sum of the first 10 terms for the arithmetic sequence with a3 = 13 and
a5 = 23.
S10 = (9:33 minutes) QR
5. (2pts ) Find the sum of the first 20 positive odd integers.

S20 = (13:16 minutes) QR
90
6. (2pts ) Calculate ∑ (−2k) =
k=1
7. (2pts ) Find the sum of all integers from 48 to 95.

The sum is (9:40 minutes) QR
8. (2pts ) Assume the following sequence is an arithmetic sequence 19, 16, 13, 10, 7, · · · .
Find an .
an =
Correct answers:
Points: Percent:
4.3. GEOMETRIC SEQUENCES 165
4.3 Geometric sequences

Definition 4.3.1. In a sequence {an , n = 1, 2, · · · }, if one term divided by its previous term
an+1
is a constant, that is, = r, for all n > 1, then the sequence is a geometric sequence. r
an
is called the common ratio.
Example 4.3.1. Identify if the following sequences are geometric sequences.
a) 27, 9, 3, 1, · · · .
9 1 3 1 1
Solution: = , = , . The sequence is a geometric sequence.
27 3 9 3 3
(14:24 minutes)
b) 5, 25, 125, 625, · · · .
25 125 625
Solution: = 5, = 5, = 5. The sequence is a geometric sequence.
5 25 125
c) 6, −15, 37.5, −93.75, · · ·
−15 5 37.5 5 −93.75 5

Solution: =− , = −2.5 = − , = −2.5 = − . The sequence is a
6 2 −15 2 37.5 2
geometric sequence.
The nth term in geometric sequence {an }
Given a geometric sequence: a1 a2 a3 a4 · · · an

a2 a3 a4 an
By definition: =r =r =r ··· =r
a1 a2 a3 an−1
Eliminate the denominators: a2 = a1 r a3 = a2 r a4 = a3 r · · · an = an−1 r
Replace a2 with a1 r and etc. a3 = a1 r 2 a4 = a1 r 3 · · · an = a1 rn−1
Hence the nth term in geometric sequence {an } is
(4.4) an = a1 rn−1 , where r is the common ratio
Example 4.3.2. Find the nth term, the fifth term and the eighth term of the given geomet-
ric sequences.
a) 27, 9, 3, 1, · · ·
Solution:
9 1
r= = ⇒
27 3
a5 1 1 1 1
r= = ⇒ a5 = · a4 = · 1 = (note a4 = 1)
a4 3 3 3 3
an = a1 rn−1 (by formula 4.4)
n−1
1 1 (15:50 minutes)
an = 27 · (plug in a1 = 27 and r = )
3 3
8−1
1 17 1
a8 = 27 · = 27 · 7 = (plug in n = 8)
3 3 81
b) 5, 25, 125, 625, · · ·
Solution:
25
r= =5⇒
5
a5
r= = 5 ⇒ a5 = 5 · a4 = 625 · 5 = 3125 (note a4 = 625)
a4
an = a1 rn−1 (by formula 4.4)
an = 5 · 5n−1 = 5n (plug in a1 = 5 and r = 5)
8
a8 = 5 = 390625 (plug in n = 8)
c) 6, −15, 37.5, −93.75, · · ·

Solution:
−15 5
r= =− ⇒
6 2
a5 5 5 5
r= = − ⇒ a5 = − · a4 = − · (−93.75) = 234.375 (note a4 = −93.75)
a4 2 2 2
n−1
an = a1 r (by formula 4.4)
n−1
5 5
an = 6 · − (plug in a1 = 6 and r = − )
2 2
8−1 7
5 5
a8 = 6 · − =6 − = −3662.109375 (plug in n = 8)
2 2
Example 4.3.3. Find all possible values of r for a geometric sequence with two given
terms a4 = 5 and a6 = 25.
Solution: In formula 4.4, an = a1 rn−1 ,

Substitute 4 for n, one may get
a4 = a1 r4−1 = a1 r3 ⇒ 5 = a1 r3
substitute 6 for n, one may get
a6 = a1 r6−1 = a1 r5 ⇒ 25 = a1 r5
Therefore,
25 a1 r5 2
√ (12:50 minutes)
= ⇒ 5 = r ⇒ r = ± 5
5 a1 r 3
Example 4.3.4. Find the specified term a10 of the geometric sequence that has the two
given terms a4 = 3 and a7 = 6.
Solution: In formula 4.4,
an = a1 rn−1
if n = 4, one may have
a4 = a1 r4−1 ⇒ 3 = a1 r3 (a4 = 3 by the given condition)
if n = 7, one may have
a7 = a1 r7−1 ⇒ 6 = a1 r6 (a7 = 6 by the given condition)
By combining these two equations, one may get
6 a1 r6 3
√
3
= 3
⇒ 2 = r ⇒ r = 2
3 a1 r
a1 needs to be found in order to write the nth term in formula 4.4.
√ 3 3
3 = a1 r 3 ⇒ 3 = a1
3
2 ⇒ 3 = 2 · a1 ⇒ a1 =
2
Therefore, the nth term formula is
3 √ n−1 3 √ 10−1 3
an = a1 rn−1 ⇒ an = = · 23 = 12
3 3
2 ⇒ a10 = · 2
2 2 2
Sum of geometric sequences

Let {an } be a geometric sequence with the common ratio r. Then
n
1 − rn
(4.5) Sn = ∑ ai = a1 + a2 + · · · + an = a1
i=1 1−r (9:40 minutes)
n−1
Here are a few steps to prove the formula. Recall formula 4.4, an = a1 r , that’s
a2 = a1 r, a3 = a1 r2 , · · · , an = a1 rn−1
For the sum

n
Sn = ∑ ai = a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an
i=1
It then can be written as
Sn = a1 + a1 r + a1 r2 + · · · + a1 rn−1 (*)
Both sides multiplied by r, one may have
Sn · r = a1 · r + a1 r · r + a1 r2 · r · · · + a1 rn−1 · r
= a1 r + a1 r2 + a1 r3 + · · · + a1 rn (**)
For the equation single star (*) minus the equation double star (**), one may get,
Sn = a1 + a1 r + a1 r2 + a1 r3 + · · · + a1 rn−1
−Sn · r = − a1 r − a1 r2 − a1 r3 − · · · − a1 rn−1 − a1 rn
Sn − Sn · r = a1 − a1 r n
That’s
Sn (1 − r) = a1 (1 − rn )
1 − rn
Sn = a1
1−r
11
Example 4.3.5. Find ∑ 2k = 21 + 22 + 23 + · · · + 211.
k=1
(5:02 minutes)
Solution: The 1st term is 21 = 2. The kth term is ak = 2k and the (k + 1)th term is
ak+1 2k+1
ak+1 = 2k+1 . The common ratio is r = = k = 2 for the geometric sequence.
ak 2
11
S11 = ∑ 2k
k=1
= 2 + 22 + 23 + · · · + 211
1
1 − r11
= a1 ·
1−r
1 − 211
= 2·
1−2
(1 − 2048)
= 2·
−1
= 4094
Before proceeding to the next example, one may need to observe the following facts.
If a number n gets bigger and bigger, say n = 50, 100 and so on, what would happen to
the values of rn , where r is a number with the absolute value less than one, for example,
3
r= .
4
3
For n = 50, ( )50 = 0.0000005663216564.
4
3
For n = 100, ( )100 = 0.000000000000320720219.
4
3
It appears that when n gets bigger, the value ( )n gets closer to 0. This fact is denoted by
4
n
3
→ 0 as n → ∞ (Symbol ∞ means the infinity)
4
Example 4.3.6. Find the sum of the infinite geometric series if it exists.
64 + 48 + 36 + 27 + · · · + an + · · ·
Solution:
The sequence is a geometric sequence as
48 36 27 3
= = =
64 48 36 4 (6:12 minutes)
First, one may apply the formula 4.5 with a finite number say n. Note here the first
term a1 = 64.
1 − rn
Sn = 64 + 48 + 36 + 27 + · · · + an = a1
1−r
1 − ( 34 )n (1 − ( 34 )n )
= 64 = 64
1 − 34 1
4
n n
3 1 3 4

= 64 · 1 − ÷ = 64 · 1 − · (13:45 minutes)
4 4 4 1
n
3

= 256 1 −
4
3 3 3
As n → ∞, ( )n → 0, hence 1 − ( )n → 1 and 256(1 − ( )n ) → 256. It then gives
4 4 4
S = 64 + 48 + 36 + 27 + · · · + an + · · · = 256
In the above example, readers may have noticed that if the common ratio r with
absolute value less than 1, that is |r| < 1, then rn → 0 and 1 − rn → 1. Therefore, formula
4.5 for the summation of finite n terms may come to calculate the sum of infinite terms
with the formula below.
1 a1
(4.6) S = a1 · =
1−r 1−r
Example 4.3.7. Find the fractional number represented by the repeating decimal 0.56.
Solution:
0.56 = 0.56 + 0.0056 + 0.000056 + · · ·
Note the first term is a1 = 0.56 and the common ratio
0.0056
r= = 0.01 < 1 (9:11 minutes)
0.56
a1 0.56 0.56 56
S = 0.56 + 0.0056 + 0.000056 + · · · = = = =
1 − r 1 − 0.01 0.99 99
Readers may try to find the fractional number for the repeating decimal number 10.5. For
95
hints and more details, please watch the video lecture. The answer is for the question.
9
Actually, any decimal numbers with a repeating expansion can be converted to the
corresponding fractional numbers. A fractional number can be either a finite decimal
number or a decimal number with a repeating expansion. This probably is one of the
reasons why a finite decimal or an infinite decimal number with
√ √ a repeating expansion is
called the rational number. π, e and other numbers such as 2, 3 and so on are called
irrational numbers. These numbers do not have repeating expansions.
1. (2pts ) A person puts $1 in the first cell of the chess, $2 the second cell, $4 the third cell,
$8 the fourth cell, and so on, with money doubled each cell. Determine how much
the person will put on the 11th cell. What is the total amount of the money up to cell
eleven? (14:04 minutes) QR
(a) Money in the 11th cell: (b) Total money:
2. (2pts ) Find a5 and an for the geometric sequence. −3, −9, −27, −81, · · ·
(14:58 minutes) QR
(a) a5 = (b) an =
3. (2pts ) Find a1 and r for the geometric sequence with a2 = −3 and a5 = −81.
(a) a1 = (b) r =
4. (2pts ) Use the formula for Sn to find the sum of the first five terms of the geometric
sequence with a1 = 8.427 and r = 2.853 at accuracy 0.01. S5 =
5. (2pts ) Evaluate the sum of the infinite geometric series. (13:22 minutes) QR
1 1 1
(a) 1 + + + · · · + +··· =
6 36 216
∞
2 i

(b) ∑ =
i=1 11
6. (2pts ) For the given geometric sequence 4, 8, 16, 32, · · · , determine the common ratio
and if the sum converges. (5:43 minutes) QR
(a) r =
(b) Is the sum of the infinite series finite or convergent?

Yes, it is convergent. No, it is not convergent.
7. (2pts ) A population of fruit flies is growing in such a way that each generation is 1.25
times as large as the last generation. Suppose there were 150 insects in the first gener-
ation. How many would there be in the fourth generation? (2:52 minutes) QR
The population of the 4th generation is a4 =
Correct answers:
Points: Percent:
4.4 Mathematical induction

Logically, one may draw a general conclusion through a series of special instances. This
kind of reasoning process is called the induction reasoning. Previously through the induc-
tion reasoning in section 4.2, the formula for the sum
1+2+3+···+n
has been found. Readers may refer to formula 4.2 for more details. Practically, even
finding the sum as
1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + 20
is a tedious job without applying the formula. Finding a formula to calculate the result is
indeed necessary. Mathematically, the formula correctness needs to be proved. This is the
rationale why the mathematical induction needs to be introduced.
Example 4.4.1. Show that the following statement is true for all positive integers n.
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
(4.7) 12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + n2 =
6
Proof. Please note sequence {k2 , k = 1, 2, · · · , n} is neither an arithmetic sequence nor a

geometric sequence. Hence none of previous formulas applies. Hence the formula correct-
ness needs to be proved. Here are the steps to prove the formula by using the mathematical
induction.
Step one: to see if the formula is true when n = 1.
On the left hand side, n2 = 12 = 1. On the right hand side,
n(n + 1)(2n + 1) 1(1 + 1)(2 · 1 + 1) 1 · 2 · 3

= = =1
n 6 6
The statement is true for n = 1. (11:55 minutes)
Step two: assume the statement is true for n = k. That is, assume
k(k + 1)(2k + 1)
12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + k2 = (*)
6
is true. One needs to prove the statement is true for n = k + 1, that is, the
following equation needs to be proved. (15:05 minutes)
(k + 1)((k + 1) + 1)(2(k + 1) + 1)
12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + k2 + (k + 1)2 = (**)
6
Please note when the assumption was made for n = k, k at least can choose value 1. That’s,
step one is indeed needed. To prove the truth of equation double stars (**), the assumption,
the truth of equation single star (*) needs to be used. The difference between equations (*)
and (**) on the left hand side is: there is one more term (k + 1)2 in equation (**). Now
4.4. MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION 173
adding (k + 1)2 on both sides of equation (*), one may get the expressions on the left hand
side in both equations of (*) and (**) are the same. Will the expression on the right hand
side be the same with the one in equation (**)? That’s what one may hope.
12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + k2 + (k + 1)2
k(k + 1)(2k + 1)
= + (k + 1)2
6
k(k + 1)(2k + 1) 6
= + (k + 1)2 ·
6 6
k+1 (k + 1)
= (k(2k + 1) + 6(k + 1)) pull out
6 6
k+1 2
= (2k + k + 6k + 6)
6
k+1 2
= (2k + 7k + 6)
6
k+1
= (k + 2)(2k + 3)
6
k+1
= (k + 1 + 1)(2k + 2 + 1)
6
(k + 1)((k + 1) + 1)(2(k + 1) + 1)
=
6
The statement is therefore true for n = k + 1. So the statement is true for all natural
numbers. (In the first step, the statement is true for n=k=1. The above in the second step
has shown the statement is true for n=k+1=2. The loop will never end. Hence one may
conclude the statement is true for all natural numbers.)
What does equation 4.7 really mean? It means if one needs to calculate
12 + 22 + 32 + 42 + 52 + 62 + 72 + 82 + 92
one just needs to calculate

9 · (9 + 1) · (2 · 9 + 1) 9 · 10 · 19
= = 285
6 6
Readers may try to find the sum
12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + 1002
Without the formula, it will take one forever to find the sum even with the help of a
calculator.
Example 4.4.2. Show the following statement is true for all positive integers n.
1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 1) = n2
Proof. Step one, let n = 1.

The left hand side has only one term, which is the value
2n − 1 = 2 · 1 − 1 = 1
The right hand side is 12 = 1. Both sides equal to 1. The statement is (8:00 minutes)
then true for n = 1.
Step two, assume the statement is true for n = k.
That is, the following is true.
1 + 3 + 5 + · + (2k − 1) = k2
Both sides added by (2(k + 1) − 1), (9:45 minutes)
1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2k − 1) + (2(k + 1) − 1) = k2 + (2(k + 1) − 1)

= k2 + 2k + 2 − 1
= k2 + 2k + 1
= (k + 1)2
The statement is then true for n = k +1. Hence the statement is true for all natural numbers.
Example 4.4.3. Prove the following statement is true for all natural numbers.
1 n
30 + 31 + 32 + 33 + · · · + 3n−1 = (3 − 1)
2

On the left hand side, there is only one term under the assump-
tion n = 1. 3n−1 = 31−1 = 30 = 1. On the right hand side,
1 n 1 1 1
(3 − 1) = (31 − 1) = (3 − 1) = · 2 = 1. Both sides have
2 2 2 2
the value 1 when n = 1. The statement is then true for n = 1. (9:41 minutes)
Step two, assume the statement is true for n = k. That is, the following is true
1
1 + 3 + 32 + 33 + · · · + 3k−1 = (3k − 1)
2
Adding 3k to both sides of the equation, one may have
1
1 + 3 + 32 + 33 + · · · + 3k−1 + 3k = (3k − 1) + 3k
2
1 k 1 2
= · 3 + · (−1) + 3k ·
2 2 2
3 k 1
= ·3 −
2 2
3 k+1 1
= −
2 2
1 k+1
= (3 − 1)
2
The statement is then true for n = k +1. Hence the statement is true for all natural numbers.
Example 4.4.4. Prove the statement is true for every positive integer n: 3 is a factor of
n3 − n + 3.

n3 − n + 3 = 13 − 1 + 3 = 1 − 1 + 3 = 3. 3 is a factor of 3. The statement is then true for
n = 1.
Step two, assume the statement is true for n = k. That is, 3|(k3 − k + 3). Note “|” means
that 3 divides into the quantity (k3 − k + 3). If n = k + 1, then
n3 − n + 3 = (k + 1)3 − (k + 1) + 3
= k3 + 3k2 + 3k + 1 − k − 1 + 3
= k3 + 3k2 + 3k − k + 3
= k3 − k + 3 + 3k2 + 3k (15:01 minutes)
= (k3 − k + 3) + 3(k2 + k)
By assumption, 3|(k3 − k + 3). It is also clear that 3|(3(k2 + k)). Hence 3|((k + 1)3 −
(k + 1) + 3). The statement is true for n = k + 1. Therefore, 3 is a factor of (n3 − n + 3)
for every natural number.
Example 4.4.5. Prove the following statement is true for every positive integer n.
5 is a factor of 6n − 1
Proof. Step one, consider the case for n = 1. 6n − 1 = 61 − 1 = 6 − 1 = 5. 5 apparently is

a factor of 5. The statement, 5 is a factor of 6n − 1, is then true for n = 1.
Step two, assume the statement is true for n = k. That is, assume the statement 5 is a factor
of (6k − 1) is true. Under the assumption, one may need to see if (6k+1 − 1) has a factor
of 5.
6k+1 − 1 = 61 · 6k − 6k + 6k − 1
= 5 · 6k + (6k − 1)
(5:13 minutes)
It is clear 5 is a factor of 5 · 6k . 5 is also a factor of (6k − 1) by the assumption.

Therefore, 5 is a factor of (6k+1 − 1). The statement is true for n = k + 1. Hence the
statement, 5 is a factor of (6n − 1), is true for every integer n.
1. Prove the following equation is an identity for natural numbers
6(6n − 1)
6 + 36 + 216 + · · · + 6n =
5
(Watch video 10:42 minutes
2. Prove 2n + 1 > 4n is true for n ≥ 4.
(Watch video 11:14 minutes)
3. Prove an < an−1 , where 0 < a < 1, is true for all natural numbers.
(Watch video 11:00 minutes)

4.5 Binomial Theorem

Mathematically, one may see an expression like 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1. The expression can be
denoted by 5!. That is
5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 5!
5! is read as “Five Factorial.” In general, one may have the definition as follows.
Definition 4.5.1. [Factorial]

n! = n · (n − 1) · · · 2 · 1
“n!” is read as “n factorial.” Note 0! is defined as 1.
With the above definition, one may write the expression 100 · 99 · 98 · · · · · 2 · 1 as 100!.
Example 4.5.1. Find the value of

5!
3!2!
Solution:
5! 5·4·3·2·1
=
3!2! 3 · 2 · 1 · 2 · 1
5·4
=
2·1 3:50 minutes
= 10
“5!” may come from a very natural way. For example, one may take five different
objects: apple, book, cup, disk, egg and put in order.
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

5 4 3 2 1
For the first cell, one may select any one of these five objects. The number of option is
“5.” One may assume the cup is selected and put into the cell. Then there are four objects
left: apple, book, disk and egg. For the second cell, one may choose any one of these four
objects. The number of option is “4.” Similarly, the number of options for the rest of three
cells are 3, 2 and 1. The total number of choices would be 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1, which is 5!.
Now, let’s consider another case. Instead of taking 5 objects out 5 objects and put these in
order. One may only take 3 objects out of 5 objects and put the three objects in order. See
the following cells.
1st 2nd 3rd

5 4 3
4.5. BINOMIAL THEOREM 179
For the first cell, again one may select any one out of these five objects and put into the
first cell. The number of options is “5.” For the second cell, the number of options is “4”.
For the third cell, the number of options would be “3”. Hence the number of total options
for “taking 3 objects out of 5 is 5 · 4 · 3 = 60, which is
5·4·3·2·1 5!
= = 60
2·1 (5 − 3)!
Definition 4.5.2. [Permutation] If one takes m objects out of n objects, where m ≤ n, and
put in order, or say order is important, then the total number of ways to make such an
arrangement, which is denoted by n Pm and read as “n permutation m”, is
n!
(4.8) n Pm =
(n − m)!
The pattern of the arrangement is called the permutation.
In the above example, the order was important. The total number of the arrange was
60 for taking 3 objects out 5 objects with regard to permutation. There are cases that order
may not be important. For example, one may take three persons, say Amy, Barbara and
Cathy out of five persons: Amy, Barbara, Cathy, David, Edward, to form a committee.
Then the group: Amy, Barbara and Cathy is the same with the group: Barbara, Amy and
Cathy. If the order were important among the three persons, then the number of the total
arrangements would be
3·2·1 = 6
For more details with tree diagram explanations, readers may refer to the coming example
4.5.4. At this moment, please see the cell table below for the explanations.
1st 2nd 3rd

3 2 1
What it tells the readers is: one may view ABC, ACB, BAC, BCA, CAB, CBA in a total
number of 6 with regard to permutation as a single option {A, B, C} with regard to com-
bination. Out of 60 arrangements regarding the permutation, each 6 of such arrangements
is the same. It then gives the total number of choices regarding combination is
60 5 · 4 · 3 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 1 5!
= = =
6 3·2·1 2 · 1 · 3! 3!(5 − 3)!
In general, one may have the following definition.
Definition 4.5.3. [Combination] If one takes m objects out of n objects, where m ≤ n,
without ordering the m objects, or say order is not important, then the total number of
ways to make such an arrangement, which is denoted by nCm and read as “n combination
m”, is
n!
(4.9) nCm =
m!(n − m)!
The pattern of the arrangement is called the combination.
n, read as “n choose m.” For example,

In some other books, nCm is also written as m
101
101C99 can be written as 99 . Now, let’s see a few examples.
Example 4.5.2. Evaluate

101

99
Solution:
101 101!

=
99 99!(101 − 99)!
101 · 100 · 99 · 98 · · · · · 2 · 1
=
99 · 98 · · · · · 2 · 1 · 2 · 1
101 · 100 11:37 minutes
=
2·1
= 5050
Please do not try to use the calculators to find the value 101! of 99!. These two
values are too big for calculators to calculate. For how to use Ti-83 calculator to find the
value, please watch the video lecture.
One may probably have noticed that
101 101! 101! 101

= = =
99 99!2! 2!99! 2
In general, the following equation is true.
n n

(4.10) =
m n−m
Example 4.5.3. Evaluate 33 , 32 , 31 and 30 .

Solution:
3 3! 3·2·1

= = = 1 please note 0! is 1 by definition 4.5.1
3 3!(3 − 3)! 3 · 2 · 1 · 1
3 3! 3·2·1
= = =3
2 2!(3 − 2)! 2 · 1 · 1
3 3! 3·2·1

= = =3
1 1!(3 − 1)! 1 · 2 · 1
3 3! 3·2·1
= = =1
0 0!(3 − 0)! 1 · 3 · 2 · 1
3 3 3 3

The above example shows that = and = . These again illustrate
3 0 2 1
that equation 4.10 is correct.
Example 4.5.4. Assume one is given three objects: an Apple, a Book and a Cup. In how
many different ways can one put the three objects in order? List all permutations.
Solution:
1st 2nd 3rd

3 2 1
At the beginning, one may put any one out of three objects: Apple, Book and Cup into the
first cell. So there are three options for the first cell. If one of the object, e.g. an Apple,
is put into the first cell, then there will be two objects left for the second cell. One may
choose either a Book or a Cup into the second cell, which tells us there are two options at
the second step. If a Cup was selected in the second step, then one may only take the book
into the third. The book is the only choice one can make, which tells that there is only one
option in step three. Please also refer to the tree diagram.
Book Cup ABC

Apple
Cup Book ACB
Apple Cup BAC

Book
Cup Apple BCA
Apple Book CAB

Cup
Book Apple CBA
If one is given two letters of “a” and one letter of “b” in a total of three letters, how
may different arrangements can one put the three letters in order. The question raised here
is the same as the following mathematically.
Example 4.5.5. One is given three objects an“Apple” and two “Books.” In how many
different ways can one put the objects in order?
Solution: This question looks like “a simplified version” of the previous example 4.5.4.
The difference is the third object: one is the “Cup” in the previous example, one is the
“Book” in this example. Previously the six different arrangements are:
CBA,CAB, BCA, BAC, ACB, ABC
If C is replaced with B, then one would get
BBA, BAB, BBA, BAB, ABB, ABB

So the arrangements CBA and BCA in the previous example would be viewed as the same
arrangement BBA or BBA. Readers may figure out the other two pairs. Hence the three
different arrangements are
ABB, BAB, BBA
Before considering the expansion of (a+b)n , one may consider a special
case of (a + b)3 . Please note (a + b)3 6= a3 + b3 . 14:46 minutes
(a + b)3
=(a + b)(a + b)(a + b)
=(a · a + a · b + b · a + b · b)(a + b) (apply FOIL method to the first pair)
=a · a · a + a · b · a + b · a · a + b · b · a + a · a · b + a · b · b + b · a · b + b · b · b
The above process can be expressed by a tree diagram as follows
a aaa
a
b aab
a
a aba
b
b abb
a baa
a
b bab
b
a bba
b
b bbb
Here are the observations:

1) Each term has all different colors or the exact one element from all different brackets.
3
2) The total number
of terms is 8, which is 2 .
3
3) There is 1 = term that ”a” appears three time, which is
3
aaa = a3
3

4) There are 3 = terms that “a” appears twice:
2
3 2

aab + aba + baa = a b
2
3

5) There are 3 = terms that “a” appears once:
1
3

abb + bab + bba = ab2
1
3

6) There is 1 = term that “a” appears zero times:
0
bbb = b3
Readers may try to figure out (a + b)4 themselves. In general, one may have the
following theorem.
Theorem 4.5.4 (Binomial Theorem).
n n n n n n n

n n−1 n−2 2 n−1
(a + b) = a + a b+ a b +···+ ab + b
n n−1 n−2 1 0
n

Please note the 3rd term in the expansion is actually an−2 b2 . With this in our
n−2
mind, one may do
Example 4.5.6. Find the fifteenth term of the binomial expansion (c2 + d)24 .
n

Solution: The 15th term in the binomial theorem is an−14 b14 , which gives the
n − 14
fifteenth term in the expansion of (c2 + d)24 .
24

(c2 )24−14 (d)14
24 − 14
24 20 14

= c d
10 (5:45 minutes)
20 14
=1961256c d
Example 4.5.7. Use the binomial theorem to expand the expression (a − b)5 .
Solution:
(a − b)5
=(a + (−b))5
5 4 5 3 5 2 5

5 2 3
=a + a (−b) + a (−b) + a (−b) + a(−b)4 + (−b)5
4 3 2 1 (6:06 minutes)
=a5 − 5a4 b + 10a3 b2 − 10a2 b3 + 5ab4 − b5
Example 4.5.8. Use Binomial Theorem to expand (2x − 3r)6 .
Solution:
(2x − 3r)6
=((2x) + (−3r))6
6 6 6

6 5 4 2
=(2x) + (2x) (−3r) + (2x) (−3r) + (2x)3 (−3r)3
5 4 3
6 6

2 4
+ (2x) (−3r) + (2x)(−3r)5 + (−3r)6
2 1 (7:39 minutes)
6 6 5 5 4 2 4 2 3 3 3 3
=2 x + 6 · 2 (−3)x r + 15 · 2 (−3) x r + 20 · 2 (−3) x r
+ 15 · 22 (−3)4 x2 r4 + 6 · 2(−3)5 xr5 + (−3)6 r6
=64x6 − 576x5 r + 2160x4 r2 − 4320x3 r3 + 4860x2 r4 − 2916xr5 + 729r6
1. (3pts ) Evaluate the following expressions. Refer to example 4.5.1 for hint.
(a) 10! = 79!

(c) =
73!6!
8!
(b) =
5!3!
2. (7pts ) Complete the questions below. Refer to examples 4.5.2 and 4.5.3 for hints.
88 4 4

(a) = (c) = (e) =
78 3 1
4 4 4

(b) = (d) = (f) =
4 2 0
(g) Is the following expression an identity?

4 4 4 4 4

+ + + + = 24
4 3 2 1 0
No, it is not an identity. Yes, it is an identity.
3. (2pts ) Find the eighth term in the expansion (x + 2y)12 . Refer to 4.5.6 for hint.
12 5

x (2y)7 =
7
4. (2pts ) Expanding the following binomial expressions. Refer example 4.5.7 for hint.
1 4

(a) x − =
2
(b) (a + b)6 =
5. (2pts ) Find expansions. Refer to example 4.5.8 for hint.

(a) (3x − 2y)5 =
1 4

2
(b) x + =
x
Correct answers:
Points: Percent:
cos α, 14 conjugate axis, 129
sin α, 14 transverse axis, 129
tan α, 14 vertices, 129
standard equation, 130
amplitude, 49
animation law of cos, 101
cycloid, 154 law of sin, 94
arithmetic sequence, 158 line
n term sum, 160 cos line, 19
nth term formula, 158 sin line, 19
tan line, 19
binomial theorem, 183
mathematical induction, 172
central angle, 6
circumferential angle, 6 negative angle, 2
co-terminal angles, 3
combination, 179 parabola, 111
common difference, 158 axis, 111
common ratio, 165 directrix, 111
vertex, 111
degree measure, 6 standard equation, 112
dot product, 66 parametric equation, 148
dot product properties, 67 periodic function, 36
permutation, 179
ellipse, 120 phase, 47
eccentricity, 125 polar coordinate, 142
major axis, 120 polar equation, 143
minor axis, 120 positive angle, 2
vertices, 120
standard equation, 121 quadrant angle, 2
factorial, 178 radian, 6
foci, 120, 129 radian measure, 6
focus, 111 rectangular equation, 143
frequency, 48
sequence, 155
geometric sequence, 165 arithmetic, 158
n term sum, 167 geometric, 165
nth term formula, 165
graph tree diagram, 181
cycloid, 154 triangle
area, 106
hyperbola, 129 Heron’s formula, 107
187
188 INDEX
vector, 61
dot product, 66
addition, 62
magnitude, 61
scalar multiplication, 62
subtraction, 62
unit vector, 61
zero angle, 2

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2 Vectors and Trigonometric Identities 61

2.2 Dot Product of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

2.3 Sum and Difference Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

2.3.1 An Important Identity cos(α − β ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

2.3.3 Double Angle Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

2.4 Trigonometric Function Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

Exercise for Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

2.5 Law of sin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

2.6 Law of cos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

2.7 Application of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

3 Conic Curves 111

3.1 Parabola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

1.1 Arbitrary Angles and Radian Measure

1.1.1 Arbitrary Angles

Figure 1.1: Pulley motion

The angle in figure 1.2 is −320 . The angle

The co-terminal angles of 2700 is

1. (3pts ) Please answer the following questions.

(a) The right angle is

(b) The acute angles are in

(c) The obtuse angles are in

2. (1pts ) Quadrant one angles are acute angles

3. (2pts ) Today is Friday.

(a) Then 7k, (k ∈ N) days later, it will be

(b) 100 days later, it will be

(a) The co-terminal angle of −600 is degrees.

(b) The co-terminal angle of 3950 is degrees.

(c) The co-terminal angle of −11800 is degrees.

1.1.2 Radian Measure

A central angle is the angle that forms when

Table 1.1: Relationships

degrees radians arc length sector area

10 = π/180 ≈ 0.01745 rad,

Table 1.2: Corresponds between degree and radian measure

(1.2) l = θ r, where l is the arc length, r is the radius.

Table 1.4: For Sector Area

Therefore, one may get

π = α1.5 −→ α = π/1.5 = 2π/3 rad = 1200

The smaller pulley will run 1200 .

(b) The terminal sides are on y-axis:

(b) tan 1.20 and tan 1.2

(a) −2650 (c) −8430 100

(b) −10000 (d) 39000

(a) 600 (c) −8240 300 (e) 900 (g) 1800

(b) −750 (d) 4750 (f) 2700 (h) 00

4. Please make the correct choice

(a) Let angle α be an acute angle. Then 2α will be

(i) in quadrant one (iii) less than 1800

(ii) in quadrant two (iv) in quadrant one or two

(ii) in quadrant two (iv) in quadrant one or three

(a) 360 (b) −1500 (c) 10950 (d) 14400

1.2 Trigonometric Functions of Arbitrary Angles

1.2.1 Trigonometric Functions of Arbitrary Angles

Figure 1.5: Slope and tan α

2.38 23.8 35.7

See P(x, y) in quadrant I, II, III, IV.

Figure 1.8: Values for the special angles

Solution: By Pythagorean theorem, one may

(1.4) sin(θ + k · 2π) = sin θ

tan(−6720 ) = tan(480 − 2 × 3600 ) = tan 480 > 0

(4) Based on formula 1.6 again, it is clear

tan(3π) = tan(π + 2π) = tan π = 0

Example 1.2.7. Find the trigonometric function values.