HSB Speed Course 2015. Session 6: REPRODUCTION AND HEREDITY.

PART I: REPRODUCTION

Reproduction is the process that makes more of the same kind of an organism.
There are 2 types of reproduction: asexual and sexual.

o Asexual reproduction: The formation of a new organism, without involvement of

gametes or fertilisation. It is done by cells dividing by mitosis which results in
genetically identical offspring from one parent, e.g. binary fission of bacteria.
o Sexual reproduction: Involves male and female sex cells (gametes) which fuse together
(fertilisation) to produce a zygote that divides by mitosis. Offspring are genetically
different (except for identical twins).

Male reproductive system

• Testes: produce sperm cells in the seminiferous tubules
• Scrotum: a sac that holds the testes and keeps them at right temperature
• Epididymis: stores sperm
• Vas deferens (sperm ducts): carry sperm from the testes to the urethra
• Prostate gland, Seminal vesicle and Cowper’s gland: produce seminal fluid
• Urethra: pass urine and semen
• Penis: organ for copulation (sexual intercourse). Transfers semen

Female reproductive system

• Ovaries: contain follicles which produce ova (each follicle contains an immature
ovum called oocyte).
HSB Speed Course 2015. Session 6: REPRODUCTION AND HEREDITY.

• Fallopian tubes (oviducts): carry an egg cell (ovum) to uterus every month. It is the
site of fertilization.
• Uterus –where fetus develops.
• Cervix- a ring of muscles that separate the vagina from the uterus.
• Vagina: receives sperm during intercourse.

Gametes (the sex cells)

The menstrual cycle: The menstrual cycle in women is a recurring process in which the
lining of the uterus is prepared for pregnancy, and if pregnancy does not happen, the lining is
shed at menstruation. The cycle lasts about 28 days and is regulated by hormones.
HSB Speed Course 2015. Session 6: REPRODUCTION AND HEREDITY.

Hormonal regulation of the menstrual cycle:

Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) is released by the Pituitary gland to stimulate the
maturing of follicles in the ovary.

Oestrogen is released into the blood stream by the developing follicles to thicken the lining
of the uterus (endometrium) in preparation of the uterus for pregnancy.

The high levels of oestrogen trigger the release of Luteinising Hormone (LH) by the
Pituitary gland for the mature follicle to break open and release the egg (ovum) into the
fallopian tube. This is called ovulation.

After ovulation Progesterone is secreted by the ruptured follicle (called now the corpus
luteum) in order to thicken even more the lining of the uterus with more blood supply.

If pregnancy doesn’t occur, the levels of oestrogen and progesterone decrease and the next
menstruation cycle starts.

Fertilisation: is the fusion of the male (sperm) and the female (ovum) gametes to form a
zygote. It takes place in the fallopian tube short after ovulation (12-24 hours, while the ovum
is still alive).

The resulting single cell (the zygote) contains in its nucleus 46 chromosomes, 23 from each
parent.
HSB Speed Course 2015. Session 6: REPRODUCTION AND HEREDITY.

Implantation: After fertilisation, the zygote starts dividing (by mitosis) as it travels through
the fallopian tube towards the uterus. This cell division results in a ball of cells (the embryo)
which attaches on the wall of the uterus about 10 days after ovulation. This is called
implantation.

The placenta forms mostly from cells of the implanted embryo. It consists of a network of
blood capillaries from the embryo (called chorionic villi) and blood capillaries from the
mother which allow for exchange of substances by diffusion between the embryo´s blood
and the mother´s blood (which don´t mix).

About 9 to 12 weeks after fertilization, the embryo has developed and has become
recognisably human and it is now called a foetus.

Functions of parts:

Uterus wall (endometrium): it is highly vascularised with the mother´s blood capillaries. It
has powerful muscles that contract to push the baby out at birth.

Placenta: exchanges of oxygen, glucose and other nutrients from the mother’s blood into
foetus’s blood and wastes products, such as carbon dioxide, from the foetus to be removed by
the mother’s blood. The placenta also produces progesterone to maintain pregnancy.

Umbilical cord: contains a vein that carries oxygen and nutrients to the foetus from the
mother’s blood and an artery which carries wastes from the foetus.

Amnion sac: membrane enclosing amniotic fluid which protects the foetus from shock and
allows for foetus movements.

Birth:

Stage 1: Contractions and dilation of the cervix: muscles of the uterus start the process of
labour to push the baby out. This is stimulated by the Pituitary gland releasing the hormone
oxytocin which triggers the contractions as an involuntary process. The rhythmic contractions
HSB Speed Course 2015. Session 6: REPRODUCTION AND HEREDITY.

lead to the breaking of the amnion sac, letting the amnion fluid start leaking out through the
vagina (breaking of the waters). The cervix becomes fully dilated.

Stage 2: Delivery of the baby: The breaking of the waters induces the release of more
oxytocin as a feed back mechanism, and stronger contractions push the baby through the
cervix and out through the vagina.

Stage 3: Delivery of the afterbirth: After the baby has been born, the umbilical cord is cut
and tied. Further contractions of the uterus push the placenta and amnion membrane out (this
is called the afterbirth).

Antenatal care: Care and advice provided to the mother during pregnancy (diet, exercise,
healthy life style), which also includes regular checks on the foetus development.

Postnatal care: cares and advice provided to the mother after giving birth and checks on the
baby’s development.

Lactation: this means the production of milk by the mother’s breasts.

Breast feeding: is the most appropriate method for feeding the newborn baby. The mother’s
milk contains all the nutrients needed for the baby’s development and it contains also ready
made antibodies that protect the baby from infections (this is called passive immunity).

Weaning: This means gradually introducing foods in the baby’s diet other than the breast
milk.

Family planning: controlling the number of babies a couple is going to have and when to
have them.

Birth control methods: different methods used to prevent unwanted pregnancies:

 Rhythm method: having sexual intercourse only during the so-called ´safe period´
(between the 11th and 17th day after the start of menstruation).

 Condom: The use of condoms prevents not only pregnancy, but also STDs.

 Diaphragm (or cap): it is placed by the woman into the vagina before intercourse. It
blocks the cervix preventing the passage of spermatozoa.

 Intrauterine device (IUD): This is a loop, or coil, of steel, copper or plastic which is
placed through the cervix into the uterus and remains there.

 Contraceptive pills: contain substitute hormones related to oestrogen and

progesterone which stop ovulation.

 Sterilisation: a surgical procedure that can be performed in either sex in which the
fallopian tubes or the vas deferens are cut to prevent passage of the gametes. In men
this is called vasectomy.
HSB Speed Course 2015. Session 6: REPRODUCTION AND HEREDITY.

PART II: INHERITANCE AND VARIATION

Cells divide and reproduce in two ways: mitosis and meiosis. 

Mitosis is a process of cell division that results in two genetically identical daughter cells
developing from a single parent cell. This is the way ALL cells in your body divide,
EXCEPT the cells that produce sperm and ova, which divide by meiosis. 

Meiosis, on the other hand, is the cell division involving two fissions of the nucleus and
giving rise to four gametes or sex cells, each possessing half the number of chromosomes of
the original cell.

Mitosis is used by single-celled organisms to reproduce; it is also used for the organic growth
of tissues, fibers, and membranes.

Meiosis is found in sexual reproduction of organisms. The male and female sex cells (i.e.,
egg and sperm) combine to create new, genetically different offspring.
 HSB Speed Course 2015. Session 6: REPRODUCTION AND HEREDITY.

Comparison chart

Meiosis Mitosis

A type of cellular reproduction in A process of asexual reproduction in which

which the number of the cell divides in two producing a replica,
chromosomes are reduced by half with an equal number of chromosomes in
Definition
through the separation of each resulting diploid cell.
homologous chromosomes,
producing two haploid cells.

Genetic diversity through sexual Cellular reproduction and general growth

Function
reproduction. and repair of the body.

Type of Sexual Asexual

Reproduction

Occurs in Humans, animals, plants, fungi. All organisms.

Genetically Different Identical

Yes, mixing of chromosomes can No, crossing over cannot occur.

Crossing Over
occur.

Pairing of Yes No
homologous
chromosomes

Number of 2 1
Divisions

Number of 4 haploid cells 2 diploid cells

Daughter
Cells
produced

Chromosome Reduced by half (23) Remains the same (46)

Number

Sex cells only: female egg cells or Makes everything other than sex cells.
Creates
male sperm cells.

Inheritance is the transmission of genetic information from generation to generation.

HSB Speed Course 2015. Session 6: REPRODUCTION AND HEREDITY.

A chromosome is a condensed (coiled up) thread of DNA.

A gene is a length of DNA that is the unit of heredity and contains the genetic codes for
building up a specific protein. A gene may be copied and passed on to the next generation.

An allele is any of two or more alternative forms of a gene.

Haploid cells contain in the nucleus a single set of unpaired chromosomes, (sperm and egg
contains 23 chromosomes))

Diploid nucleus as a nucleus containing two sets of chromosomes (e.g. in body cells)

Determining the gender of a human are the last pair of chromosomes, the sex chromosomes.
Since the last pair for females contains the chromosomes X and X, all eggs produced will
contain one of the X’s. This means that the man determines the gender of the baby.
When meiosis occurs, some sperm have X and some Y. the one that joins up with the egg in
the end will decide the gender, if it is a Y, the baby will be male, with XY, and if it is an X,
the baby will be female with XX.

Define the terms:

genotype as genetic makeup of an organism in terms of the alleles present (e.g. Tt or GG)

phenotype as the physical or other features of an organism due to both its genotype and its
environment (e.g. tall person or brown eyes)

homozygous as having two identical alleles of a particular gene (e.g. TT or gg). Two identical
homozygous individuals that breed together will be pure-breeding.

heterozygous as having two different alleles of a particular gene (e.g. Tt or Gg), not pure-
breeding

dominant as an allele that is expressed if it is present (e.g. T or G)

recessive as an allele that is only expressed when there is no dominant allele of the gene
present (e.g. t or g).

Monohybrid Crosses: Suppose there are two genes for tongue rolling, the allele for tongue
rolling is R (dominant) and the allele for not tongue-rolling is r (recessive) tops it is r. If
both parents are heterozygous, what are the chances of the babies inheriting this ability?

R r

R RR Rr

r rR rr

The chances are 3:1 (75%) probabilities.

Co-dominance is shown when two dominant alleles are present in the same person. Both of
them will affect this individual. It can be shown in blood groups. There are four blood
HSB Speed Course 2015. Session 6: REPRODUCTION AND HEREDITY.

groups, O, A, B, and AB. The ones that are dominant are A and B, while O is recessive. The
allele for A is shown by IA and for B by IB and so on.

This means someone with blood group A can have the genotype IOIA or IAIA and to have a
blood group of O one must have the genotype IOIO. When the two dominant alleles IA and IB
appear, it forms the group AB, as both traits show. This is co-dominance. It is represented by
the genotype IAIB.

Continuous variation is influenced by genes and environment, resulting in a range of

phenotypes between two extremes, e.g. height in humans.

Discontinuous variation is caused by genes alone and results in a limited number of distinct
phenotypes with no intermediates e.g. A, B, AB and O blood groups in humans

A mutation is a change in a gene or chromosome. Mutation can cause variation, like

Down’ssyndrome does.

Sex-linked inheritance is due to genes found the sex chromosomes. One example of a sex-
linked trait is red-green colorblindness. People with this type of colorblindness cannot
distinguish between red and green and often see these colors as shades of brown. Boys are
much more likely to be colorblind than girls. That’s because colorblindness is a sex-linked
recessive trait. Boys only have one X chromosome, so if that chromosome carries the gene
for colorblindness, they will be colorblind. As girls have two X chromosomes, a girl can have
one X chromosome with the colorblind gene and one X chromosome with a normal gene for
color vision. Since colorblindness is recessive, the dominant normal gene will mask the
recessive colorblind gene. For a girl to be colorblind, she would have to inherit two genes for
colorblindness, which is very unlikely. Many sex-linked traits are inherited in a recessive
manner.