Predator–Prey Relationships

Introduction

 Predator-prey relations refer to the interactions between two species where one species is the hunted
food source for the other. The organism that feeds is called the predator and the organism that is fed
upon is the prey.
 The predator prey relationship consists of the interactions between two species and their consequent
effects on each other. In the predator prey relationship, one species is feeding on the other species. The
prey species is the animal being fed on, and the predator is the animal being fed.
 The predator prey relationship develops over time as many generations of each species interact. In doing
so, they affect the success and survival of each other’s species. The process of evolution selects for
adaptations which increase the fitness of each population. Scientists studying population dynamics, or
changes in populations over time, have noticed that predator prey relationships greatly affect the
populations of each species, and that because of the predator prey relationship, these population
fluctuations are linked.
 There are literally hundreds of examples of predator-prey relations. A few of them are the lion-zebra,
bear-salmon, and fox-rabbit. A plant can also be prey. Bears, for example, feed on berries, a rabbit feeds
on lettuce, and a grasshopper feeds on leaves.
 Predators and prey exist among even the simplest life forms on Earth, single-celled organisms called
bacteria. The bacteria Bdellovibrio feed on other bacteria that are bioluminescent (they produce internal
light due to a chemical reaction). Indeed, the study of Bdellovibrio predation has revealed a great deal of
the mechanics of predation and how the predator and prey populations fluctuate in number over time in
a related fashion.
 Predator and prey populations respond dynamically to one another. When the numbers of a prey such as
rabbits explode, the abundance at this level of the food chain supports higher numbers of predator
populations such as foxes. If the rabbit population is over-exploited or drops due to disease or some other
calamity, the predator population will soon decline. Over time, the two populations cycle up and down in
number.
 In many higher organisms, the prey can be killed by the predator prior to feeding. For example, a cheetah
will stalk, run down, and kill its prey (examples include the gazelle, wildebeest, springbok, impala, and
zebra). In contrast, fish and seals that are the prey of some species of shark are examples of prey that is
fed on while still alive.
 The key aspect of a predator-prey relationship is the direct effect that the predation has on numbers of
their prey.
 As species developed and flourished, other species exploited them as their food. A species that has
become a successful predator and has survived has developed a few or a number of strategies to acquire
the prey. The predator may use speed; stealth (the ability to approach unnoticed by being quiet and
deliberate in its movements, or by approaching from upwind); camouflage; a highly developed sense of
smell, sight, or hearing; tolerance to poison produced by the prey; production of its own prey-killing
poison; or an anatomy that permits the prey to be eaten or digested. Likewise, the prey has strategies to
help it avoid being killed by a predator. A prey species can also use the aforementioned attributes listed
for the predator to avoid being caught and killed.
 The fitness of the prey population—the number of individuals in the population, chance of being able to
reproduce, and chance of survival—is controlled by the predator population.
 The ways in which predators stalk, kill, and feed on their prey can be used in a classification scheme. A so-
called true predator kills the prey and then feeds on it. True predation usually does not involve harm to
the prey prior to death. For example, prior to being chased down and killed by a cheetah, a gazelle is
 healthy. Cattle that graze on grass are not considered a predator-prey relationship, as only a portion of
the grass is eaten, with the intact roots permitting re-growth of the grassy stalk to occur.
 A predator and its prey can both be microscopic, as is the case with the bacterium Bdellovibrio and other
Gram-negative bacteria. But, the size difference between predator and its prey can be immense. An
example is the Bowhead whale, which reaches up to 65 ft (20 m) in length, but whose survival is based on
straining through its baleen (bony structures in the whale’s jaw) millions of microscopic zooplankton that
reach only several centimeters in length.
 Predator-prey relationships can be more complex than a simple one-to-one relationship, because a
species that is the predator or the prey in one circumstance can be the opposite in a relationship with
different species. For example, birds such as the blue jay that prey on insects can become the prey for
snakes, and the predatory snakes can be the prey of birds such as hawks. This pattern is known as a
hierarchy or a food chain. The hierarchy does not go on indefinitely, and ends at what is described as the
top of the food chain. For example, in some ocean ecosystems, sharks are at the pinnacle of the food
chain. Other than humans, such so-called apex predators are not prey to any other species. This
relationship applies only to the particular ecosystem that the apex predator is in. If transferred to a
different ecosystem, an apex predator could become prey. For example, the wolf, which is at the top of
the food chain in northern forests and tundra environments, could become the prey of lions and
crocodiles if it were present in an African ecosystem.
 Predator-prey relationships involve detection of the prey, pursuit and capture of the prey, and feeding.
Adaptations such as camouflage can make a prey species better able to avoid detection. By blending into
the background foliage or landscape and remaining motionless, an insect or animal offers no visual cue to
a predator since it mimics its surroundings. There are many examples of mimicry in predator-prey
relationships. Some moths have markings on their outer wings that resemble the eyes of an owl or that
make the creature look larger in size. Insects popularly known as walking sticks appear similar to the twigs
of the plants they inhabit. Another insect species called the praying mantis appears leaflike. As a final
example, the stripes on a zebra are a different form of camouflage that exploits animals’ tendency to herd
together. The vertical stripes cause individual zebras in a herd to blend together when viewed for a
distance. To a predator like a lion, the huge shape is not recognized as a potential source of food.
 The fluctuation in the numbers of a predator species and its prey that occurs over time represents a
phenomenon that is known as population dynamics. The dynamics can be modeled mathematically. The
results show that a sharp increase in the numbers of a prey species (an example could be a rabbit) is
followed soon thereafter by a smaller increase in numbers of the relevant predator (in this case the
example could be the fox). As the prey population decreases due to predator killing, the food available for
the predators is less, and so their numbers subsequently decline. With the predator pressure reduced, the
numbers of the prey can increase once again and the cycle goes on. The result is a cyclical rising and
falling of the numbers of the prey population, with a slightly later cyclical pattern of the predator.
 A famous predator-prey model is the Lotka-Volterra version. The two equations were formulated in the
mid-1920s by Italian mathematician Vito Volterra (1860–1940) to explain the decline in a fish population
observed in the Adriatic Sea during World War I (1914–1918). At the same time, American mathematician
Alfred Lotka (1880–1949) was using the equations to explain the behavior of some chemical reactions.
Their efforts were recognized as the Lotka-Volterra model, which represents one of the first examples of
ecological modeling.
 Other examples include the Kermack-McKendrick model and the Jacob-Monod model (used to model
predation of one bacterial species on another).
 Predator-prey relations are an important driving force to improve the fitness of both predator and prey. In
terms of evolution, the predator-prey relationship continues to be beneficial in forcing both species to
adapt to ensure that they feed without becoming a meal for another predator. This selection pressure has
 encouraged the development and retention of characteristics that make the individual species more
environmentally hardy, and thus collectively strengthens the community of creatures that is part of
various ecosystems.
 For example, lions that are the fastest will be most successful in catching their prey. Over time, as they
survive and reproduce, the number of fast lions in the population will increase. Similarly, the superior
attributes that enable prey species to survive will be passed on to succeeding generations. Over time, the
fitness of the prey population will also increase. Left to operate naturally, the predator-prey relation will
be advantageous for the fitness of both species in relation to how they compete against other species in
the same ecosystem. However, since each species improves, their relationship with each other remains
unchanged, and the challenge remains to kill or escape from being killed.
 Predator-prey relationships are also vital in maintaining and even increasing the biological diversity of the
particular ecosystem, and in helping to keep the ecosystem stable. This is because a single species is kept
under control by the species that uses it for food. Without this population check, a species such as a
rabbit could explode in numbers, which can destroy the ability of the ecosystem to support the
population. A well-known example is the introduction of rabbits to Australia. An initial population of 24
rabbits was introduced in 1788 to permit hunting. In the absence of natural predators, the population
rose unchecked, and by 1859 the numbers exceeded tens of millions. The ecological pressure of this
immense population has decimated vegetation, leading to erosion, and the over-competition for food has
caused the extinction of plants and nearly 10% of the country’s natural mammalian species.
 The predator-prey balance of an ecosystem can be disrupted by other changes to the ecosystem including
climate related changes such as drought, or human activities that include urban development, foresting,
and overuse of resources.
 Modeling of predator-prey population dynamics can be useful in indicating whether the population of a
species could tax the capacity of a particular ecosystem to support their numbers. For example, allocating
licenses to hunt deer and elk is based on a census of the populations, and modeling. It can be that the
reduction of the deer and elk population during annual fall hunting seasons enables the survivors to
better make use of the available resources. As well, the information is useful in avoiding the issuing of too
many licenses, which could result in a dramatic and harmful reduction in the animal population. Put
another way, information on population dynamics is valuable in conservation strategies.
 Knowledge of predator-prey relations can be exploited in controlling the numbers of a pest or diseases.
For example, a strategy that is being explored in Africa to control the spread of malaria is the release of
female mosquitoes that are incapable of breeding. In this case, the mosquito, which can transfer the
bacterium responsible for malaria between animals and people or person-to-person when it takes a blood
meal, represents the predator and the source of the blood is the prey. By circumventing the production of
a new generation of mosquito, the population plummets, leaving insufficient mosquitoes to widely
disseminate the disease.

Types of Predation
Within the term predation are specific kinds that are defined by how the predator-prey interactions and
relationship dynamics work.

B ) Carnivory. Carnivory is the first type of predation that is most commonly thought of when we think of
predator and prey relationships. As the name suggests, carnivory is a type of predation that involves the predator
consuming the meat of other animals or non-plant organisms. Organisms that prefer to eat other animal or insect
organisms are thus called carnivores.
This type of predation and the predators that fall within this category can be further broken down. For example,
some organisms must eat meat in order to survive. They're called obligatory or obligate carnivores native lions.
Examples include members of the cat family, such as mountain lions, cheetahs, Africa native lions and house cats.

Facultative carnivores, on the other hand, are predators that can eat meat to survive, but they don't need it to
survive. They can also eat non-animal food like plants and other types of organisms to survive. Another word for
these types of carnivores is omnivores (meaning they can eat anything in order to survive). People, dogs, bears
and crayfish are all examples of facultative carnivores.

Examples of carnivory include wolves eating deer, polar bears eating seals, a venus fly trap eating insects, birds
eating worms, sharks eating seals and people eating meat from animals like cattle and poultry.

A ) Herbivory. Herbivory is the a type of predation where the predator consumes autotrophs like land plants,
algae and photosynthetic bacteria. Many don't consider this to be a typical predator-prey type since predation
colloquially is associated with carnivory. However, since one organism is consuming another, herbivory is a type
of predation.

The term herbivory is most commonly used as a descriptor for animals that eat plants. Organisms that eat plants
only are called herbivores.

As with carnivory, herbivory can be divided into subtypes. Organisms that eat both plant and animal food are not
considered herbivores since they don't solely eat plants/autotrophs. Instead, they're called omnivores or
facultative carnivores (as was previously discussed).

The two main subtypes of herbivory are monophagous and polyphagous herbivores. Monophagous herbivory is
when the predator species eats solely one type of plant. A common example would be a koala bear that only eats
leaves from trees.

Polyphagous herbivores are species that eat multiple kinds of plants; most herbivores fall under this category.
Examples include deer eating multiple types of grasses, monkeys eating various fruits and caterpillars that eat all
types of leaves.

Parasitism. Both herbivory and carnivory require the organism being preyed upon to die in order for the predator
to gain their nutrients/energy. Parasitism, however, does not necessarily require death of the prey (although it is
often a side effect of the relationship).

Parasitism is defined as a relationship where one organism, called the parasite, benefits at the expense of a host
organism. Not all parasitism is considered predation since not all parasites feed off of their host. Sometimes
parasites use the host for protection, shelter or reproductive purposes.

In terms of predation, the parasite would be considered the predator while the host organism would be
considered the prey, but the prey doesn't always die as a result of the parasitism.

A common example of this head lice. Head lice use the human scalp as a host and feed off of the blood on the
scalp. This causes negative health effects (itching, scabs, dandruff, death of tissue on the scalp and more) for the
host individual, but it doesn't kill the host.

Mutualism. Mutualism is another predator-prey relationship that doesn't result in the death of the prey. It
describes a relationship between two organisms where both organisms benefit. Most mutualistic relationships
are not examples of predation, but there aare a few examples of this.
The most common example involves the endosymbiotic theory where one unicellular organism may have
engulfed (a.k.a., ate) what we now know as mitochondria and chloroplasts. Current theories say that
mitochondria and chloroplasts were once free-living organisms that were then eaten by larger cells.

They then became organelles and benefitted from the protection of the cell membrane while the organisms that
engulfed them gained an evolutionary advantage of performing photosynthesis and cellular respiration.

IDefensive Adaptations of Prey Animals and Plants (Examples)

This concept is most easily understood with examples. These are the most common examples of predation-fueled
adaptations:

Camouflage. Camouflage is when organisms can use their coloring, texture and general body shape in order to
blend in with their surroundings, which helps them avoid being spotted and eaten by predators.

An amazing example of this would be various species of squid that can change their appearance based on their
environment to essentially become invisible to predators. Another example is the coloring of eastern American
chipmunks. Their brown fur allows them to blend in to the forest floor, which makes them harder for predators
to spot.

Mechanical. Mechanical defenses are physical adaptations that protect both plants and animals from predation.
Mechanical defenses can make it hard or even impossible for potential predators to consume the organism, or
they could cause physical harm to the predator, which makes the predator avoid that organism.

Plant mechanical defenses include things like thorny branches, waxy leaf coatings, thick tree bark and spiny
leaves.

Prey animals can also have mechanical defenses to work against predation. Turtles, for example, have evolved
their hard shell that makes them hard to eat or kill. Porcupines evolved spikes that make them both hard to
consume and that can cause physical harm to potential predators.

Animals can also evolve the ability to outrun predators and/or to fight back (through biting, stinging, and so on)
against predators.

Chemical. Chemical defenses are adaptations that allow organisms to use chemical adaptations (as opposed to
physical/mechanical adaptations) to defend themselves against predation.

Many plants will contain chemicals that are toxic to predators when consumed, which leads to predators avoiding
that plant. An example of this is the foxglove, which is toxic when eaten.

Animals can evolve these defenses, too. An example is the poison dart frog that can secrete toxic poison from
glands on the skin. These toxins can poison and kill predators, which results in those predators usually leaving the
frog alone. The fire salamander is another example: They can secrete and squirt a nerve poison out of special
glands, which can injure and kill potential predators.

Other common chemical defenses include chemicals that make the plant or animal taste or smell bad to
predators. This helps prey avoid predation as predators learn to avoid organisms that smell or taste bad. A prime
example is the skunk that can spray a foul-smelling liquid to deter predators.
Warning Signals. While the color and look of organisms is often used as a way to blend into the environment, it
can also be used as a warning to stay away to reduce predation risk.

This is called warning coloration, and it is usually bright, like poisonous frogs of the rainforest or bright stripes of
venomous snakes, or bold in pattern, like the black and white stripes of the skunk. These warning colors are often
accompanied with defenses like a foul smell or toxic chemical defenses.

Mimicry. Not all organisms actually evolve these types of defenses. Instead, some rely on mimicking those that
do in hopes it will confuse predators.

For example, the venomous coral snake has distinctive red, yellow and black striping that acts as warning
coloration against predators. Other snakes like the scarlet king snake have evolved to also have this striping, but
they're actually harmless and non-venomous. The mimicry gives them protection since predators now think
they're actually dangerous and should be avoided.

Predator Adaptations
Predators also adapt in order to keep up with the adaptations of their prey. Predators can use camouflage in
order to hide from prey and make a surprise attack, which can help them catch their prey and avoid any
dangerous defenses the prey might have.

Many predators, especially large predators at higher trophic levels, evolve superior speed and strength along
with other mechanical adaptations that allow them to overtake their prey. This can include the evolution of
"tools" that help them overcome mechanical and chemical defenses like thicker skin, sharp teeth, sharp claws
and more.

Chemical adaptations also exist in predators. Instead of using poison, venom, toxins and other chemical
adaptations as defenses, many will use these adaptations for the purpose of predation. Venomous snakes, for
example, use their venom to take down prey.

Predators can also evolve chemical adaptations that allow them to overcome chemical defenses of their prey. For
example, milkweed is a poisonous plant to almost all herbivores and omnivores. Monarch butterflies and
caterpillars, however, eat only milkweed and have evolved to not be affected by the poison. In fact, this also gives
them a chemical defense as the milkweed toxins that get on the butterflies make them unappetizing to
predators.

Predator Prey Relationship and Evolution

As these populations continue to reproduce over time, the actions of natural selection can also change the
species to make them better predators, or more defensive prey. Either way, this adaptation changes the entire
predator prey dynamic. If one species cannot then adapt an appropriate defense, they may go extinct. In this
way, the predator prey relationship often forms an “evolutionary arms race”, in which eat species rapidly evolves
to counter the other.
While numerous examples have been observed of the evolution of traits via the predator prey relationship, some
of the most interesting examples occur when the relationship is suspended. In tests on guppies, scientist have
shown that a large, colorful spot is a sexually selected trait. Male guppies with brightly colored spots are
preferred by females. However, predators can easily spot these colors, and eat the brightest colored males.

In streams where predators are not present, the males become brightly colored. Sexual selection rapidly evolves
the males to be brightly colored, and their novelty and brightness drive their evolutionary success. In streams
with predators, the males that succeed do so not necessarily because they were the most attractive, but because
they lived the longest. The predator prey relationship in this case overpowered the pressure of sexual selection. It
is a good example of how the predator prey relationship can greatly influence the path of evolution.

Examples of Predator Prey Relationship

Conventional Predator
Typically, a species has more than one predator prey relationship. Consider a jaguar for example. The jaguar is a
solitary predator, preferring to hunt and live alone. The jaguar is a predator of many different animals, from wild
hogs to caiman. With each of these species, it maintains a predator prey relationship. However, the jaguar is also
a prey item for certain species. Baby jaguars stay with their mothers for a year or more before being able to fully
protect themselves. Anacondas, large birds, and other felines are just some of the perils in store for a young
jaguar.

The jaguar, like the one above, represents conventional predator. It hunts, kills, and eats other organisms. While
jaguars are solitary predators, there are also social predators, which hunt in groups. These include species like
wolves, orcas, and lions. The differences in these social structures represent the different evolutionary niches
that the species have carved out, as well as the past predator prey relationships which shaped the animals as
they are today.

Nonconventional Predators
Besides the conventional predators, many organisms fit the definition of predator outside of the typical
boundaries. Scavengers, as a type of predator, have a predator prey relationship with each of the species that
they feed on. For instance, a scavenger like a vulture is affected when the population of water buffalo falls. With
less buffalo, the lions die off and make less kills, and then the vulture itself is affected. While this may be a
lopsided predator prey relationship because the vulture doesn’t directly kill the buffalo, it is still affected by the
population of buffalo. Luckily for vultures, they scavenge many species and aren’t reliant only on the buffalo
population. This is not true for all scavengers.

Other nonconventional predators include parasites, which feed off of a host organism, but do not necessarily kill
it. While the predator may be much smaller than the prey, they still have a relationship. The predator prey
relationship between deer and ticks, for example, is very similar to the predator prey relationship between the
lynx and hare. As the deer die off, the ticks have less to feed on, especially ticks which specialize on deer. The
decline is caused in part by the ticks themselves, which add a parasitic load to the deer, and transfer disease
within the population. The ticks will then reduce in numbers, allowing the deer to flourish.

Almost 10% of all known insects show a special form of parasitism. These parasitoids, as they are known, have
developed a special predator prey relationship in which they lay their eggs inside of another species. The larva
hatch, and eat their way out as the host slowly dies. While the adult is not consuming the other species directly,
the larvae do. Below is a picture of a parasitoid wasp, carrying a tarantula it has paralyzed. The wasp will lay eggs
in the living tarantula, which will hatch and devour it from the inside.