3.

FLOW COMPUTATION FORMULAS

 3. FLOW COMPUTATION FORMULAS
Critical flow
As described in chapter 2, the critical state of flow through a channel
is characterized by several important conditions.
1. The specific energy is a minimum for a given discharge

dEs dEs Q 2 . Bs
0 1 0
dy dy qA3

dEs v 2 Bs v 2
1 1  0
dy g. A g.D

Q 2 Bs v2
 1
g . A3 gD

This dim ensionless number is the froude number Fr 2

v 2 Q 2 Bs
Fr 2
 
gD gA3
2. Discharge is a maximum for a given specific energy

3. The specific force is a minimum for a given discharge

 Q2
d ( Ay  )
dm gA
 0
dy dy

4. The velocity head is equal to half the hydraulic depth in a channel of small
slope 2
v D

2g 2

5. The Froude number is equal to unity

Q 2 Bs v2
 1
g . A3 gD

6. The velocity of flow in a channel of small slope with uniform velocity

distribution is equal to the celerity of small gravity waves in shallow water
caused by local disturbance
Ac
Vc  gD  g
Bc
• Critical state of flow have referred mainly to a particular section of
a channel, known as the critical section.
• If the critical state of flow exists throughout the entire length of
the channel or over a reach of the channel, the flow in the channel
is critical flow.
• The slope of a channel that sustains a given discharge at a uniform
and critical depth is called the critical slope (Sc).
• A slope of the channel less than the critical slope will cause a
slower flow of sub critical state for the given discharge, and is
called a mild or sub critical slope.
• A slope greater than the critical slope will result in a faster flow of
supercritical state, and is called a steep or supercritical slope.
Feature of critical state of flow
• A flow at or near the critical state is unstable.
• This is because a minor change in specific energy at or close to
critical state will cause a major change in depth.
• It can be observed also that, when the flow is near the critical
state, the water surface appears unstable and wavy.
• Such phenomena are generally caused by minor changes in energy
due to variations in channel roughness, cross-section, slope or
deposits of sediment or debris.
• In the design of channel, if the depth is found at or near the
critical depth for a greater length of the channel, the shape or
slope of the channel should be altered in order to secure greater
stability.
 The section factor for critical flow computation
• Take the criterion for a critical state of flow: v2

D
2g 2

• Substituting v = Q/A gives

Q2 D Q2
   A2 D 
Q
 A D
2 gA2 2 g g

• But Z = A D is defined as the section factor for critical flow

computation Q
 Z 
g
• The section factor Z for a channel section at a critical state of flow is equal to
the discharge divided by the square root of g.
• Since the section factor Z is a function of the depth, the equation indicates that
there is only one possible critical depth for maintaining the given discharge in a
channel.
• Similarly that, when the depth is fixed, there can be only one discharge that
maintains a critical flow and makes the depth critical in the given channel
section.
• Equation
Q2 Q
  A2 D   A D
g g

Is very useful for the computation and analysis of critical flow in an open channel.

• When Q is given, the equation gives the critical section factor Zc and, hence the
critical depth yc.

• On the other hand when the depth and, hence the section factor are given, the
critical discharge can be computed by:

Q  Z. g
 Computation of critical flow
• Computation of critical flow involves the determination of critical depth and
velocity (yc & vc) when the discharge and the channel section are known.
• On the other hand, if critical depth and channel section are known, the critical
discharge can be determined from the relation
Q Z g

1. Algebraic method
For a simple geometric channel section, the critical flow can be determined by an
algebraic computation using the basic equations.
Example 5
• For a trapezoidal channel with base width b = 6.0 m and side slope m = 2,
calculate the critical depth of flow if Q = 17 m3/s.
Solution
• The criterion for critical state of flow is the basis for the computation of critical
flow: v2 D A
 , where D 
2g 2 Bs
• The hydraulic depth (D) area of the trapezoidal section are expressed in terms of
the depth y as
A = (b+ my) y = (6 +2 y)y
BS = B + 2my = 6 + 4y
A (3  y ) y
 D 
Bs 3  2y

Q 17 17
and V   
A (6  2 y ) y 2(3  y ) y

Substituting the above relations in v2 D 17 / (6  2 y ) y 2 (3  y ) y

 
2g 2 g 3 2y

• Simplifying, 7.4 (3+ 2y) = [(3+y) y]3

• By trial and error, the critical depth is approximately,
yc = 0.84 m
• The corresponding critical velocity is 17
Vc   2 .6 m / s
[6  2(0.84 )]0.84
 2. Method of design curves
• The design curves for determining the critical depth can be used with great
convenience.
• In developing a chart for this purpose, it is convenient to define the section
factor for critical flow computation as discussed before. Substituting
Q
V
A

in the criterion for critical state of flow, and yields after simplification v2 D

2g 2
Q A3
Z 
g / Bs

• The left hand side of the equation is by definition the section factor for critical
flow Z, and the right hand side of the equation is a function of only the channel
shape and the depth of flow.
• A design chart for critical depth problem is given below.
Design curves for critical depth
Example
• A circular channel 0.91 m in diameter conveys a flow of 0.71
m3/s; estimate the critical depth of flow.
For   1
Solution
Q 0.71
Z    0.227
g 9.81

Z 0.227
and 2 .5
  0.287
d0 0.912.5

From figure (the design chart )

yc
 0.54
d0
yc  0.54 * 0.91  0.49 m
3. Graphical method
• For complex designed sections which can not be treated by either the analytical
method or the design curves method, a graphical method may be used.
• This method is also applicable to natural channels. In this procedure, a curve of
yc versus Z is constructed
• Then for a specific value of Z = the value of yc may be estimated.
Example
• A trapezoidal channel with b = 6.0 m and m = 1.5 carries a flow of 17 m3/s ;
estimate the critical depth of flow, yc.
Solution
• The first step in solving this problem is to construct a y versus Z curve (figure).
The value of the section factor is then computed from given data.
Q A3
Z   5.4277 m 2..5
g Bs

• Then from the figure yc = 0.85 m.

Control section (flow control)
• The control of flow in an open channel or at a structure means the
establishment of explicit relationship between the stage (water level) and the
discharge.
• When the control of flow is achieved at a certain section of a channel or
structure, this section is called the control section.
• Holding a fixed stage –discharge relationship, the control section is always
suitable for gauging station since it is always suitable site for developing the
discharge rating curve, a curve representing the depth – discharge relationship.
• At critical state of flow stage-discharge relationship can be established and
represented by the equation Z = Q
q

• This equation is theoretically independent of the channel roughness and other

uncontrolled circumstances.
• Therefore, the critical flow section is a control section.
 Control section
• Control sections occur at entrances and exits to channels and at
changes in channels slopes.
• A gate in channel can be a control for both the upstream and
downstream reaches.
• When a flow changes from sub- critical to super –critical
conditions or vice versa, the water depth must pass through the
critical depth.
• The change from sub critical to supercritical occurs in a control
section.
• The change from super –critical to sub –critical is only possible by
means of a hydraulic jump.
 Upstream and downstream controls
• Supercritical (rapid) flows are controlled by upstream conditions
and computations of surface profiles start at the upstream end of a
channel.
• Subcritical (or tranquil) flows will be affected by small changes in
downstream conditions hence controls the flow these flows. Flow
profile computations start at the downstream end of a reach.
• A change in a channel slope from mild to steep causes the flow to
pass through critical stage at the beak in slope. Hence computation
advance both upstream and downstream from the control section
at the break.
• If a flow over a spillway passes through critical stage at the
channel, the depth can be computed there fore a given discharge
or the discharge can be found from the given (measured) water
depth.
Upstream and downstream controls

• Example of a control section: Reservoir (pool) created by

a dam and the water flowing over the dam through an
overflow spillway.
– The flow in the reservoir is sub critical and the reservoir surface will
approach horizontal surface. On the downstream the flow can be
supercritical.
– In the presence of the dam, the level will be raised for a long distance
(upstream from the spillway crest). Additional head is required to build up
enough energy head, necessary to convey water over the spillway crest. This
effect of raising the water level upstream of spillway is known as a backwater
curve.
 Control section….
• Another example where critical depth occurs is that of a
free outfall with subcritical flow upstream of the outfall.
– Since friction produces a constant decrease in energy in the
direction of flow, it is clear that at the outfall the total energy is
less than at any point upstream.
– As critical depth is the value for which the specific energy is a
minimum, one would expect critical depth to occur at the
outfall.
– The depth at the outfall yo is 0.72 *yc.
– Critical depth occurs somewhere upstream of the brink
(between 3 yc and 10 yc).
 Flow measurement
• At the control section, the relationship between depth and discharge is
explicit, independent of channel roughness and other uncontrollable
circumstances.
• Such an explicit relationship between stage –discharge relationship offers
a theoretical basis for the measurement of discharge in open channels.
• Based on the principle of critical flow, various devices for flow
measurement have been developed.
• In such devices the critical depth is usually created by the construction of
a low hump on the channel bottom, such as a weir, or by contraction in
the cross- section, such as a critical flow flume.
• Devices
– Broad crested weir
– Sharp crested weir
– V-notch weir
– Parshall flume
– Ogee weir
Flow measurement…
• Weirs: a weir consists of a wall of timber, metal
or concrete with an opening with fixed
dimensions
• Rectangular broad crested weir:
Where: Cd is discharge coefficient, L is the length of the
weir and H is the head over the crest.

• Sharp crested weir

• Triangular (V-notch)
• Parshall flumes: consist of a metal or concrete channel structure
with three main sections:
• Converging section at the upstream end: stage
measured here
• Constricted or throat section
• Diverging section at the downstream end

Where :
• Qfree is the flow rate through the Parshall flume for free flow conditions (m3/s)
• Ha is the head measured at the at the converging part of the Parshall flume (m)
• C and n are constants for specific Parshall flume throat width, W
Parshall flumes…
Example
• Derive an equation showing critical discharge through a rectangular channel
section (broad crested weir) in terms of the channel width and the total head.
• For the rectangular section
A
Z  A D A  by y  by1.5
B

• At critical state of flow the depth y 

H 3
or H  yc
1.5 2

Q Z g 
 Q  byc
3/ 2
 g

• But yc = 2/3 H Q 
2
g * 
3/ 2

* BH 3 / 2
 3

3/ 2
2
 9.81 *   * BH 3/ 2

 3

Q = 1.7 B.H 3/2 Broad crested weir flow equation

• latera2010@gmail.com
 Uniform flow
Uniform flow in open channels has the following main characteristics
i. the depth, water area, velocity, and discharge at every section of the
channel are constant;
ii. the energy line, water surface, and channel bottom are all parallel; i.e.
their slopes are all equal Sf = Sw = So
• Uniform flow is considered to be steady only in real cases
• In natural streams, even steady uniform flow is rare
• The results obtained from uniform flow assumption are
understood to be approximate and general, but they offer a
relatively simple and satisfactory solution to many practical
problems.
 Establishment of uniform flow

• When flow occurs in an open channel, the water encounters

resistance as it flows downstream.
• This resistance is generally counteracted by the components of
gravity forces acting on the body of the water in the direction of
motion.
• A uniform flow will be developed if the resistance is exactly
balanced by the gravity forces.
• The magnitude of the resistance, when other physical factors of
the channel are kept unchanged, depends on the velocity of flow.
 Uniform flow….
• If the water enters the channel slowly, the velocity and hence the
resistance are small and the resistance is outbalanced by the
gravity forces, resulting in an accelerating flow in the upstream
reach.
• The velocity and the resistance will gradually increase until a
balance between resistance and gravity force is reached.
• At this moment and afterwards the flow become uniform. The
upstream reach that is required for the establishment of uniform
flow is known as the transitory zone.
• In general, uniform flow can occur only in very long, straight,
prismatic channels where a terminal velocity of flow can be
achieved.
Critical and normal depths
 Computation of Uniform flow
• For computational purposes, the average velocity of a uniform flow can be
computed approximately by one of a number of semi empirical uniform flow
equations.
• All of these equations have the form
V = C.Rx .Sy
Where
– V = average velocity
– R = hydraulic radius
– S = channel longitudinal slope
– C = resistance coefficient
– x and y coefficients

• The popular two equations are the Chezy equation, developed in 1769, and the
Manning equation, developed in 1889.
• The Chezy equation can be derived from the definition of uniform flow with an
assumption regarding the form of the flow resistance coefficient, with reference
to the figure below, the definition of uniform flow requires that the forces
resisting flow exactly equal the forces causing motion.

• The force causing motion is

F = W sin =  A L sin 
Where: W = weight of water within control volume
 = Specific weight
L = Control volume length
 = Longitudinal slope angle of a channel.
• If  is small, which is usually the case,
then sin   S0. Thus

F = AL So = gAL S0
• For a reach of length L with a wetted perimeter p, the force of
resistance is:
Ff =  * P * L
• Equating F = Ff
A
   g S o  g R S 0
P
•  is shear stress along the perimeter, and if we let shear velocity V*
gRS 0
• Then  =  * V*2
V* is known as shear velocity.

• From experiments it is shown that the force per unit area of the channel
perimeter resisting motion. Ff, is proportional to the square of the average
velocity or
Ff  V2
• Therefore, for a reach of length L with a wetted perimeter P, the force of
resistance can also be written as
Ff = KLPV2

• Where K = constant of proportionality

• Setting the force casing motion equal to the force
resisting motion, i.e. F = Ff.
gALS o  KLPV 2

  ALS o  KLPV 2 • Let

C=  
1/ 2

 
   1/ 2 A k
 V    S0
K P
• The resistance coefficient, C defined as is
commonly known as the Chezy C and in
 
1/ 2

V    RS o practice is determined by either

k measurement or estimate
• Substituting this gives the famous Chezy
   1/ 2
V   RS Formula
k
V= C RS
Where V is the mean velocity is m/s, R is the
hydraulic radius in m, S is the slope of energy line
(m/m), and C is a factor of flow resistance, called
Chezy’s C
 The Manning’s equation
• The Manning equation is the result of a curve fitting process and thus is
completely empirical in nature.
• In the SI system of units, the Manning equation is:

V = 1/n R2/3. S
Where n = Manning resistance coefficient. n is not dimensionless but has
dimensions of TL-1/3
• Since the Chezy and Manning equations describe the same
phenomena, the coefficients C and n must be related. Vchezy =
VManning yields.
C = 1/n R1/6
Calculation of Normal Depth and Velocity
• Uniform flow rate:
Manning : Q = 1/n AR2/3S1/2
Chezy: Q = C AR1/2 S1/2
• In Manning equation the parameter 1/n AR 2/3 and in the Chezy equation the
parameters CAR1/2 are called the conveyance of a channel section.
• It is measure of the carrying capacity of a channel section; since it is directly
proportional to Q.
Q
Manning: K = 1/n AR2/3 = S 1/ 2

Q
Chezy: K = CAR1/2 = S 1/ 2

• The above two equations are used to compute the conveyance when the
geometry of the water area and the resistance factor or roughness coefficient
are given.
• Since Manning formula is used extensively, most of the following discussions
and computations will be based on Manning’s equation.
• Conveyance of a channel section increases with increase in hydraulic Radius R
or with decrease in the wetted perimeter P.
K  R  1/P

• From a hydraulic viewpoint, therefore, the channel section having the least
wetted perimeter for a given area has a maximum conveyance; such a section is
known as the best hydraulic section.
• In Manning’s equation the parameter AR2/3 is termed as the section factor for
uniform flow computation; it is an important element in the computation of
uniform flow.
nQ
AR 2 / 3 
S
• The right side of the equation contains the values of n, Q, and S; but the left side
depends only on the geometry of the water area.
• Therefore, it shows that, for a given condition of n, Q, and S, there is only one
possible depth for maintaining uniform flow. This depth is the normal depth.

• When n and S are known at a channel section, from the equation there can be
only one discharge for maintaining a uniform flow through the section. This
discharge is the normal discharge.
• When the discharge, slope, and roughness are known, this equation
gives the section factor AR2/3 and hence, the normal depth yn.
• On the other land, when n, s and yn, hence the section factor are
given, the normal discharge Q can be computed from

• In general, the most difficult and tedious normal flow calculation occurs when Q,
the shape of the channel, bottom slope and n are known and yn must be
estimated.
• In such cases, an explicit solution is not possible and problem must be solved by:
– Trial and error (Algebric method)
– Numerical method (using computer)
– Design chart (using graph)

• In order to simplify the computation, dimensionless curves showing

the relation between depth and section factor AR2/3 have been
prepared for rectangular, trapezoidal, and circular channel sections.
Relation between depth and section factor
Example 9
• Given a trapezoidal channel with a bottom width of 3m, side slope
1.5, a longitudinal slope of 0.0016 and estimated n of 0.13, find the
normal depth of flow for a discharge of 7.1 m3/s.

Solution: nQ 0.13 * 7.1

AR 2 / 3    23.075
S 0.0016
A  b  my  y  3  1.5 y  y
P  b  2y 1  m2  3  2 y 3.25  3  3.6 y

R 
3  1.5 y  y
3  3 .6 y

• Assume trial y values and compute the corresponding values of AR2/3 until the
correct yn is obtained.
Trial y, m A, m2 Pm R, m AR2/3
2.50 16.88 12.01 1.40 21.16
2.55 17.4 12.19 1.43 22.06
2.6 17.94 12.37 1.45 22.98
2.61 18.0 12.39 1.45 23.08
2.70 19.04 12.73 1.49 24.08
 Class Exercise:
Class exercise (Normal depth with design chart)
• Circular channel (power canal):
– Diameter of the section: 1.5 m
– Design discharge: 3.5 m3/s
– Long. Slope: 0.001
– Manning's n=0.15
• Determine the normal depth, yn.
 Resistance Coefficients, n and C
• The primary difficulty in using either the Manning or Chezy
equation in practice is accurately estimating the value of the
resistance coefficient n and C.
• Ranges of the values are available in literature for various channel
surfaces
• n or C are major parameters for calibration/validation of
hydrodynamic simulation models.
• n and C are related to Reynolds number (R) of the flow (Reynolds
number reflect the effect of viscosity in relation to inertia), the
boundary roughness, and the shape of the channel cross-section.
 4. GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW (GVF)
• In uniform flow the cross section through which water flows
remains constant.
• Also the velocity remains the same, in magnitude and direction.
• On the contrary, in varied flow the cross section changes in the
flow direction, the water depth changes along the length of the
channel.
• Varied flow may be either steady or unsteady. Since unsteady
uniform flow is rare, the term "unsteady flow” is used for unsteady
varied flow.
• Varied flow may be further classified as either gradually or rapidly
varied.
• The flow is rapidly varied if the depth changes abruptly over a
comparatively short distance; otherwise, it is gradually varied.
• A rapidly varied flow is also known as local phenomenon examples
are the hydraulic jump and the hydraulic drop.
• Gradually varied flow is here generally a steady flow, whose depth
varies gradually along the channel.
• This means that 3 conditions are met.
– The hydraulic flow characteristics remain constant in time;
– The streamlines are practically parallel meaning the hydrostatic pressure
prevails,
– Bed friction is assumed to be equal to the friction in uniform flow (Manning,
Chezy). Also, the uniform- flow formula may be used to evaluate the energy
slope of GVF at a given channel section.
– Such situations are found both upstream and downstream of control
sections.
 General Equation for Gradually varied flow
• The main forces in open channel flow
– inertia,
– gravity,
– hydrostatic force due to change in depth
– friction.
• The first three forces represent the kinetic and potential energy, while the
forth dissipates useful energy into the useless kinetic energy of turbulence and
eventually into heat due to action of viscosity.
• The total energy of an elementary volume of water is given as:
E = Z + Y + V2/2g

Where:
Z + Y is the potential energy head above a datum, m
V2/2g is the kinetic energy head (V = mean velocity in the section).

• The gradually varied flow equation is derived by assuming that the change in
energy with distance is equal to the friction loss.
• Differentiating the energy equation with respect to distance:
 V2   v2 
d  Z  Y   d  
       dy  dz
dE 2 g 2 g
dx dx dx dx dx

dE
• The term is the change of energy with longitudinal distance or the friction
slope. dx

dE dZ
  Sf   So
dx dX

 v2 
d  
• For a given flow rate Q, the term  2 g  becomes
 v2  dx
d   dy
  Fr 2
2
 2 g    Q 2 dA dy   Q T dy
dx gA3 dy dx gA3 dx dx
 v2 
d    S f   Fr
dy

2 dy
 So
    dy  dz yields
So  Sf
dE 2 g dx dx
dy
dx dx dx dx
 So  Sf 
dy
1  Fr
2
   
1  Fr
2
dx dx
This equation is called the general equation of gradually varied flow (also known as dynamic
equation of GVF).
 Classification of Flow Profiles
dy So  Sr

dx 1  Fr 2
• The term dy/dx represents the slope of the water surface relative to
the channel bottom.
• If dy/dx is positive, the depth is increasing in downstream direction
(x).
• When the channel bottom is going down in the direction of flow, So
is positive.
• Similarly Sf in downstream direction is always positive; the energy is
decreasing in downstream direction.
• For uniform flow Sf = So, which means dy/dx is zero and the water
surface parallel to the bottom.
• For a given discharge Q, Sf and Fr2 are functions of depth
(y) only, e.g. Sf 
n Q P 2 2 4/3

A10 / 3

Q 2 Bs
Fr 2

gA3

• Both parameters decrease with increasing A and hence increasing y; Sf = So

when y = yo (uniform flow).
Sf > So When y < yo Fr2 > 1 when y < yc
Sf < So when y > yo Fr2 < 1 when y > yc

• These inequalities are used to find the sign of dy/dx for any condition.
• For GVF the surface profile may occupy 3 regions and the sign of dy/dx is found
for each region.
a. Bed slope
Horizontal slope So = 0 Type H
Mild slope 0 < So < Sc Type M
Critical slope So = Sc Type C
Steep slope So > Sc Type S
Adverse slope (negative) So < 0 Type A or N

b. Depth range
Region 1 y > yn and y > yc
Region 2 yn < y < yc
Region3 y < yn and y < yc

Letter Type of bottom slope Characteristics

S Steep So > Sc
C Critical So = Sc
M Mild 0 < So <Sc
H Horizontal So = 0
A Adverse So < 0

Classification of varied flow profiles • 12 water surface profile

S1 C1 M1 - - classifications
S2 - M2 H2 A2
S3 C3 M3 H3 A3
• The classification is based on
– the actual water depth
– normal water depth (if existing)
– critical water depth.
Some frequent encountered curves are:
• M1: The back water curve upstream of a dam or a gate. At the dam the
water depth is given and y > yn and y > yc. Also is given a mild slope (M),
which means yn > yc. The flow is sub–critical and dy/dx is positive, the
water depth y increases in the downstream direction; or the water
depth decreases in an upstream direction.
• M2: The draw–down curve, for example a transition from a mild slope
to a less mild.
• M3: Supercritical flow downstream of a gate of weir. The transition of
M3 to M2 or to M1 gives a hydraulic jump (from super to sub critical
flow). The slope is mild (yn > yc) and yn > yc > y. The flow is super–critical
and dy/dx is positive, the water depth y increases in the downstream
direction; or the water depth decreases in an upstream direction.
• C3: If a channel has a critical slope, then the flow is initially critical and
remains critical throughout the channel. In the proximity of a dam or a
gate, however, the flow in upstream of the dam or gate is sub–critical
and the water surface will approach the horizontal.
 y > yn y < yn
Water surface profiles y > yc y < yc y > yc y < yc
So – Sf + n.a. + -
1 – Fr2 + n.a. - -
yn > yc dy/dx + n.a. - +
type M1 n.a. M2 M3
So – Sf + n.a. n.a. -
yn = yc 1- Fr2 + n.a. n.a. -
dy/dx + n.a. n.a. +
type C1 n.a. n.a. C3
So – Sf + + n.a. -
yn < yc 1 – Fr2 + - n.a. -
dy/dx + - n.a. +
type S1 S2 n.a. S3
Bottom Flow type Depth range of y, yc and yn Type of Flow type
slope 1 2 3 Region 1 Region 2 Region 3 curve
Steep S S1 y>yc>yn Backwater Sub-critical
So >Sc S2 Yc>y>yn Draw down Supercritical
Yn<yc S3 Yc >yn > y Backwater Supercritical
Critical C C1 Y > yc = yn Backwater Sub- critical
So = Sc C2 Yc =yn= yc Uniform Critical
yn = yc C3 Y < yc = yn Backwater Supercritical
Mild M M1 Y > yn > yc Backwater Sub- critical
0 < So < Sc M2 Yn >y >yc Draw down Sub-critical
yn > yc
M3 Yn > yc >y Backwater Supercritical
Horizontal H n.a.
So = 0 H2 y> yc Draw down Sub-critical
Yn =  H3 Yc > y Backwater Supercritical
Adverse A n.a.
So < 0 A2 Y >yc Draw down Sub-critical
Yn = none A3 Yc > y Backwater Supercritical
GVF Computations
The direct step method (distance from depth)
• The direct step method is a simple method applicable to prismatic channels.
• Depths of flow are specified and the distances between successive depths are
calculated. The equation may be used to determine directly (with means
explicit) the distance between given differences of depth .
• The equation may be rewritten in finite difference form as:
1  Fr 2
Δx  * Δy
So  Sr
• The equation can also be written as:
E s2  E s1
Δx 
S o  Sf

• Sf is calculated for the depths y1 and y2 and the average is taken, which is
denoted by Sfm.
• An approximate analysis can be achieved by dividing the channel in a number of
successive, short reaches. For each of the reaches the water depth at the
beginning can be estimated.
• Next the length of reaches can be calculated (step by step) from
one end of the reach to the other end.
• The Chezy or Manning formula is applied to average conditions in
each reach to provide an estimate of Sfm and So
• With the depth and velocity at one end of the reach given, the
length can be computed.
• Depths of flow are specified and the distances between successive
depths are calculated.

For the computations are needed:

• Discharge Q
• Depth of flow y
• Area A
• Hydraulic radius R
• Roughness coefficient n or C
• Direct step method

1  Fr 2
Δx  * Δy
So  Sr
 Graphical Integration
• This method integrates the equation of gradually varied flow by a
numerical procedure.
dy S  Sf
 o
dx 1  Fr 2
dx 1  Fr 2

dy S o  Sf
1  Fr 2
x y2

 dx
o
 
y1
S o  Sf
dy

1  Fr 2
y2 y2
dx
L  x 2  x1  
y1
S o  Sf
dy  y dy dy
1
• Consider two channel sections at distance x1 and x2
and with corresponding depths of flow y1 and y2.
• The distance along the channel is X. If a graph of y
against f(y) is plotted, then the area under the curve
is equivalent to X.
• The value of the function f(y) may be found by
substitution of A, P, So and Sf for various values of y
and for a given Q.
• Hence, the distance X between the given depths (y1
and y2) may be calculated (numerical integration) or
measured (graphical integration).
• This numerical/graphical method gives the distance
from depth.
 Standard step method
• The standard step method is carried out step by step
from station to station.
• The distance between the stations is given, and the
procedure is to determine the depth of flow at the
stations.
• The computation procedure is usually carried out by trial
and error.
For the computation are needed:
• Discharge Q
• Length of the reach
• Area A as function of y
• Hydraulic radius R as function of y
• Roughness coefficient ( n or C)
α v12 α v 22
E1  Z1  E 2 1  Z2  E 2  2  E1  Sf * Δx
2g 2g
ΔE s  So  Sf  * Δx
Standard step method
Steps in standard step method
1. The location of the stations is fixed.
2. Water-surface elevation Z at the station. A trial value is first entered in this column; this
will be verified or rejected on the basis of ht computations made in the remaining
columns of the table. For the first step, this elevation must be given or assumed. In
most cases the first entry is known. After this value in the second step has been
verified, it becomes the basis for the verification the trial value in the next step, and so
on
3. Depth of flow y corresponding to the water-surface elevation in col. 2. For instance, the
depth of flow y at the second station is equal to water-surface elevation minus bottom
elevation (distance form the first site times bed slope)
4. Water area A corresponding to y in col.3
5. Mean velocity v equal to the given discharge divided by the water area in col. 4
6. Velocity head in m, corresponding to the velocity col. 5
7. Total head E computed, equal to the sum of Z in col. 2 and the velocity head in col. 6
8. Hydraulic radius R corresponding to y in col. 3
9. Friction slope Sf with n or C, V from col. 5 and R from col. 8
10. Average friction Sfm slope through the reach between the sections in each step,
approximately equal to the arithmetic mean of the friction slope just computed in col. 9
and that of the previous step.
11. Length of the reach between the sections.
12. Friction loss in the reach, equal to the product of the values in cols. 10 and11.
13. Elevation of the total head E. this is computed by adding the values of hf (and hc if
calculated in a previous column) in col. 12 to the elevation at the lower end of the
reach, which is found in col. 13 of the previous reach. Compare this with Col 7.
5. RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW (RVF)
Characteristics of RVF
• Pronounced curvature of streamlines.
Abrupt change of flow profile (virtually broken)

RVF vs GVF

In view of contrast with UF & GVF the following characteristics should be noted.

• Pronounced curvature  hydrostatic pressure distribution can not be assumed

• Rapid variation in flow regime takes place in a very short distance
Effect of boundary friction is comparatively small, which would play a primary
role in a GVF
• In RVF the velocity-distribution coefficients  and  are much greater than unity
and can not be accurately determined.
• Flow is actually confined by separation zones as well as solid boundaries.
(Because profiles could be broken).
 Approach to the problem
• Hydrostatic distribution of pressure- Does not apply in RVF
computation.
• For RVF of continuous flow profile a mathematical equation can be
established,
• Approach to the solution of such equation
– Graphical method (e.g. flow-net analysis)
– Numerical method (e.g. method of relaxation)
• No satisfactory general solution has yet been obtained
 Practical approach
• No general solution yet been found
• Various RVF phenomena are treated as isolate cases
– Each with own semi-empirical/empirical treatment
– Experimental results are used empirically
– Flow interpreted qualitatively using energy principle,
momentum principle, geometry plus sometimes
dimensional analysis

• Three isolated cases

– Flow over spillway
– Hydraulic jump
– Flow under gate
 Flow over spillways
• Spillway: is a structure over or through a dam for discharging flood
flows; overflow channel; opening built into a dam or the side of a
reservoir to release (to spill) excess floodwater.
• Spillways must generally discharge the peak flow under smallest
possible head.
 Broad vs. Sharp crested weir
Broad crested weir
• With horizontal broad crest over which the deviation from a hydrostatic
pressure distribution may be neglected.
• With straight and parallel streamlines

Criteria 0.5  H1/L0.07

• If 0.07 H1/L the energy loss above the crest
can not be neglected
• 0.5  H1/L so that he hydrostatic pressure
distribution can be assumed
 Sharp crested weir

– Overflow structure (H1/L > 15)

– SCW is the simplest form of overflow spillway
– Larger Cd
Round-Crested overflow spillway (Ogee)
• Designed in conformity with the shape of the low surface of the
flow nappe over a sharp-crested weir
• Shape of the flow-nappe is interpreted by the principle of the
projectile
Derivation of shape of nappe
 Flow over rounded spillway
• Let Vo = the velocity at pt-X = 0,  is angle of inclination of the velocity Vo with
the horizontal
• Horizontal velocity = Vo Cos  - constant and the only force acting on the nappe
is gravity.
• Horizontal distance traveled is time t
X = Vo t Cos (1),  x 
t    V Cos  
 o 
• In same time t, the particle will travel a vertical distance Y
1 2
y   Vo t Sin   gt
(2)
2
• Move the origin up so that it coincides with the peak.
1 2 2
y   Vo ts in  gt  C '  x  1  x 
2 y   Vo   Sin   g    C '
 V0 Cos  2  Vo Cos  
• Dividing each term by the total head H above the crest
Y
  tan 
X

gH
 HX 2 
C'
H H 2Vo2 Cos 2 H
 2
Y X X
 A   B C General equation for the lower surface of the
H H  H nappe in dimension less term
2
Y X X
 A   B CD T Upper surface of the nappe is
H  
H H D
H

• These equations are quadratic hence, the nappe Surfaces are

theoretically parabolic.
• Works of US Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) for A,B, C and D.
• For high weirs (spillways), hv=o:
– A = 0.425
– B = 0.055
– C = 0.150
– D = 0.559
• The U.S Army. Corps of Engineers has developed several standard
shapes (WES) n 1
X n  K Hd Y
Where
– X and Y are Coordinates of the crest profile with the origin at the highest
point of the crest.
– Hd is the design head excluding the velocity head of the approach flow
– K & n are parameters depending on the slope of the upstream face. values
of k & n are given as flows

Slope of upstream face k n

Vertical 2.000 1.850
3 pm 1 (V = H) 1.936 1.836
3 on 2 1.939 1.810
3 on 3 1.873 1.776
 Discharge of WES Spillway
Q = CLHe1.5
• If spillway height h > 1.33 Hd, approach velocity head can be
neglected, (C=2.21)

• Sharp crested weir and sill

• For H/h >15: the SCW becomes a sill
 Hydraulic Jump
Practical Applications
• To dissipate energy in water flowing over a dam, weir and other hydraulic
structure and thus prevent scouring d/s from the structure.
• To recover head or raise the water level on the d/s side of a measuring flume
and thus maintains high water level in the channel for water distribution
purposes.
• To increase weight on the apron and reduce uplift pressure by raising the water
depth on the apron.
• To increase the discharge of a sluice gate by holding sack tail water, thus
preventing drawn jump.
• To mix chemical used for water purification.
• To aerate water for city water supplies
Jump in Horizontal Rectangular channel
• For supercritical flow in a horizontal rectangular channel, the energy of flow is
dissipated through frictional resistance along the channel, resulting in a
decrease in velocity and an increase in depth in the direction of flow.
y2
  1  8F1  1
1 2

y1 2 

Types of Jump
• Hydraulic jumps can be classified according to Froude Number Fr1 of the
incoming flow as follows.
• Fr1 =1: Critical flow no jump can form
• 1< Fr1 < 1.7: Water surface shows undulation (undular jump)
• 1.7 < Fr1 < 2.5: A series of small rollers develop on the surface of the
jump, but the d/s water surface remains smooth. The velocity throughout
is fairly uniform, and the energy loss low. The jump is called weak jump.
• 2.5 < Fr1 < 4.5: There is an oscillating jet entering the jump bottom to
surface and back again with no periodicity. Each oscillation produces a
large wave of irregular period which is very common in canals, can travel
for miles doing unlimited damage to earth banks and ripraps. This jump is
called Oscillating Jump.
• 4.5 < Fr1 < 9.0 : steady Jump:- The downstream extremity of the surface
roller and the point at which the high-velocity jet tends to leave the flow
occur at practically the same vertical section. The action and position of
this jump are least sensitive to variation in tail-water depth. The jump is
well balanced and the performance is at its best. The energy dissipation
ranges from 45 to 70%.
• Fr > 9.0: Strong jump:- The high-velocity jet grabs intermittent slugs of
water rolling down the front face of the jump, generating waves down-
stream and a rough surface can prevail. The jump action is rough but
effective since the energy dissipation may reach 85%.
Basic characteristics of the Jump
• Energy Loss: the difference in specific energy before and after the jump.
 y 2  y1  3
E  E1  E 2 
4 y1 y 2
E
Re lative loss : the ratio
E1
• Efficiency:
 
3
8 F1  1 2  4 F1  1
2 2 E2 Depends only o the Froude
E2
 1
E1 8 F1 2  F1
2

2
 E1 Number Fr1 of the
approach flow
• Height of Jump: h j = y 2 – y1

• Expressing each term as a ratio with respect to initial specific energy.

hj y2 y
  1 1  8 F1  3
2
hj

E1 E1 E1 E1 F1  2
2

• Length of Jump:
Length of stilling basin is empirically given as

L  k y  y1
2
  4.5 < k < 5.5
Flow under Gates
• Gates in canals are mainly used as water level regulators.
• Sometimes, gates are used as discharge regulator (measuring device).
• Example sluice gates, radial gates
• The design of underflow gate focuses on head-discharge relationship (Q-
H) and to minimize head loss;
• The other concern of the design is the pressure distribution over the
gate
• For gated structures the control section is defined by the vena contract,
being the smallest cross section just down steam of the gate.
In gate flow 3 flow types can be distinguished.
Free flow: contraction of the steam-lines in vertical direction is strong.
• The down stream water level (h2) won’t affect the flow underneath the gate and
a hydraulics jump will occur down stream of the vena contra.
• The discharge depends up on the
– gate opening
– upstream water level and
– the contraction coefficient.
Submerged flow: the d/s water level influences the flow underneath
the gate.
• The hydraulic jump is drowned and the jet underneath the gate is
submerged.
• The discharge depends upon
– upstream and downstream water levels and
– the gate opening.

Weir flow: on/off type gate

• The equation for a free flow underneath a sharp edged gate is:

Q  Cd Ba 2gh1
Cd = discharge coefficient
B = Width of gate opening
a = height of gate opening
h1 = upstream water depth

Cc
The discharge coefficient Cd Cd 
a
1  Cc
h1

d
 4.7  Cc  0.99 Rounded edged gates 
a
Where d is diameter of the rounded bottom edge.

• For sharp edged gates d is small and CC = 0.61.

• For submerged flow, some equations include the difference
between the upstream and downstream depths and others use
the upstream water level only.
• The general equation is offer given as.
Q  C 2 Ba 2gh1
• The equation is the same as for free flow but the discharge
coefficient C2 is a function of
h1 h2
, andC ,
Rough classification
c
a a
h1
 2  free flow
a
h
1.5  1  2  submerged
a
h1
 1.5  weir flow
a

• For weir gated flow the discharge follows from the equation for a
broad-crested weir. 3
Q  1.7 * B * H 2
UNSTEADY FLOW IN OPEN CHANNELS
• Unsteady flow changes with time (dy/dt 0): steady flow does not.
• The difference is not an absolute one
• Suppose for example that a land slide falls into a river and partially
blocks it, sending a surge wave upstream which brings about an
abrupt change in depth.
• Unsteady flow occurs where flow parameters vary with time at a
fixed point.

• PROBLEMS
– Oscillatory Sea Waves
– Flood waves in flood
– Dam Break Flood Waves
– Surges due to gate operation, e.g. in irrigation canal.
• A WAVE is a temporal variation in the water surface which is
propagated through a fluid medium“.
Oscillatory Wave (e.g. sea waves)
Zero net mass transport
Translatory Waves (e.g. Flood Waves)
net transport of fluid in direction of wave

Translatory

Oscillatory
• Deep water waves: Only surface layers disturbed
Depth y
  0 .5
Wavelength L

• Shallow waver waves: Entire depth disturbed (bottom effect)

y
 0.05
L
 Wave celerity, c
• The celerity of a wave is the speed of propagation
of the disturbance relative to the fluid
L

y • Deep water wave equation

c 2  gL 2

• Shallow water

c  gy
Development of St. Venant Equations

• Basic equations for unsteady flow in open channels

• Pair of partial differential hyperbolic equations

CONTINUITY (ignore compressibility)

(Flow out - Flow in) t  Change of storage


 A.V    bs
y A v y
, bs , surface width v  A  bS  0
x t x x t
Momentum (dynamic) equation

 

  A z 
Force on element due to pressure forces on each end -   x
x
 A 
Weight component acting down slope A  x 
x
*  x. s
0
2

Force due to friction
Ft    . p .x
• Summation of these forces cause rate of change of momentum,
by Newton's 2nd law,

y v v 1 v
  S S 0
x g x g t f 0
Solutions of the St. Venant equations