Antenna

This section contains commonly used antenna-related terms. Logically this is the opening
section since the antenna is the receiver and transmitter of the propagated signal.

Definition
Antenna Types
Induction and Radiation Fields
Polarization
Radiation Pattern
Antenna Pattern Distortion
Return Loss
Antenna Beamwidth (Horizontal/Vertical)
Front to Back Ratio
Antenna Bandwidth
RF Feeder Losses
Antenna Efficiency
Effects of Antenna Positioning (PCS/Cellular Communication Systems)

Definition

"Strictly speaking, an antenna is a device which converts an electric wave guided by a

conductor into a free-space, unguided electromagnetic wave, and vice versa. Electrical
energy is fed to the antenna via a transmission line, a conductor which passes electrical
energy from one point to another. A matching device is usually required to ease the
abrupt transition between the guided and the free wave. The wave guided by the line is
radiated into space by the antenna." 22

Antenna Types

There a dozens of antenna types and variations of each. The type of antenna selected for
use depends on the propagation characteristics required. Following is a short listing of
antenna types.
For a description of each, it is recommended that the reader locate a source which would
contain antenna pattern, polarization, gain, directivity, efficiency and more details.
Some Antenna Types
1/2 Wave Dipole
Yagi
Horn
Leaky Coax
Helices
Yagi-Uda
Frequency Independent
Log-Periodic
Loops
Slot Antennas
Printed Circuit Antennas
Antenna Arrays

Induction and Radiation Fields

"There are two different electromagnetic field areas associated with an antenna. The first,
called the induction field is of importance only in the immediate vicinity of the antenna.
This field consists of the lines of force which are set up by the voltage and current in the
antenna conductors and which collapse back into the antenna twice each cycle. The
induction field contains only reactive energy because the electric and magnetic fields are
90° out of time phase.

The second field is the radiation field. This field consists of the lines of force which have
become detached from the antenna and are moving out into space as an electromagnetic
wave. The radiation field contains real power that can be measured with special
instruments. The electric and magnetic fields are in time phase, so the actual power is
removed from the antenna and carried away by the field.

The intensity of the induction field varies as the inverse square of the distance from the
antenna and the radiation field intensity varies inversely as the distance. It is the radiation
field which is principally important for communication purposes, as it extends to great
distances with sufficient intensity to be useful for transmitting information.

The intensity of the electric field is usually measured in volts per meter and the intensity
of the magnetic field in ampers per meter. One half of the wave energy is contained in the
electric field and the remaining half is contained in the magnetic field. The product of the
electric and magnetic field, with a given area in space, will have the units of watts per
square meter. ...An interesting point is that the impedance of free space to an
electromagnetic wave is 377 ohms (pure resistance). The fact that the impedance of free
space is resistive supports the statement that the electric and magnetic fields are in time
phase much in the same manner that voltage and current are in time phase in a resistive
network." 30

Polarization

"The polarization of the wave is, by definition, determined by the position of the E phasor
(electric field phasor [vector]) with respect to a reflecting surface. In most instances the
reflected surface will be the earth. [For example, if the E phasor is parallel to the earth
(reflecting plane) then] the wave in this case is said to be horizontally polarized." 30

Linear - E vector contained in one plane.

Horizontal - E vector parallel to horizontal plane.

Vertical - E vector parallel to vertical plane.

Circular/Elliptical - "An electomagnetic wave is linearly polarized when the electric field
lies wholly in one plane containing the direction of propagation. A plane electromagnetic
wave, at a given frequency, is elliptically polarized when the extremity of the electric
vector describes an ellipse in a plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation,
making one complete revolution during one period of the wave. If the rotation is
clockwise looking in the direction of propagation, the sense is right-hand. More
generally, any field vector, electric, magnetic, or other, is elliptically polarized if its
extremity describes an ellipse." 9

Cross-Polarized Antenna - Two E vectors which may or may not propagate in-phase. As
the phase between the two E vectors varies, the polarization changes from linear to
circular (or elliptical) polarization.

Dual-Polarized Antenna - An antenna which is described as being dual-polarized, is,

infact, two antennas occupying the same space. These antennas are normally used for
diversity.

Radiation Pattern

"A radiation pattern is a plot of electric field intensity, at a fixed distance, as a function of
direction from the antenna or antenna array. Although radiation patterns [can be]
determined mathematically, it is possible to obtain patterns by taking actual field
measurements. For example, the pattern in the horizontal plan may be determined by
taking readings from an RF indicating instrument at various azimuth angles. It is essential
that the readings be taken at a constant distance from the center of the array. If the RF
indicating instrument is constructed to give readings that bear a linear relation to the
electric field intensity, a plot of those readings against azimuth angles will be the
radiation pattern in the horizontal plan.

The figure below (right) illustrates measured data plotted in rectangular coordinates,
while the figure on the left shows the same data plotted in polar coordinates.

In either figure, the relative field intensity is zero at 0°, 90° 180° or at 270°. Points on the
pattern where the relative field intensity is zero are called nulls. Portions of the pattern
between adjacent nulls are called lobes. Maximums are the points of greatest field
intensity. The maximums in our example plots occur at 45°, 135°, 225°, and 315°. The
pattern consists of four lobes.

A slightly more complicated pattern is shown below. This pattern also contains four lobes
but the maximums that occur at 90° and 270° have less field intensity than the maximums
that occur at 0° and 180°. The lobes of a pattern having the greatest intensity are called
major lobes; minor lobes are those having smaller maximum values. Thus in the pattern
below, the major lobes occur at 0° and 180° and minor lobes at 90° and 270°.

 
Another term used in describing a radiation pattern is minimum. The figure below
illustrates a pattern having minimums at 90° and 270°. Note the field intensity at these
minimums has a value greater than zero.

A radiation pattern may be described according to the shape and phase of the field or
fields it represents. The description according to the shape of the pattern generally
includes the locations of maximums and nulls. The locations of minor lobes and
minimums, if any, may or may not be of importance. There are several types of patterns
that may be named according to the manner in which energy is radiated from the
antennas they represent. When an antenna, or array of antennas, radiates energy equally
well in all directions, the pattern is described as non-directional (i.e. omni-directional).
An antenna, or array, which radiates chiefly in two directions has a bi-directional pattern.
If the radiation is concentrated chiefly in one direction, the pattern is uni-directional. The
figure below illustrates these three types of patterns. A radiation patter is classified by
phase by comparing the phase of the electric field at two or more points within the
pattern. It is essential that the points under comparison be located equi-distant from the
center of the array; however, this is usually not stated but must be assumed. If the phase
of the electric field at all points in a pattern is the same, the pattern is described as a uni-
phase pattern. If there are two phase possibilities in a pattern, and if the phase is constant
within each lobe, the pattern is a biphase-pattern. Under certain conditions it is possible
for the phase of the field to vary within a single lobe. For this case, the pattern is said to
be a variable-phase pattern." 30

 
Antenna Pattern Distortion

"The real world performance of an antenna is different from that listed in the
manufacturer's antenna pattern specifications. The manufacturer's specifications are based
on measurements in an ideal environment of an antenna range. However, the actual
implementation of the antenna in the system is not the same as on the antenna range. In
the real system, factors such as how the antenna is mounted (such as on the side of a
building or tower) or its relative location with respect to surrounding clutter has an effect
on the antenna pattern. If the antenna is mounted below the majority of the surrounding
clutter, the signal will be reflected due to this clutter which in effect distorts the antenna
pattern, reducing the effective protection from the directivity of the pattern. Since the
mounting of the antennas and the surrounding ground clutter vary from site to site, the
antenna pattern distortion will also vary from site to site, as well as from sector to sector.

The ground clutter type and location with respect to the antenna is the important factor in
determining ground clutter reflections. The amount and placement of tall buildings in the
antenna's main lobe will affect the amount of reflections which propagate behind the
antenna. This effect is seen most often in dense urban and urban areas since there are
more tall building in these environments.

The antenna pattern distortion can affect the capacity of a site. If significant clutter exists
in the area of an antenna's main lobe causing reflections which propagate behind the
antenna, this in effect reduces the front-to-back ratio of the antenna." 14

Antenna Gain

"This is often referred to as "power gain" and is the ratio of the maximum radiation in a
given direction to that of a reference antenna in the same direction for equal power input.
Usually this gain is referenced to either an isotropic antenna or a half wave dipole in free
space at 0 degrees elevation.

Isotropic (dBi) generally refers to a theoretical antenna having a spherical radiation

pattern with equal gain in all directions. When used as a gain reference, the isotropic
antenna has a power of 0 dBi. The halfwave dipole (dBd) is an antenna which is center
fed as to have equal current distribution in both halves. When used as a theoretical
reference antenna it has a power gain of 0 dBd, which equates to a 2.14 dB difference
compared to an Isotropic antenna.

dBi = dBd + 2.14 dBd = dBi - 2.14

dBd Vs. dBi

The gain of an antenna has a direct interaction with other antenna parameters, (the
technical depth of which is beyond the scope of this document), the following paragraphs
will provide the system engineer with general guidelines:

Vertical Beamwidth - Generally, the greater the gain of the antenna, the narrower the
vertical beamwidth. The vertical beam can be used to focus coverage in some
circumstances, but the engineer should ensure that the optimum vertical beamwidth is
used to prevent the creation of "nulls" or coverage holes near to the site.

Physical Size - The size of an antenna will generally be greater as an antenna gain
increases. This is due to the greater number of dipole array and electrical elements
required to reach the desired gain.

Height of Antenna - In general the 6 dB per octave rule will apply to the cell site antenna
height in a flat terrain, that is doubling the antenna height causes a gain increase of 6 dB.
The system engineer should compare this possible gain increase with the effects of
doubling the transmission line loss and the possible appearance of nulls close to the site."
13

A few gain equations: 27

Gain of a 1/2 Wave Dipole:

G(dBi) = 10*log(Gr) = 10*log(1.64) = 2.148 dB

Gr = directivity of resonant dipole

Parabolic Dish Antenna Gain:

G(dBi) = 20*log(f(MHz)) + 20*log(D(feet)) - 52.6

f = frequency in MegaHertz
D = aperture diameter in feet

for 54% illumination.

Return Loss

"Return loss is the decibel difference between the power incident upon a mismatched
continuity and the power reflected from that discontinuity. Return loss can be related to
the reflection coefficient VSWR as follows:

RL dB = 20 log (1/p) Where p = VSWR-1/VSWR+1

VSWR = Vmax/Vmin

In other words, the return loss of an antenna can be considered as the difference in power
in the forward and reverse directions due to impedance mismatches in the antenna design.

All other things being equal, the higher the antenna return loss, the better the antenna.
The system engineer should choose an antenna with a return loss of 14 dB or better. Note
that 14 dB corresponds to a VSWR of 1.5:1 as per the following example:" 13

VSWR = 1.5/1 = 1.5 p = 1.5 - 1/1.5 + 1 = 0.5/2.5 = 0.2

RL dB = 20log (1/0.2)

RL dB = 13.979 dB

Antenna Beamwidth (Horizontal/Vertical)

"Antenna beamwidth is measured in degrees between the half power points (3 dB) of the
major lobe of the antenna, Beamwidth can be expressed in terms of azimuth (horizontal
or H-plane) and elevation (vertical or E-plane)." 13

 
Front to Back Ratio

"The front to back ratio of an antenna is an important measure of performance. It is the

ratio of the power radiated from the main ray beam forward to that radiated from the back
lobe behind the antenna. Front to back ratio is normally expressed in terms of dB, this
means that a signal at the back of the antenna should be X dB down on a signal at a
mirror angle in front of the antenna. The following illustration show a front to back ratio
of 25dB (typical for a PCS antenna)." 13

 
Antenna Bandwidth

"The range of frequencies over which the antenna functions efficiently, and over which a
reasonable match between the guided and the free waves can be made, is termed the
bandwidth of the antenna and is a function of antenna and matching system design. If the
transition is smooth and the system design such that the wave characteristics do not
undergo a sudden shift, the bandwidth of the antenna may be quite large. But if the
transition is abrupt, a region of discontinuity exists in the system and a portion of the
guided wave is reflected back down the transmission line, much in the manner that an
ocean wave is reflected when it hits a sea wall. The reflected wave is compensated for by
the matching device which creates equal and opposite reflection conditions to smooth the
transition.

The operating bandwidth of an antenna is relative and one way of specifying it is to

define the maximum limit of reflected energy at any operating frequency. This limit may
be expressed as a voltage standing wave ration (VSWR) or, more simply, SWR. This
term is an expression of the ratio of the amplitude of the reflected voltage on the
transmission line to the amplitude of the direct voltage." 22

RF Feeder Losses

"RF feeder losses include all of the losses that are encountered between the base station
cabinet and the base antenna, or with respect to a mobile, all of the losses between the PA
and the antenna. Since a majority of subscriber units for a mobility system being sold to
customers are portable, there is minimal feeder loss. The feeder loss at the base site can
account for several dB of loss.

Various items contained within the base station RF feeder loss are: top jumper, main
transmission line, bottom jumper, lightning arrestors, connectors, duplexers, splitters,
combiners, etc. The loss associated with the RF feeder system is minimized by reducing
the transmission line run between the base station and its antennas, and/or utilizing lower
loss transmission lines. Transmission lines can range from 1/2" to 1-5/8" diameter cables.
The larger the diameter of the cable, the less lossy the medium, but the sacrifice is more
rigid lines, larger bending radius, greater weight, more wind loading and larger area
required. Transmission lines are also available with either air or foam dielectrics. The air
dielectric cables are more expensive to install and maintain, but are less lossy than the
foam lines. The following figure reflects most of the different components that are
encountered between the base site antenna and the base station equipment.

Typical Components in the RF Feeder Run

Transmission cables are more lossy at higher frequencies. At 800 MHz, a 7/8" line may
suffice but one may require 1-5/8" line for 1,900 MHz to maintain a similar loss.

Antenna Efficiency

"Antennas are transducers that convert electronic signals into electromagnetic fields, and
vice versa. They are also used to focus the electromagnetic energy in a desired direction.
The larger the antenna aperture (area), the larger is the resulting signal power density in
the desired direction. An antenna's efficiency is described by the ratio of its effective
aperture to its physical aperture. Mechanisms contributing to a reduction in efficiency
(loss in signal strength) are known as amplitude tapering, aperture blockage, scattering,
re-radiation, spillover, edge diffraction, and dissipative loss. Typical efficiencies due to
the combined effects of these mechanisms range between 50 and 80%." 26

Effects of Antenna Positioning (PCS/Cellular Communication Systems)

"Background:

RF propagation is the transmitting of radio waves through a medium such as the

atmosphere or a building. How a radio wave propagates depends on its frequency, the
medium its passing through and its energy.
Radio waves travel from a transmitting site either by ground waves of by sky waves. RF
energy that remains near the ground after leaving or propagating from an antenna results
in ground waves. For frequency ranges between 150-2000 MHz, ground waves are more
predominant for users of two-way radio communications.

Sky waves propagate up from the earth's surface towards outer space and are reflected off
the ionosphere. The frequency of these waves are in the 25 MHz - 50 MHz range. As the
frequency increases, the amount of radio wave energy that passes through and that is
absorbed by the ionosphere increases.

Cellular radio uses direct ground waves as its mode of travel. Direct waves contain not
only waves following a line of sight path but also waves due to:

1) Refraction - the bending of a wave or path of propagation at the boundary of two

different mediums. This enables a radio transmission to extend beyond the line of site.

2) Diffraction - bending around obstacles such as the edge of a roof on a building. This
allows radio wave coverage behind and around obstacles.

3) Reflection - the ability of a wave or path of propagation to "bounce" off a certain

object or objects (buildings, mountains, etc.). This creates multiple paths that are
followed by the transmitted signal and received at the receiver at different times.

Note that both refraction and diffraction decrease as frequency increases.

Site Locations and Antenna Heights:

If it all possible, it is necessary to choose locations for cell sites and antennas carefully
and consider issues such as proper containment of coverage, alignment of sites into a
specific hexagonal pattern, etc. Again, choices for sites may be limited due to availability
of space for equipment and antennas, accessibility for maintenance, and availability of
links to the base stations (either radio or physical) from the switch. Nevertheless, it is
important to address certain considerations when selecting a cell site. At least, by simply
mounting antennas at a lower level (< 40 m), one can essentially reduce a cells coverage
area and increase the effectiveness of frequency reuse.

Containment of Coverage Through Reflection from Buildings:

In urban/suburban areas, where: 1) several cell sites may be required, 2) frequency reuse
is unavoidable, and 3) in-building penetration is a must, selected sites should offer
contained coverage. While downtilt and variations in ERP may help to reduce the
effective radius of each cell site, they nonetheless may not be sufficient enough.
However, one can also rely on the presence of buildings in the area to serve as radio-path
shields thus limiting coverage area. Furthermore, reflection from these buildings will also
provide coverage to areas that normally would not be reachable through line-of-sight
paths. These additional paths would consequently increase in-building penetration within
the contained area.

In order to achieve these results, it is important that antenna/base sites are chosen
accordingly. First of all, the highest point in the area will probably do more harm than
good as a cell site location if the area can be considered as suburban or urban. The reason
why is that it will cause more interference to surrounding sites due to the fact that signals
will propagate out over the other, lower buildings into other coverage areas. Furthermore,
street coverage and in-building penetration immediately surrounding the site will
probably be more limited due to the lack of reflections off surrounding buildings.

Examples of these situations are shown below:

The choice of the highest point in an area for a cell site would most likely only work in
low-density suburban or rural areas where the overall number of sites needed to meet
subscriber demands is small. Frequency reuse would not be necessary and these sites
could be considered as "broadcast"sites.

Hill-Top Cell Sites:

As another example, consider the placement of a cell site at the top of a hill overlooking a
town or city. While coverage will be adequate in the area immediately surrounding the
cell site down to the side of the town facing the site, coverage within the city may be
limited due to signal path obstructions due to buildings on the edge of the town. In other
words, reflections off buildings on the edge of the city will provide coverage to areas
between the buildings and the cell site, but probably not on the opposite side of the
obstructions. An example is shown below:

 
"Off-grid" Site Locations:

As was stated before, following a hexagonal pattern when assigning cell sites is a good
starting point in reducing cochannel interference as much as possible. However, due to
possible limitations of adequate cell space for sites, locations may need to be assigned
that are "off grid." An example of such a situation is shown below:

In any case, the hexagonal grid reflects an ideal situation. Terrain effects will obviously
skew the pattern out of any type of symmetry. As a result, some interference may appear
in some areas regardless of how close you assign sites to the grid. It is at this point where
the engineer will consider ways to control this interference.

Link Budgets and System Balance:

For more detail on link budgets please refer to the RF Planning Guide:

Antenna Downtilt:

By tilting the entire radiation pattern of a particular antenna, one can conceivably control
its coverage pattern within a specific area. Controlling the beam path will allow the
provider to focus the coverage area and, in some cases, eliminate interference caused
when the beam is allowed to propagate beyond its desirable coverage area.

Downtilt can be achieved in two ways, through mechanical as well as electrical downtilt.
Downtilt (Beamtilt):

"When the main radiation lobe is intentionally adjusted above or below [its plane of
propagation], the resultant effect is know as beamtilt. There are two categories of
beamtilt, mechanical and electrical. Electrical beamtilt is obtained by adjusting the phase
relationships of radiating elements within the antenna by the factory. [For example, an
electrical beamtilt can be adjusted in the field by changing external phasing cables
purchased from the vendor.] Mechanical beamtilt may be accomplished by physically
tilting the antenna away from the perpendicular by using a shim or downtilt bracket. [For
example, some manufacturer's provide scissor-style brackets that eliminate guesswork
about the setting in degrees.] Downtilt of either variety should be specified only after a
detailed understanding of the terrain and other propagation factors have been acquired by
the designer. Most legitimate uses of beamtilt involve signal coverage restrictions
required by cellular repeaters to prevent overlap with adjacent cells. Beamtilt is not a
good substitute for null fill below the horizon. A lower gain antenna might well over
superior overall performance to a downtilted higher gain model." 2

[Mechanical downtilting will cause the backlobe to tilt upward (parallel to front lobe),
while electrical downtilting causes the backlobe to downtilt simultaneously. One other
note to make, an electrical downtilt type of antenna could also be downtilted
mechanically.]

A great deal of caution must be used when downtilting a particular antenna. There are
several "side effects" that can occur with excessive downtilting." 3

The following Downtilt Effects graphs are provided by Terry Leonard of the Motorola
RF Planning Group. 11 The following illustrations show mechanical downtilt effects (the
backlobe stays parallel to the front lobe).

 
 

 
 

"ERP and Downtilt Limitations:

As mentioned above, when adjusting ERP and downtilt at particular site in order to
control interference, special considerations must be taken into account. There are
limitations as to the amount of downtilt and ERP that is used at a given site. For example,
one does not want to increase the ERP of a particular base station significantly past the
level that assures a balanced path between it and the subscriber unit. If frequency reuse is
present in the system, such a level would threaten to cause cochannel and/or adjacent
interference with nearby sites. On the other hand, there is also a lower limit to effective
use of ERP.

If used properly and carefully, downtilt can be an effective way to control the coverage
area of a sectorized cell site and thus reduce possible interference. Generally, large angles
(greater than 5 degrees) are not recommended, for at this point, a peanut shaped coverage
may start to result, depending on the type and height of antenna being used. This may
cause patchy coverage between adjacent sectors in the site which could cause additional,
unnecessary port changes. Also, as a rule, there should be no more than 2 degrees
difference in downtilt between adjacent sectors in any one site. Please refer to the
diagram below:

As one can see, coverage decreases dramatically outside of the main lobe of the
transmitted signal. We can therefore aim the outer edge of the main lobe at our cell
boundary (which can be determined from a best server plot for system) to limit coverage
outside. If you can determine the approximate cell radius and are aware of the site's
antenna height above ground level, you can determine an approximate downtilt to use by
the equation:

Downtilt = arctan(h/Dmax) + (Vertical Beamwidth/2)" 3

Environment

In an ideal situation, estimating propagation paths and signal fade would be straight
forward. In the "real world", physical characteristics of the propagation environment will
effect a signal's ability to traverse through space. Environment descriptions have been
standardized in the communications industry.

Clutter Data (Electronic)

Some Clutter and Terrain Descriptions
Line-of-Site (LOS)
Clutter Data (Electronic)

"There are various sources of clutter (morphological) data. The more current the clutter
data, the more accurate the propagation predictions will be. The most common source of
clutter data is from the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)*. It is easily obtained and is
available digitally. However, there are certain limitations with this data. The USGS data
categorizes the land by how it is used (commercial, industrial, etc.), which does not
necessarily coincide with categorizing the land by its propagation characteristics. Also,
the USGS data may not account for newly developed areas. In order to obtain a more
accurate determination for coverage, it is recommended that enhanced clutter data based
on satellite imagery and aerial photography be used when generating propagation studies.
This data is more expensive and requires more time to acquire than the USGS data, but
provides more reliable results." 14

*U.S. Geological Survey web site is located at: http://www.usgs.gov/

Some Clutter and Terrain Descriptions

"Dense Urban:

Consists of densely built areas with mainly high buildings (over 20 stories). Typically
there is little or no trees and vegetation within this area due to the density of buildings.
Central parts of Chicago and New York are examples of dense urban areas.

Urban:

Consist of metropolitan regions, industrial areas and closely spaced residential homes and
multi-storied apartments. Building density is high but may be interspersed with trees and
other vegetation. Business centers of medium size cities such as Tulsa and Indianapolis as
well as portions of the outer areas of New York and Chicago are examples of this
environment.

Suburban:

Consists mainly of single family homes, shopping malls and office parks. Significant
vegetation, trees and parking lots are intermixed with buildings. Most buildings are 1 to 3
stories but significant exceptions do occur. Significant areas within small and medium
cities along with suburban communities surrounding major cities are examples of this
environment.

Rural/Quasi-Open:
Consist generally of open space with few buildings or residences. Major interconnecting
highways, farms, and barren land are found within rural areas. The largest variations in
cell coverage area are found in rural areas due to differences in vegetation and terrain."
14

Open Rural/Open: Bare or open areas

Water: Lakes, rivers, ctc.

Terrain:

Terrain descriptions are literally focused on the land mass. Examples of terrain
description are: mountainous, desert, water (ocean, lake, stream), etc.

Forest:

Foliage descriptions focus on the tree density and tree height.

Roads:

Roads are normally described in terms of their capacity to carry traffic. For example,
highways are described as being primary if they are heavily traveled multi-lane roads
(such as toll roads and inter-state highways). Smaller roads in and around the city or town
would be described as secondary roads, and rural roads or those less travelled would be
described as tertiary roads.

Line-of-Site (LOS)

"Radio transmission requires a clear path between antennas known as radio line of sight.
It is necessary to understand the requirements for radio line of sight when designing a
network . Line of sight is the direct free-space path that exists between two points. Using
binoculars on a clear day, it is easy to determine if visual line of sight exists between two
points that are miles apart. To have a clear line of sight there must be no obstructions
between the two locations. Often this means that the observation points must be high
enough to allow the viewer to see over any ground-based obstructions.

The following obstructions might obscure a visual link:

1. Topographic features, such as mountains
2. The curvature of the earth
3. Buildings and other man-made objects
4. Trees
If any of these obstructions rise high enough to block the view from end to end, there is
no visual line of sight.

Obstructions that can interfere with visual line of sight can also interfere with radio line
of sight. But one must also consider the Fresnel effect. If a hard object, such as a
mountain ridge or building, is too close to the signal path, it can damage the radio signal
or reduce its strength. This happens even though the obstacle does not obscure the direct,
visual line of sight." 29

Large-Scale Propagation Models - Path Loss

Propagation models are usually divided into large-scale or small-scale models. The large
scale models normally are used to predict the mean signal strength for transmitter-
receiver separation distances of several hundred or even thousands of meters apart. Small
scale models, or fading models, describe rapid fluctuations of the received signal strength
over very short distances (a few wavelengths) or short time durations. 25

There are many path loss models available for use, however certain models or
combinations of models are preferred. The best models are those which are continuously
compared against actual field data and adjusted for accuracy. The model used in
Motorola's NetPlan tool is XLOS. XLOS has been developed utilizing other models; its
description can be found in this section.

Free Space Propagation Model

Fresnel Zones
Propagation Over a Plane Earth
Rough Surface Criterion
Refraction and Equivalent Earth's Radius
Transmission Over a Smooth Spherical Earth
XLOS
Knife Edge Diffraction
Log-distance Path Loss Model and Log-normal Shadowing
Longley-Rice (Irregular Terrain Model)
Okumura
Hata
COST-231-Hata
Slope and Intercept
Walfish-Ikegami Cost 231
Walfisch-Xia JTC
Bullington
dn Pathloss Model
Diffracting Screens Model
Building Penetration

Ricean Fading Distribution Fresnel Zones

"Fresnel zone: In radio communications, one of a (theoretically infinite) number of a

concentric ellipsoids of revolution which define volumes in the radiation pattern of a
(usually) circular aperture. Note 1: The cross section of the first Fresnel zone is circular.
Subsequent Fresnel zones are annular in cross section, and concentric with the first. Note
2: Odd-numbered Fresnel zones have relatively intense field strengths, whereas even
numbered Fresnel zones are nulls. Note 3: Fresnel zones result from diffraction by the
circular aperture." 6

The concept of diffraction loss as a function of the path difference around an obstruction
is explained by Fresnel zones. Fresnel zones represent successive regions where
secondary waves have a path length from the transmitter to receiver which are nl/2
greater than the total path length of a line-of-sight path. [The figure below] demonstrates
a transparent plane located between a transmitter and receiver. The concentric circle on
the plan represent the loci of the origins of secondary wavelets which propagate to the
receiver such that the total path length increases by l/2 for successive circles. These
circles are called Fresnel zones. The successive Fresnel zones have the effect of
alternately proving constructive and destructive interference to the total received signal.
The radius of the nth Fresnel zone circle is denoted by rn and can be expressed in terms
of n, l, d1, and d2 by

This approximation is valid for d1, d2 >> rn.

The excess total path length traversed by a ray passing through each circle is nl/2, where
n is an integer. Thus, the path traveling through the smallest circle corresponding to n = 1
in the figure will have an excess path length of l/2 as compared to a line-of-sight path,
and circles corresponding to n = 2,3,etc. will have and excess path length of l, 3l/2, etc.
The radii of the concentric circles depend on the location of the plane. The Fresnel zones
of the figure will have maximum radii if the plane is midway between the transmitter and
receiver, and the radii become smaller when the plane is moved towards either the
transmitter or the receiver. This effect illustrates how shadowing is sensitive to the
frequency as well as the location of obstructions with relation to the transmitter or
receiver.

An obstacle may block the transmission path and a family of ellipsoids can be
constructed between a transmitter and receiver by joining all the points for which the
excess path delay is an integer multiple of half wavelengths. The ellipsoids represent
Fresnel zones. Note that the Fresnel zones are elliptical in shape with the transmitter and
receiver antenna at their foci." 25

Fresnel Zone in a Microwave Link:

"In a microwave link, the radio transmission exhibits wavelike characteristics, and the
zone where wavelike interference can affect the propagation path can be approximated by
the Fresnel zone. The Fresnel zone is widest in the middle of the link and can be
calculated from the formula:

 
where

RFZ = Fresnel zone radius

d1 = distance zone base 1 (km)

d2 = distance zone base 2 (km)

d = d1 + d2 or the length of the hop

f - frequency in GHz

the figure below show the calculation of the first Fresnel zone radius.

Microwaves do not normally propagate within the atmosphere in straight lines; they
ordinarily travel in curved paths (usually curved downward) due to atmospheric
refraction. The amount of curvature is usually defined with respect to the earth's
curvature, which is designated as K, where K X R (R = the earth's actual radius) gives the
effective radius of the earth as seen by the microwave path.

If the Fresnel zone is obstructed, some additional path losses will occur. When there are
no obstacles within 50 percent of the Fresnel zone radius for K = 4/3 (the most usual
value that approaches a "flat earth"), then the obstacle generally causes negligible loss.
When, however, an obstacle protrudes into the path of the link by more than 50 percent of
the first Fresnel zone, an adjustment must be made for the additional losses incurred.

The terrain loss LTR (in dB) can be calculated as

where

C = the clearance in meters of the obstacle in the Fresnel zone (as shown in the figure)

RFZ = Fresnel zone radius

Notice that

C can be negative if it protrudes into the Fresnel zone.

This approximation is valid only for -1.5 £ C/RFZ £ +0.5.

Because of changes in the refractive index of the atmosphere, the effective value of K
varies with time. Smaller values of K increase the attenuation due to obstructions,
particularly on longer path lengths. You should check to ensure that potential variations
in K will not degrade the service.

The change in clearance (CC) for changes in K can be approximated by

The limiting values of K are

K = 1 for wet climates

K = 0.9 for temperate climates

K = 0.6 for desert climates

It is normal to check the path profile for the extremes of K = 4/3 to K = 0.8." 1

Propagation Over a Plane Earth

"Knowing the propagation characteristics over a smooth, conducting, flat earth provides a
starting point for estimating the effects of propagation over actual paths. The complex
analytical results for propagation over a plane earth derived by Norton have been
simplified by Bullington 38 by decomposing the solution of Norton into a set of waves
consisting of direct, reflected, and surface waves. The formula relating the power
transmitted to the power received following the approach of Bullington 38 is

 
Within the absolute value symbols, the first term (unity) represents the direct wave, the
second term represents the reflected wave, the third term represents the surface wave, and
the remaining terms represent the induction field and secondary effects of the ground.

The reflection coefficient, R, of the ground depends on the angel of incidence, q, the
polarization of the wave, and the ground characteristics; it is given by

where

The quantity D is the phase difference between the reflected and the direct paths between
transmitting and receiving antennas, illustrated in [the figure below]. Let hb and hm be
the heights of the base and mobile antennas; then D is given by

For d greater than 5hbhm [D is given by],

Since the earth is not a perfect conductor, some energy is transmitted into the ground,
setting up ground currents that distort the field distribution relative to what it would have
been over a perfectly reflecting surface. The surface wave attenuation factor, A, depends
on frequency, polarization, and the ground constants. An approximate expression for A is
given by

which is valid for |A| < 0.1. More accurate values are given by Norton. Since the effect of
this surface wave is only significant in a region a few wavelengths above the ground, this
effect can be neglected in most applications of microwave mobile communications.

It is of interest to note that in the limit of grazing angle of incidence the value of the
reflection coefficient, R, approaches -1 independent of the polarization. For frequencies
above 100 MHz and for an "average" earth (see table [below]) and for vertical
polarization, |R| exceeds 0.9 for angles less than 10º above the horizon. For horizontal
polarization above 100 MHz, |R| exceeds 0.5 for angles less than 5º, but must be of the
order of a degree or less for |R| to exceed 0.9.

 
Typical Ground Constants
Type of Surface s(mho/m) e
Poor ground 0.001 4
Average ground 0.005 15
Good ground 0.02 25
Sea water 5 81
Fresh water 0.01 81

Under the conditions where R equals -1 and A can be neglected, then [the power received
equation] reduces to

 
where P0 is the expected power over a free space path. In most mobile radio applications,
except very near the base station antenna, sin 1/2 D ª 1/2 D; thus the transmission loss
over a plane earth is given by the approximation

yielding an inverse fourth-power relationship of received power with distance from the
base station antenna.

The ground constants over the path of interest enter into both the calculations for line-of-
sight and for diffraction attenuation. At microwave frequencies it is usually the dielectric
constant, e, which has the dominant effect on propagation. [The table above] gives values
of typical ground constants. Applying these values to the formulas for the reflection
coefficient over a plane earth just derived, we find that for frequencies above 100 MHz
the effect of the ground constants are slight." 8

on satellite imagery and aerial photography be used when generating propagation studies.
This data is more expensive and requires more time to acquire than the USGS data, but
provides more reliable results." 14

Free Space Propagation Model

"The free space power received by a receiver antenna which is a distance of d from the
transmitter antenna is given by Friis free space equation.

Where:

PT is the transmitted power

GT is the transmitting antenna gain

GR is the receiving antenna gain

d is the separation distance between antennas

The path loss which represents the signal attenuation as a positive quantity is defined as
the difference between the effective transmitted power and the received power and may
or may not include the effects of the antenna gains. The path loss for the free space model
when the antennas are assumed to have unity gain is provided by the following equation.

Expressed in dB as:

Where:

d is in meters

f is in Hertz

c is equal to the speed of light ( meters per second)

If:

d is in kilometers

f is in MegaHertz ( Hertz)

c is

 
  

One is able to see from the above free space equations that 6 dB of loss is associated with
a doubling of the frequency. This same relationship also holds for the distance, if the
distance is doubled, 6 dB of additional loss will be encountered." 13

Rough Surface Criterion

"At the higher microwave frequencies the assumption of a plane earth may no longer be
valid, due to surface irregularities. A measure of the surface "roughness" that provides an
indication of the range of validity of [the formula relating the power transmitted to the
power received following the approach of Bullington 38 ]

is given by the Rayleigh criterion, which is

where s is the standard deviation of the surface irregularities relative to the mean height
of the surface, l is the wavelength, q is the angle of incidence measured in radians from
the horizontal. Experimental evidence shows that for C<0.1 spectacular reflection results,
and the surface may be considered smooth. Surfaces are considered "rough" for values of
C exceeding 10, and under these conditions the reflected wave is very small in amplitude.
Bullington 38 has found experimentally that most practical paths at microwave
frequencies are relatively "rough" with reflection coefficients in the range of 0.2-0.4." 8

Refraction and Equivalent Earth's Radius

"Because the index of refraction of the atmosphere is not constant, but decreases (except
during unusual atmospheric conditions) with increasing height above the earth (h),
electromagnetic waves are bent as they propagate. The mean variation in refractive index
(n) can be considered linear with a constant gradient g of the form

 
In a medium where there are abrupt changes in index of refraction, Descarte's law
applies:

where a and a0 are the angles at the discontinuity at height h, above the surface of the
earth of radius a. Note if the atmosphere is uniform the equation for rectilinear
propagation is

When n has a constant gradient the propagation is given approximately by

If we replace the earth's radius a by a fictitious value a', where

we now have an expression in the same form as that for rectilinear propagation.

Since the index of refraction in the troposphere is very nearly unity, the N-unit has been
defined for convenience,

where n is the index of refraction in the atmosphere. Values of the minimum monthly
mean value of Ns throughout the world have been published. The most commonly used
value for Ns is 301. This gives a value for the effective earth's radius a' which
corresponds to four-thirds of the actual earth's radius. The empirical formula for a' is
given by

where 6370 km is used for the earth's radius." 8

Transmission Over a Smooth Spherical Earth

"At microwave frequencies, diffraction due to the earth severely limits the amount of
energy that propagates beyond the horizon. Considerable work has been done in an
attempt to predict the signal attenuation over transhorizon paths. Generally speaking,
these predictions are semiempirical formulas which apply for frequencies below 1000
MHz. It is possible to obtain analytic expressions for the diffraction over a perfectly
conducting sphere; however, the expressions are not simple relationships between the
factors of frequency, conductivity of the earth, antenna height, and distance which govern
the attenuation. ...Estimations of the attenuation due to diffraction over a smooth earth are
particularly difficult in regions just beyond line-of-sight. Furthermore, surface roughness
again seriously affects propagation. It is, of course, desirable to be able to estimate signal
strengths beyond the horizon, particularly for cases where the same frequencies are being
used at separate base stations. Bullington 38 has reduced the involved analytic
relationships for the propagation over a smooth spherical earth to various asymptotic
forms." 8

XLOS

"The workhorse of the NetPlan tool is the XLOS propagation model developed and
refined over the last 15 years by Motorola engineers. The method used to refine estimate
coverage is based on the diffraction and line of sight algorithms found in Longley and
Rice, "Prediction of Tropospheric Radio Transmission Loss Over Irregular Terrain. A
Computer Method" - 1968, for rough terrain conditions. As the terrain flattens out the
range estimates approach the Okumura model predictions, "Field Strength and Its
Variability in VHR and UHF Land-Mobile Radio Service" -1968.

The model adjusts for built up or natural environments on top of the terrain by assuming
a virtual obstruction height over and above the existing terrain which is varied to
correspond to urban, suburban, rural, foliage, water and other conditions. The overlay (or
obstruction) code is determined from maps which typically show this information as
colors. This virtual height is then scanned to find the major, or controlling, obstacles for
each mobile position. Single diffraction points are separated from extended obstructions
and are treated in different ways to obtain an estimate of the degree of additional
transmission loss expected over free space.

At the same time that the obstruction search is going on, a straight line estimate of the
average terrain is updated with each new mobile position. This straight line
approximation is used to obtain an equivalent adjusted base antenna height. The adjusted
base antenna height is further corrected for earth curvature and is applied to the line of
sight routine to give an estimated reflection loss term.

The final estimated total attenuation for each mobile position is a varying mix of both
reflection and diffraction loss terms. Adjustments are made by corrections applied to each
loss term as a function of whether single or multiple diffraction is taking place. Antenna
horizontal and vertical patterns, downtilt angles, and sector power levels are also taken
into account.

Although the XLOS propagation model is based on Longley, Rice and Okumura
algorithms, extensive field measurements, in varying terrain conditions, have been used
to modify the algorithms and to model local environmental clutter (obstruction height)."

The following slides taken from an Xlos Propagation Model 18 presentation, depict the
process and evolution of the tool and shows the general mix formula used.

 
  

[Motorola NetPlan Gourp. Xlos Propagation Model. Slide Presentation.]

Knife Edge Diffraction

"Very often in the mobile radio environment a line-of-sight path to the base station is
obscured by obstructions such as hills, trees, and buildings. When the shadowing is
caused by a single object such as a hill, it is instructive to treat the object as a diffracting
knife edge to estimate the amount of signal attenuation. The exact solution to the problem
of diffraction over a knife edge is well known as is discussed in many textbooks.

Within the shadow region of the knife edge, the electric field strength E, can be
represented as

where E0 is the value of the electric field at the knife edge, A is the amplitude, D is the
phase angle with respect to the direct path. The expressions for A and D are obtained in
terms of the Fresnel integrals:
  

where

where (from Fresnel zone geometry):

For most microwave mobile radio applications several assumptions can be made to
simplify the calculations. Consider an infinite completely absorbing (rough) half-plane
that divides space into two parts as in [the following figure]. When the distances d1 and
d2 from the half-plane to the transmitting antenna and the receiving antenna are large
compared to the height h, and h itself is large compared with the wavelength, l, that is,

then the diffracted power can be given by the expression

  

This result can be considered independent of polarization as long as the conditions of

d1,d2>>h>>l, are met. In cases where the earth's curvature has an effect, there can be up
to four paths. A simplified method of computing knife edge diffraction for such cases is
treated by Anderson and Trolese 35 . Closer agreement with data over measured paths
has been obtained by calculations that better describe the geometry of the diffracting
obstacle." 8

[Jakes, William C. 1974. Microwave Mobile Communications. An IEEE Press Classic

Reissue. Picataway. American Telephone and Telegraph Company. pp. 80-88.]

Log-distance Path Loss Model and Log-normal Shadowing

"[The figure below] shows log normal fading. This process is called log normal fading
because the field strength distribution follows a curve that is a normally distributed curve,
provided the field strength is measured logarithmically." 1

"Both theoretical and measurement-based propagation models indicate that average

received signal power decreases logarithmically with distance, whether in outdoor or
indoor radio channels. Such models have been used extensively in the literature. The
average large-scale path loss for an arbitrary T-R (transmit-receive) separation is
expressed as a function of distance by using a path loss exponent, n.

 
or

where n is the path loss exponent which indicates the rate at which the path loss increases
with distance, d0 is the close-in reference distance which is determined from
measurements close to the transmitter, and d is the T-R separation distance. The bars in
(the above) equations denote the ensemble average of all possible path loss values for a
given value of d. When plotted on a log-log scale, the modeled path loss is a straight line
with a slope equal to 10n dB per decade. The value of n depends on the specific
propagation environment. For example, in free space, n is equal to 2, and when
obstructions are present, n will have a larger value.

It is important to select a free space reference distance that is appropriate for the
propagation environment. In large coverage cellular systems, 1 km reference distances
are commonly used, whereas in microcellular systems, much smaller distances (such as
100 m or 1 m) are used. The reference distance should always be in the far field of the
antenna so that near-field effects do not alter the reference path loss. The reference path
loss is calculated using the free space path loss formula... or through field measurements
at distance d0. [The table below] lists typical path loss exponents obtained in various
mobile radio environments.

 
Path Loss Exponents for Different Environments
Environment Path Loss Exponent, n
Free space 2
Urban area cellular radio 2.7 to 3.5
Shadowed urban cellular radio 3 to 5
In building line-of-sight 1.6 to 1.8
Obstructed in building 4 to 6
obstructed in factories 2 to 3

The model in [the log-distance] equation does not consider the fact that the surrounding
environmental clutter may be vastly different at two different locations having the same
T-R separation. This leads to measured signals which are vastly different than the average
value predicted by [the log-distance] equation. Measurements have shown that at any
value of d, the path loss PL(d) at a particular location is random and distributed log-
normally (normal in dB) about the mean distance-dependent value. That is
  

and

where Xs is a zero-mean Gaussian distributed random variable (in dB) with standard
deviation s (also in dB).

The log-normal distribution describes the random shadowing effects which occur over a
large number of measurement locations which have the same T-R (transmit-receive)
separation, but have different levels of clutter on the propagation path. This phenomenon
is referred to as log-normal shadowing. Simply put, log-normal shadowing implies that
measured signal levels at a specific T-R separation have a Gaussian (normal) distribution
about the distance-dependent mean of [the previously mentioned PL equation], where the
measured signal levels have values in dB units. The standard deviation of the Gaussian
distribution that describes the shadowing also has units in dB. Thus, the random effects of
shadowing are accounted for using the Gaussian distribution which lends itself readily to
evaluation.

The close-in reference distance d0, the path loss exponent n, and the standard deviation s,
statistically describe the path loss model for an arbitrary location having a specific T-R
separation, and this model may be used in computer simulation to provide received power
levels for random locations in communication system design and analysis.

In practice, the values of n and s are computed from measured data, using linear
regression such that the difference between the measured and estimated path losses is
minimized in a mean square error sense over a wide range of measurement locations and
T-R separations. The value of PL(d0) in [the previously mentioned path loss equation] is
based on either close-in measurements or on a free space assumption from the transmitter
to d0. An example of how the path loss exponent is determined from measured data
follows.

Since PL(d) is a random variable with a normal distribution in dB about the distance-
dependent mean, so is Pr(d), and the Q-function or error function (erf) may be used to
determine the probability that the received signal level will exceed (or fall below) a
particular level. The Q-function is defined as

 
where

the probability that the received signal level will exceed a certain value g can be
calculated from the cumulative density function as

similarly, the probability that the received signal level will be below g is given by" 25

[Boucher, Neil J. 1995. The Cellular Radio Handbook. A Reference for Cellular System
Operation. Third Edition. Mill Valley. Quantum Publishing, Inc. pp. 73-74, 185-186.]

[Rappaport, Theodore S. 1996. Wireless Communications Principles and Practice. Upper

Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc. pp. 102-106, 110-111, 116-118, 167, 170-
176, 188-189.]

Longley-Rice (Irregular Terrain Model)

"The Longley-Rice model, is applicable to point-to-point communication systems in the

frequency range from 40 MHz to 100 GHz, over different kinds of terrain. The median
transmission loss is predicted using the path geometry of the terrain profile and the
refractivity of the troposphere. Geometric optics techniques (primarily the 2-ray ground
reflection model) are used to predict signal strengths within the radio horizon. Diffraction
losses over isolated obstacles are estimated using the Fresnel-Kirchoff knife-edge
models. Forward scatter theory is used to make troposcatter predictions over long
distances, and far field diffraction losses in double horizon paths are predicted using a
modified Van der Pol-Bremmer method. The Longley-Rice propagation prediction model
is also referred to as the ITS irregular terrain model.

The Longley-Rice model is also available as a computer program to calculate large-scale

median transmission loss relative to free space loss over irregular terrain for frequencies
between 20 MHz and 10 GHz. For a given transmission path, the program takes as its
input the transmission frequency, path length, polarization, antenna heights, surface
refractivity, effective radius of earth, ground conductivity, ground dielectric constant, and
climate. The program also operates on path-specific parameters such as horizon distance
of the antennas, horizon elevation angle, angular trans-horizon distance, terrain
irregularity and other specific inputs.

The Longley-Rice method operates in two modes. When a detailed terrain path profile is
available, the path-specific parameters can be easily determined and the prediction is
called a point-to-point mode prediction. On the other hand, if the terrain path profile is
not available, the Longley-Rice method provides techniques to estimate the path-specific
parameters, and such a prediction is called an area mode prediction.

There have been many publications and corrections to the Longley-Rice model since its
original publication. One important modification deals with radio propagation in urban
areas, and this is particularly relevant to mobile radio. This modification introduces an
excess term as an allowance for the additional attenuation due to urban clutter near the
receiving antenna. This extra term, called the urban factor (UF), has been derived by
comparing the predictions by the original Longley-Rice model with those obtained by
Okumura.

One shortcoming of the Longley-Rice model is that it does not provide a way of
determining corrections due to environmental factors in the immediate vicinity of the
mobile receiver, or consider correction factors to account for the effects of buildings and
foliage. Further, multipath is not considered." 25

Okumura

"The Okumura model is based on data taken from 150 to 1500 MHz with less data taken
at 150 MHz. Above 216 MHz, use the Okumura model. Between 132 and 216 MHz, the
Okumura and Bullington models are equally valid. Use the Bullington model for
frequencies below 132 MHz." 20

"Okumura developed a set of curves giving the median attenuation relative to free space
(Amu), in an urban area over a quasi-smooth terrain with a base station effective antenna
height (hte) of 200 m and a mobile antenna height (hre) of 3 m. These curves were
developed from extensive measurements using vertical omni-directional antennas at both
the base and mobile, and are plotted as a function of frequency in the range 100 MHz to
1920 MHz and as a function of distance from the base station in the range 1 km to 100
km. To determine path loss using Okumura's model, the free space path loss between the
points of interest is first determined, and then the value of Amu(f,d) (as read from the
curves) is added to it along with correction factors to account for the type of terrain. The
model can be expressed as

 
where L50 is the 50th percentile (i.e. median) value of propagation path loss, LF is the
free space propagation loss, Amu is the median attenuation relative to free space, G(hte)
is the base station antenna height gain factor, G(hre) is the mobile antenna height gain
factor, and GAREA is the gain due to the type of environment. Note that the antenna
height gains are strictly a function of height and have nothing to do with antenna patterns.

Plots of Amu(f,d) and GAREA for a wide range of frequencies are shown in [the figures]
below. Furthermore, Okumura found that G(hte) varies at a rate of 20 dB/decade and
G(hre) varies at a rate of 10 dB/decade for heights less than 3 m.

Other corrections may also be applied to Okumura's model. Some of the important terrain
related parameters are the terrain undulation height (Dh), isolated ridge height, average
slope of the terrain and the mixed land-sea parameter. Once the terrain related parameters
are calculated, the necessary correction factors can be added or subtracted as required.
All these correction factors are also available as Okumura curves.

Okumura's model is wholly based on measured data and does not provide any analytical
explanation. For many situations, extrapolations of the derived curves can be made to
obtain values outside the measurement range, although the validity of such extrapolations
depends on the circumstances and the smoothness of the curve in question.
  

Okumura's model is considered to be among the simplest and best in terms of accuracy in
path loss prediction for mature cellular and land mobile radio systems in cluttered
environments. It is very practical and has become a standard for system planning in
modern land mobile radio systems in Japan. The major disadvantage with the model is its
slow response to rapid changes in terrain, therefore the model is fairly good in urban and
suburban areas, but not as good in rural areas. Common standard deviations between
predicted and measured path loss values are around 10 dB to 14 dB." 25

Hata

"Among the many technical reports that are concerned with propagation prediction
methods for mobile radio, Okumura's2 report is believed to be the most comprehensive
one. In his report, many useful curves to predict a median value of the received signal
strength are presented based on the data collected in the Tokyo area. The Tokyo urban
area was then used as a basic predictor for urban areas. The correction factors for
suburban and open areas are determined based on the transmit frequency. Based on
Okumura's prediction curves, empirical formulae for the median path loss, Lp, between
two isotropic antennae were obtained by Hata and are known as the Hata Empirical
Formulae for Path Loss3. The Hata propagation formulae are used with the link budget
calculation to translate a path loss value to a forward link cell radius and a reverse link
cell radius.
For Urban Area:

For Suburban Area:

For Quasi Open Area:

For Open Rural Area:

where:

AHm Correction Factor For Vehicular Station Antenna Height

For a Medium-Small City:

For a Large City:

L u , L s , L q = isotropic path loss values

fc = carrier frequency in MHz (valid 150 to 1,000 MHz)

Hb = base antenna height in meters (valid 30 to 200 meters)

Hm = mobile antenna height in meters (valid 1 to 10 meters)

r = radius of site in kilometers (valid 1 to 20 km)

This model is valid for large and small cells (i.e. base station antenna heights above roof-
top levels of buildings adjacent to the base station).

Measurements which have been taken at 1,900 MHz have shown the path loss difference
between 800 MHz and 1,900 MHz closer to 11 dB. The COST-231-Hata model was
developed to account for this difference.

Hata is similar to COST-231-Hata with the exception of two terms:" 13

Hata yields

COST-231-Hata yields

COST-231-Hata

"The COST 231 Subgroup on Propagation Models proposed an improved propagation

model for urban areas to be applied above 1,500 MHz4. Like Hata's model, the COST-
231-Hata model is based on the measurements of Okumura. The COST-231-Hata
propagation model has been derived by analyzing Okumura's propagation curves in the
upper frequency band. Hata's analysis was restricted to frequencies below 1,000 MHz.
The COST-231-Hata propagation model extended the range of parameters to include
1,500 to 2,000 MHz. Their modified model was based on Hata's formula for the basic
transmission loss in urban areas (see above).

For Urban Area

For Suburban Area:

For Quasi Open Area:

  

For Open Rural Area:

where:

AHm Correction Factor For Vehicular Station Antenna Height

For a Medium-Small City:

For a Metropolitan Center:

L u , L s , L q = isotropic path loss values

fc = carrier frequency in MHz (valid 1,500 to 2,000 MHz)

Hb = base antenna height in meters (valid 30 to 200 meters)

Hm = mobile antenna height in meters (valid 1 to 10 meters)

r = radius of site in kilometers (valid 1 to 20 km)

This model is valid for large and small cells (i.e. base station antenna heights above roof-
top levels of buildings adjacent to the base station).

Measurements which have been taken at 1,900 MHz have shown the path loss difference
between 800 MHz and 1,900 MHz closer to 11 dB. The COST-231-Hata model was
developed to account for this difference.

A comparison between the Hata and COST-231-Hata equations show that they are
similar except for the following two terms:" 13
Hata yields

COST-231-Hata yields

Slope and Intercept

There are a number of different kinds of statistical, empirical and custom pathloss models
available today. Most of the models are represented by an equation, describing the
various parameters that contribute to the pathloss model. Such an expression is shown
below, borrowed from the Custom Pathloss Model (CPM) application note.

Where: D is the Diffraction, LU is the Land Use and CSL is the Cover Set Loss as
described in the CPM application note. K1 through K7 parameters are also described in
more details in the CPM application note.

(The K1 and K2 parameters are the subject of this discussion.) K1 and K2 are the
intercept and slope of the pathloss model respectively. The figure below illustrates the
slope and intercept parameters for the HATA 800 Model (reference from the CPM
Application Note 15 ).

What the graph shows is that the greater the distance from the serving site the lower the
signal strength will be. The K1 value is a constant which is the intercept of the graph with
the abscissa. The K1 value for the HATA 800 and COST-231 models can be found in the
CPM application note for various environments. The K2 value is the slope of the line and
represents the slope in dB per decade that the signal strength (or the Pathloss (PL)) will
be diminishing with respect to distance.
[Motorola NetPlan Group. May 12, 1998. NetPlan Application Note Custom Pathloss
Model. NetPlan V3.2. Revision 0.1.]

Walfish-Ikegami Cost 231

"The Walfisch-Ikegami model, also developed by a subgroup of the European

Cooperation in the Field of Scientific and Technical Research, factors in parameters that
describe obstructions found in urban environments. Walfisch-Ikegami is suitable for
modeling small cells in the 800-2000 MHz frequency ranges where deployment is above
building level. Walfisch-Ikegami uses user-specified area and city qualifications
(correction factors) to adapt the model for urban and suburban areas. In addition, users
specify values for the following parameters: average building height, average building
separation, average street width, and road orientation." 16

Walfisch-Xia JTC

"The Walfisch-Xia JTC model is a new propagation model adopted by the Joint
Technical Committee of the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) and the
Exchange Carriers Standards Association (ECSA). Walfisch-Xia JTC is suitable for
modeling small, large, and micro cells in the 300-2000 MHz frequency ranges with
deployments above, at, or below building level. Walfisch-Xia JTC uses user-specified
area and city qualifications (correction factors) to adapt the model for urban, suburban,
residential, and rural areas. In addition, users specify values for the following parameters:
average building height, average building separation, and average street width." 16

Bullington

"The Bullington model is based on data taken from 54 to 216 MHz. The Bullington
model is generally considered to be preferable at frequencies below 132 MHz. Between
132 and 216 MHz, the Bullington and Okumura models are equally valid. Do not use
Bullington at frequencies above 216 MHz.

Mozaik(sm)'s Bullington model is based on formulae and techniques described in "Radio

Propagation for Vehicular Communications", Kenneth Bullington, IEEE Transactions on
Vehicular Technology, Volume VT-26, Number 4, November 1977." 19

The following figure is Bullington's nomograph for calculating the diffraction loss due to
an isolated obstacle. 23
  

[Bullington, Kenneth. November 1997. Radio Propagation for Vehicular

Communications. IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology. Volume VT-26. Number
4.]

dn Pathloss Model

"The dn path loss model is generally used to predict the power transfer between a
transmitter and a receiver. This model takes into account the decrease in energy density
suffered by the electromagnetic wave due to spreading, as well as the energy loss due to
the interaction of the electromagnetic wave with the propagation environment. Path loss
is the term used to quantify the difference (in dB) between the transmitted power, Pt (in
dBm), and received power, Pr (in dBm). (The gains of the transmitting and receiving
antennas may be implicitly included or excluded in these power quantities).

The dn model predicts that the mean path loss, PL(d) , measured in dB, at a T-R
separation d will be

where PL(d0) is the mean path loss in dB at close-in reference distance d0, and n is the
empirical quantity - the path loss exponent. Note that when n=2, the path loss is the same
as free space - received signals fall off by 20 dB per decade increase in distance. The
reference distance, d0, is chosen to be in the far-field of the antenna, at a distance at
which the propagation can be considered to be close enough to the transmitter such that
multipath and diffraction are negligible and the link is approximately that of free-space.
Typically, d0 is chosen to be 1 m for indoor environments and 100 m or 1 km in outdoor
environments. The free space distance must be in the far-field of the antenna, which is
related to the physical size and frequency of the antenna. Without explicit measured
information on the close-in receive distance PL(d0), it can be measured or estimated by
the following formula:

where l = c/f is the wavelength of the transmitted signal (c is the speed of light, 3*108
m/s and f is the frequency of the transmitted signal in Hz).

The path losses at different geographical locations at the same distance d (for d > d0)
from a fixed transmitter exhibit a natural variability due to differences in local
surroundings, blockage or terrain over which the signals travel. This variability over a
large number of independent measured locations the same distance away from the
transmitter results in log-normal shadowing and is usually found to follow a Gaussian
distribution (with values in dB) about the distance-dependent mean path loss, PL(d), with
standard deviation s dB about the mean path loss PL(d).

The path loss exponent, n, is an empirical constant that is often measured, but can also be
derived theoretically in some environments. It varies depending upon the radio
propagation environment. [The table below], taken from Rappaport 25 , gives typical
values for n. Typical values for the log-normal shadowing in outdoor environments range
between 8 and 14 dB. Path loss exponents for indoor environments are presented [below],
which also presents measured values of s." 24

 
Environment Path Loss Exponent, n
Free space 2
Urban area cellular radio 2.7 to 3.5
Shadowed urban cellular radio 3 to 5
In building line-of-sight 1.6 to 1.8
Obstructed in building 4 to 6
obstructed in factories 2 to 3

 
Environment Freq. (MHz) n s (dB)
Indoor-Retail Store 914 2.2 8.7
Indoor-Grocery Store 914 1.8 5.2
Indoor-Hard Partition Office 1500 3.0 7.0
Indoor-Soft Partition Office 900 2.4 9.6
Indoor-Soft Partition Office 1900 2.6 14.1
Indoor-Factory (LOS) 1300 1.6 -2.0 3.0 -5.8
Indoor-Factory (LOS) 4000 2.1 7.0
Indoor-Suburban Home 900 3.0 7.0
Indoor-Factory (Obstructed) 1300 3.3 6.8
Indoor-Factory (Obstructed) 4000 2.1 9.7
Indoor-Office Same Floor 914 2.76 - 3.27 5.2 - 12.9
Indoor-Office Entire Building 914 3.54 - 4.33 12.8 - 13.3
Indoor-Office Wing 914 2.68 - 4.01 4.4 -- 8.1
Indoor-Average 914 3.14 16.3
Indoor-Through One Floor 914 4.19 5.1
Indoor-Through Two Floors 914 5.04 6.5
Indoor-Through Three Floors 914 5.22 6.7

Diffracting Screens Model

"The model described here is based on a geometrical generalization. Walfisch and

Bertoni modeled the rows of city buildings as a series of absorbing diffracting screens of
uniform height. For the case of a fixed antenna height above the building roofline, they
gave an overall propagation model starting with the forward diffraction, along the
screens, and with a final diffraction down to the street level. The model is shown in the
figure below. Since absorbing screens are used, this model is essentially polarization
independent.
Maciel, Bertoni and Xia extended the Walfisch-Bertoni model to allow the fixed-site
antenna to be below as well as above the rooftop levels as shown in the figure below.

The resulting expression for the path propagation Lds, based on the models of Maciel,

Bertoni, Xia and Walfisch is written as :

 
Parameters for the Diffracting Screens Model
Parameter Definition
Lds Diffracting screens propagation, average signal, dB
F Free-space loss
Le1 Final Diffraction down rooftop level
Le2 Losses due to diffraction along the rooftops
Hb Fixed-site antenna height, m
Hm Mobile antenna height, m
b Building height, m
s Separation between rows of buildings, m
w Distance from mobile to building on street, m
d Range, Km (not beyond radio horizon)
f Frequency, MHz
Gm Mobile antenna gain in the roof-edge direction
k Wave number
Gb Fixed-site antenna gain in the roof direction (usually taken to be unity)
  Angle from the roof edge to the mobile found from (see figure below)
  Wavelength

see figure below for the angle q

Q is either Qe or Ql depending on whether the fixed-site antenna is elevated above or

lower than the rooftop level. Practically, Qe is chosen when the fixed-site antenna height
Hb is more than above rooftop level b, and Ql is chosen when Hb is below rooftop
level by more than ." 10

 
Building Penetration

There is a great interest in characterizing the radio communication channel between a

base station and a mobile located inside a building.

The problem of modeling radiowave penetration into buildings differs from vehicular
case in several aspects. The main aspects are:
1. The problem is three dimensional because at a fixed distance from the base
station the mobile can be at a number of heights corresponding to the floor of
the building on which is located.
2. The local environment within a building consists of a large number of
obstructions (constructed of a variety of materials) close to the mobile.

Building penetration loss is dependent on a number of factors:

1. Mobile orientation with respect to the base station
2. Number and size of the windows
3. Height of the transceiver within the building
4. Propagation conditions along the transmission path
5. Carrier frequency

When the transmitter is outside, the signal within a building can be characterized as
follows:
1. The small scale signal variation is Rayleigh distributed.
2. The large scale signal variation is log-normally distributed with a standard
deviation related to the condition of transmission and the area of the floor.
3. The building penetration loss decreases at higher frequencies.
4. When no line-of-sight path exists between the transmitter and the building
concerned (i.e. scattering is the predominant mechanism of wave
propagation) the standard deviation of the local mean values is approximately
4 dB. When partial or complete line-of-sight conditions exist, the standard
deviation rises to 6-9 dB.
5. The rate of change of penetration loss with height within the building is about 2
dB per floor.

Small-Scale Propagation Models - Fading

Propagation models are usually divided into large-scale or small-scale models. The large
scale models normally are used to predict the mean signal strength for transmitter-
receiver separation distances of several hundred or even thousands of meters apart. Small
scale models, or fading models, describe rapid fluctuations of the received signal strength
over very short distances (a few wavelengths) or short time durations. 25

Fade Margin
Doppler Spread and Coherence Time, Coherence Bandwidth, Symbol Period
Flat Fading (i.e. no frequency selective behavior)
Frequency-Selective Fading
Fast Fading (observed at approximately 1/2 wavelength i.e. Rayleigh)
Slow Fading (observed at distances greater than 1/2 wavelength i.e. log normal)
Rayleigh Fading/Multipath

Interference

Multiple-Carrier Intermodulation (IM) Products

Intermodulation Distortion
Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI)
Inter-System Interference (ISI)
Adjacent Channel Interference - Land-Mobile
Man-Made Noise and Interference

Multiple-Carrier Intermodulation (IM) Products

"When several signals having different carrier frequencies are simultaneously present in a
nonlinear device, the result is a multiplicative interaction between the carrier frequencies
which can produce signals at all combinations of sum and difference frequencies. The
energy apportioned to these spurious signals (intermodulation or IM products) represents
a loss in signal energy. In addition, if these IM products appear within the bandwidth
region of these or other signals, the effect is that of added noise for those signals." 26

Frequencies of Intermodulation Products:

"Frequencies of IM products can be defined in the following manner:

Order - corresponding to the classification of IM products by the number of constituent
frequencies (e.g. 2nd, 3rd, 4th,... Nth). Order is equal to the sum of the harmonics of the
constituent frequencies.

Fundamental Frequencies - referring to constituent fundamental frequencies from which

the IM products are derived.

Harmonics - corresponding to the whole number multiples of a fundamental frequency.

For example, a 3rd order IM signal centered at frequency C could result from the
combination of the 2nd harmonic of a signal whose fundamental center frequency is A
and a second signal whose fundamental center frequency is B:

C = 2A + (1)B (where order = 2 + 1 = 3)

Some examples of 2nd through 5th order intermodulation products are provided in [the
following table]:

 
Order Intermodulation Products
2nd A+B, A-B
3rd 2A+B, 2A-B, 2B+A, 2B-A, A+B+C
4th 2A+2B, 2A-2B, 3A+B, 3A-B

5th A+4B, A-4B, 4A+B, 4A-B, 2A+3B, 2A-3B...

Note that third and fifth order intermodulation are most prevalent. The signal strength
level of harmonic decreases rapidly with its order (e.g. 3A would be weaker than 2A).
Higher order IM products are less prevelent due to the low probability of many different
transmitters being keyed simultaneously (e.g. A+B+C+2D+2E) for the IM to occur. Even
order IM products may fall out of the local systems' operating bands." 4

Intermodulation Distortion

"Linear circuits are used in communications where it is important that an exact or nearly
exact reproduction of an information bearing signal must be transmitted to a destination.
"Good Linearity" is synonymous with "Low Distortion". In this paper, the type of
linearity being discussed is primarily amplitude linearity, although it is equally valid to
consider phase linearity.
Examples of signals that require linearity are: human voice, multilevel data signals, a
microwave baseband signal composed of FDM channels, or RF signals which are
modulated (at least partly amplitude modulated) by such signals.

M-QAM microwave transmitters are simultaneously phase and amplitude modulated by

multilevel data signals, and depending on the number "M" require some degree of
linearity from the circuits which amplify or process the microwave signals. For example,
64-QAM requires much more perfect linearity than 4-QAM, in fact, 64-QAM requires
linearity in the IF and RF circuits approaching that previously required in the baseband
circuits in analog microwave radios.

The term Intermodulation Distortion or IMD indicates that the distortion phenomenon
being referred to is characterized by multiple signals, or a composite signal with multiple
frequency components, where the components mix with each other (intermodulate) in an
imperfectly linear electrical circuit and as a result produce undesired signal components
(distortion). By way of comparison, the more familiar Harmonic Distortion only requires
one signal or signal component to be present, and the undesired products generated are at
multiples (harmonics) of the original signal frequency.

IMD is similar to Harmonic Distortion in that both are caused by nonlinear imperfections
in an electrical circuit that is supposed to be linear. However, a simple mathematical
analysis will show that odd order terms of the transfer function of a non-linear circuit will
cause the in-band distortion products referred to as IMD, while the even order terms
normally cause Harmonic Distortion products which, in many cases, fall out of the
frequency band or off channel, and thus may be removed by filtering. Thus, IMD is
usually the more serious of the two types of distortion, since it often falls in or close to
the frequency band occupied by the desired signal and cannot be removed easily by
filtering.

The term Intermodulation Ratio or IMR indicates the ratio of the desired signal to the
undesired (IMD) signal power.

The term Intercept Point is used to describe a fictitious condition where the IMD products
of interest (usually the 3rd order products, because they are normally the largest) would
be equal to the desired signals, and the IMR would be 0 dB. This condition is not usually
achievable, because the circuit becomes highly non-linear or saturates at signal levels
lower than would be necessary." 28

Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI)

"In a digital transmission system, distortion of the received signal, which distortion is
manifested in the temporal spreading and consequent overlap of individual pulses to the
degree that the receiver cannot reliably distinguish between changes of state, i.e. ,
between individual signal elements. Note 1: At a certain threshold, intersymbol
interference will compromise the integrity of the received data. Note 2: Intersymbol
interference attributable to the statistical nature of quantum mechanisms sets the
fundamental limit to receiver sensitivity. Note 3: Intersymbol interference may be
measured by eye patterns. 2. Extraneous energy from the signal in one or more keying
intervals that interferes with the reception of the signal in another keying interval. 3. The
disturbance caused by extraneous energy from the signal in one or more keying intervals
that interferes with the reception of the signal in another keying interval." 6

Inter-System Interference (ISI)

"When a CDMA system is designed as an overlay over an existing system, reusing the
same frequency band, such as CDMA over AMPS in North America, or 900 MHz
CDMA over TACS as in China, it is necessary to anticipate and minimize any
intersystem interference that might result from the deployment.

This is not a problem unique to CDMA, it is a radio-systems issue. The same issues will
occur in a GSM system if it is overlaid on a TACS system in the same frequency band.
All technologies have the same set of contributing factors. Some key variables for the
interfering transmitter are: ERP (directed towards the receive antenna), Transmit nominal
power and Sideband splatter. A few key variables for the receiver which might be
interfered with are: IM (intercept point) of the receiver, Filter protection available and
Gain of the receive antenna system.

After the potential for interference has been assessed, corrective action, if required, can
then be taken. Corrective action can be in the form of improving the filtering at the
receive site, or it can be related to any of the other variables noted above; improve Tx
splatter, adjust ERP, frequency planning, etc. In all cases, the potential for interference,
and the best corrective action, are site specific. There is no generic solution and site
engineering is required. Recommendations for corrective action is addressed where
deemed appropriate.

One additional note, rogue transmitters are rare and illegal occurrences. If they are high
enough in power, they may cause problems to one or more sectors of a CDMA system. In
some cases, surrounding CDMA cell will increase in size to mitigate the problem." 13

Adjacent Channel Interference - Land-Mobile

"The origin of adjacent channel interference is shown in [the figure below]. The figure
portrays two transmissions occurring on adjacent channels. Inevitably some signal
components spread beyond the channel boundaries and can be intercepted by receivers
tuned to the adjacent channel. When the signal strength of the adjacent channel
transmission becomes so large that the power intercepted by an on-channel receiver
approaches that of the desired on-channel signal source, interference occurs. The ratio of
the signal strengths of the two transmissions at the point at which interference is first
noted is called the adjacent channel interference protection ratio (ACIPR)." 8

Man-Made Noise and Interference

"The performance of any communication system is dependent on the characteristics of

the transmission medium and it can often be improved by use of techniques which
successfully exploit these characteristics, for example by using an optimum modulation
method. As far as the communications engineer is concerned the important characteristics
are the frequency and time responses of the channel and the magnitude and nature of the
noise. The former characteristics have been discussed in earlier chapters; we now deal
with the problem of noise. There are two basic reasons for a study of noise. Firstly there
is a need to gain an understanding of the nature of the noise in order to devise methods by
which it can be characterized. Knowledge of the sources of noise may also lead to
methods by which it can be suppressed. Secondly there is a vital need to be able to
predict the performance of communication systems that have to operate in noisy
environments.

A mobile radio system is beset with noise from various sources and each source may
have different characteristics. Firstly there is receiver noise which is Gaussian in nature
and arises from the receiving system itself. Receiver noise is usually expressed in terms
of nkT0B, n being the factor by which the total receiver noise exceeds ambient noise.
Atmospheric noise may also be present, but it decreases rapidly with frequency and is
generally negligible in the VHF range. Galactic noise is also insignificant in the VHF
band as it is well below the background noise. By far the most important source of noise
as far as mobile communication is concerned is that radiated by electrical equipment of
various kinds. This noise, commonly termed `man-made' noise is impulsive in nature, and
therefore has characteristics quite different from Gaussian noise. It can be detected at
frequencies up to 7 GHz. ...The characterization of Gaussian noise is fairly
straightforward, but impulsive noise is a quite different matter.
There are several potential sources of impulsive noise which could play a role in mobile
communication systems. The radio is often installed in a vehicle which is itself a source
of noise due to its own ignition and other electrical systems and the vehicle commonly
operates in urban, suburban and industrial areas where it is close to other noisy vehicles.
There are various extraneous sources of noise such as power lines and neon signs,
industrial noise from heavy current switches, arch welders and the like, and noise from
various items of domestic electrical equipment. These may or may not be significant
contributors in any specific situation. In practice the level of man-made noise varies
markedly with location and time, so from a limited series of observations it is only
possible to derive typical values and obtain some estimate of the variability. In urban
areas it is generally conceded that vehicle ignition noise is a major source of interference
to VHF mobile radio systems.

Throughout the literature, the terms Gaussian and impulsive are used to denote two
distinct types of noise. Only the power spectral density of Gaussian noise is affected by
linear filtering; the probability density function remains Gaussian. The in-phase and
quadrature components of narrowband Gaussian noise are independent, as are the
envelope and phase distributions. For any other type of noise, both the power spectral
density and the probability density function are changed by filtering; the in-phase and
quadrature components, although uncorrelated, are not independent. In the general case,
the envelope and phase of random noise are independent, the phase being uniformly
distributed in the interval (0,2p).

In general terms we may consider an impulse as a transient that contains an instantaneous

uniform spectrum over the frequency band for which it is defined, a uniform spectrum
requiring that all frequencies are present, of equal strength and in phase over the
frequency band. Impulsive noise is the combination of successive impulses which have
random amplitudes and random time-spacings; these factors may sometimes be such that
adequate separation of successive impulse responses by a narrowband receiver is not
possible.

Thermal noise can produce an annoying "hiss" on a voice channel, but does not
significantly degrade intelligibility unless its RMS value is relatively high. Impulsive
noise causes clicks, which, although disturbing, may be tolerable. The degradation of the
channel is not easily defined and is usually based on some kind of subjective assessment,
although the quasi-peak measurement, which will be mentioned later, has been shown to
have some correspondence with the subjective annoyance on a.m. radio and television. In
some ways digital transmissions are easier to deal with since the bit error rate (BER)
provides a good quantitative indication of how well the communication system
reproduces the transmitted information. The BER produced by thermal noise is readily
available in several textbooks. As far as impulsive noise is concerned we will discuss the
methods that exist for expressing the properties of the noise, and to what extent these
methods provide information which is directly useful in predicting performance
degradation in communication systems." 23
Standards and Units

VSWR (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio):

Watts to dBm Conversion:

dBi to dBd Conversion
Speed of Light : Wavelength

VSWR (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio):

"Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) is another parameter used to describe an antenna
performance. It deals with the impedance match of the antenna feed point to the feed or
transmission line. The antenna input impedance establishes a load on the transmission
line as well as on the radio link transmitter and receiver. To have RF energy produced by
the transmitter radiated with minimum loss or the energy picked up by the antenna passed
to the receiver with minimum loss, the input or base impedance of the antenna must be
matched to the characteristics of the transmission line." 13

VSWR = Vmax/Vmin

Watts to dBm Conversion 32 :

dBi to dBd Conversion

 
Speed of Light : Wavelength