HSB speed course.

Session 3

THE HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The human circulatory system consists of:

o Blood
o Blood vessels (arteries, veins and capillaries)
o The heart

Functions of the circulatory system:

o To transport substances (e.g. nutrients and oxygen) to the cells.
o To remove metabolic wastes (e.g. carbon dioxide) from the cells.

BLOOD
Blood consist of: plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets.

Plasma is the liquid part of blood (about 55 % of the blood) and contains water with
dissolved substances which must be carried around the body. Most materials are carried by
the blood plasma, except for oxygen, which is carried by the red blood cells.

Plasma transports:
o blood cells,
o soluble nutrients e.g. glucose (products of digestion) from the small intestine to the
organs,
o amino acids (plasma acts as a pool for amino acids for these cannot be stored in the
body),
o plasma proteins that are important in blood clotting (e.g. fibrinogen),
o CO2 (waste gas produced by respiration in cells) from the organs to lungs,
o wastes of metabolism (e.g. urea) from the liver to the kidneys,
o antibodies and antitoxins,
o hormones,
o ions,
o heat from the liver and muscles to all parts of the body.

Blood cells
Blood cells are of three types: red blood cells (found in the largest number), white blood
cells and platelets.

Red blood cells (erythrocytes)

Red blood cells are made in the bone marrow of some bones, including ribs, vertebrae and
some limb bones.
Have a special biconcave disc shape which increases the surface area and makes the
diffusion of oxygen into & out of the cell easier. Contain haemoglobin (Hb), a red iron-
containing pigment which can carry O2. In the lungs, Hb combines with O2 to form
oxyhaemoglobin. In the tissues, oxyhaemoglobin splits up into Hb and O2.
Red blood cells have no nucleus so that more Hb can fit inside the cytoplasm.
Old red blood cells are broken down in the liver, spleen and bone marrow. Some of the
iron from the Hb is stored, and used for making new Hb, some of it is turned into bile
pigment and excreted.

White blood cells (leukocytes)

White blood cells are made in the bone marrow and in the lymph nodes.
Have a nucleus, often large and lobed.
Can move around and squeeze out through the walls of blood capillaries into all parts of
the body.
There are many different kinds of white blood cells. They all have the function of fighting
pathogens (disease-causing bacteria and viruses) and to clear up any dead body cells in
your body:

Phagocytes: Remove any microorganisms that invade the body and might cause infection,
engulf (ingest) and kill them by digesting them. Have lobed nuclei and granular cytoplasm.
Phagocytes can move out of capillaries to the site of an infection.

Lymphocytes: produce antibodies to fight bacteria and foreign materials.

Have large nuclei and are responsible for immunity.

Platelets (thrombocytes)
Plates are small fragments of cells, with no nucleus, which are also made in the red bone
marrow. They are involved in blood clotting (form a blood clot, which stops blood loss at
a wound and prevents the entry of germs into the blood stream).
Blood clotting
When an injury causes a blood vessel wall to break, platelets are activated. They change
shape from round to spiny, stick to the broken vessel wall and to each other, and begin to
plug the break. The platelets also interact with fibrinogen, a soluble plasma protein, to
form insoluble fibrin. Calcium is required for that. Fibrin strands form a net that entraps
more platelets and other blood cells (red cells and white cells), producing a clot that plugs
the break.

Importance of blood clotting

o Prevents excessive blood loss from the body when there is a damage of the blood
vessel;
o Maintains the blood pressure;
o Prevents the entry of microorganism and foreign particles into the body;
o Promotes wound healing.

BLOOD VESSELS
There are 3 main kinds of blood vessels –arteries, veins and capillaries.

Arteries carry blood away from the heart; have thick, strong and elastic walls to carry
blood at high pressure and have no valves. Arteries divide into arterioles, which continue
dividing again and again, and eventually form very thin (one-cell thick) vessels called
capillaries.
Capillaries supply the cells with nutrients and oxygen and collect metabolic wastes from
the cells. The capillaries gradually join up with one another to form venules, which join
further to form larger vessels called veins.
Veins carry blood towards the heart, have thinner walls than arteries and need to have
valves to prevent blood from flowing backwards, since the blood is under a lower pressure.
Major arteries and veins that form the circulatory system:

THE HEART

The function of the heart is to pump blood around the body. The right side of the heart
collects deoxygenated blood form the body and pumps it to the lungs. The left side
collects oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to the body.
This is called a double circulation system, because the blood travels through the heart twice on
one complete journey around the body.

Blood pressure is the pressure of the blood against the walls of a vessel, created by the pumping
action of the heart.
o Hypotension: lower blood pressure than usual.
o Hypertension: higher blood pressure than normal.

Measuring Blood Pressure

Blood pressure is measured with an instrument called a SPHYGMOMANOMETER.
o SYSTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE: the highest arterial pressure reached during
contraction of muscles in the ventricles (120 mmHg).
o DIASTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE: lowest arterial pressure. Occurs while the ventricles
are relaxing (80 mmHg).
The normal (resting) blood pressure is 120 mm Hg over 80 mm Hg in brachial artery of arm
(120/80).
Pulse rate:
The heart beats about 70 times a minute. The pulse is the alternate expanding and recoiling of
an arterial wall that can be felt in any artery that runs near the surface of the body. The radial
artery in wrist and the carotid artery in neck are common places to check the pulse. Pulse rate
indicates the rate of heartbeat.
During exercise the heart rate increases to supply the muscles with more oxygen and glucose.
Regular exercise is important to keep the heart muscle in good tone. The heart becomes more
efficient in maintaining blood pressure which lowers the risk of coronary heart disease and
stroke.

Coronary arteries
The coronary arteries supply the heart muscles with nutrients and oxygen, so that it can keep
contracting and relaxing. If a coronary artery gets blocked –e.g. by a blood clot –the cardiac
muscles run short of oxygen and they cannot respire to obtain energy to contract. The heart then
stops beating. This is called a heart attack or cardiac arrest.

Main causes of a coronary heart disease and preventive measures:

The lymphatic system

The lymphatic system is a collection of lymph vessels and glands. It has 3 main roles:

1. Fluid balance: return tissue fluid to the blood

2. Protection from infection: produce white blood cells lymphocytes
3. Absorption of fats: transport digested fats from villi to blood stream

1. Tissue fluid is a fluid surrounding the cells of a tissue. It is leaked plasma - Plasma from
the blood capillaries move to the tissue through gaps in the walls and become tissue fluid.
Tissue fluid plays an important role in substance exchange between blood and cells. It
supplies cells with O2 and nutrients and takes away waste products including CO2.At the
end of the capillary bed, the tissue fluid leaks back into the blood, and become plasma
again, but not all of it. Some of it is absorbed by the lymphatic vessel and becomes
lymph. The lymphatic vessel takes the lymph to the blood stream by secreting them in a
vein near the heart, called subclavian vein. The return of tissue fluid to the blood in the
form of lymph fluid prevents fluid built up in the tissue.

2. Production of lymphocytes: The lymphatic system is an important component of the

immune system, which fights infection. One group of white blood cells, the lymphocytes,
is made in lymph glands such as the tonsils, adenoids and spleen. The glands become
more active during an infection because they are producing and releasing large numbers
of lymphocytes.

3. The absorption of fats from the small intestine: Many digested fats are too large to enter
the blood capillaries and are instead absorbed into lymphatic capillaries (lacteals). Fats
are added to the blood when lymph joins the bloodstream.
 THE HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

1. The human respiratory system comprises the: nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea,
bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli (together forming the lungs).
2. This may be divided into the upper and lower respiratory tracts.
3. The upper respiratory tract comprises all structures before the lungs; the lower respiratory
tract consists of the lungs themselves and the structures within them.
4. Air enters the body through the nose or mouth.
6. Air passes through the nasal cavity, into the pharynx. The pharynx is the back of the mouth
and serves as a passageway for both air and food.
7. From the pharynx, the air moves through the larynx and into the trachea, this leads directly
into the lungs.
8. These passageways provide a direct connection between the outside air and some of the
most delicate tissues in the body, and so these passageways must filter out dust, dirt, smoke,
bacteria, and a variety of other contaminants found in air.
9. Preliminary cleaning takes place in the nose, where air is:
A. Cleaned of large particles (dust)
B. Warmed
C. Moistened
before it passes on into the rest of the respiratory system.

10. The trachea, bronchi and bronchioles are lined with cilia and kept moist by mucus secretions.
The combination of cilia and mucus filters out solid particles from the air and warms and moistens
the air, preventing damage to the delicate tissues that form the lungs.
 11. The surface of the alveoli must be moist for them to function and so it is important that
the air reaching them is moist to prevent their delicate membranes from drying out.
12. Similarly, their membranes would be ineffective if allowed to become too cold, so it is
important that the air is warmed before it enters the lungs.
13. When air enters the body through the mouth, the air reaches the lungs in a less
satisfactory state, so it is better to breathe through your nose than your mouth.
14. At the top of the trachea is the larynx (or Adam's Apple). Stretched across the larynx are
two highly elastic folds of tissue (ligaments) called the vocal cords. Air rushing through
the voice box causes the vocal cords to vibrate producing sound waves. The larynx of a
baby is higher in the throat, allowing them to breathe and feed (suckle) at the same time.
15. From the larynx, the warmed, filtered and moistened air passes downward into the
thoracic cavity through the trachea.
16. The walls of the trachea are made up of C-shaped rings of tough flexible cartilage. These
rings of cartilage protect the trachea, make it flexible, and keep it from collapsing or
over-expanding. They also allow the oesophagus (which is attached to the back of the
trachea) to expand when a bolus of food is swallowed.
17. The epidermal cells lining the trachea produce mucus which helps to capture things still
in the air (fine dust and microbes). This is swept out of the air passageway by tiny ciliary
cells, into the throat, where it is swallowed.
18. Within the thorax, the trachea divides into two branches, the right and left bronchi
- one bronchus entering each lung. Inflammation of these passageways (e.g. by
cigarette tar), causes bronchitis.
19. The lungs are the site of gas exchange between the atmosphere and the blood. The
right lung has three lobes, and is slightly larger than the two-lobed left lung (the
extra space is taken up by the heart).
20. The lungs are inside the thoracic cavity, surrounded by the rib-cage and diaphragm. Lining
the entire cavity and encasing the lungs are the two pleural membranes. These secrete pleural
fluid that:
a) reduces friction from the movement of the lungs during breathing and
b) attaches the lungs to the inside of the ribs (by surface tension), so allowing them to move with
the ribs.
21. The further branching of the bronchi is often called the bronchial tree. Imagine the trachea as
the trunk of an upside-down tree with extensive branches that become smaller and smaller; the
bronchioles.
22. Both bronchi and bronchioles contain smooth muscle in their walls. This muscle tissue
controls the size of the air passage.

23. Asthma occurs when these smooth muscles constrict, narrowing the air passage – ‘Ventolin’
and other inhalers contain a smooth muscle relaxant to relax these muscles and allow air to flow
freely again.

24. The bronchioles continue to subdivide until they finally end in clusters of tiny hollow air
sacs or alveoli. Groups of alveoli look like brunches of grapes and this is the ONLY site
of gas exchange.

25. The alveoli consist of thin, flexible membranes (epithelium) that contain an extensive
network of capillaries, thus providing a large surface area, a short diffusion distance and,
by having a good supply of fresh blood, maximises the concentration difference.

26. Each lung contains nearly 300 million alveoli and has a total surface area about 40 times
the surface area of your skin.
THE MECHANISM OF BREATHING

1. Breathing is the movement of air into and out of the lungs – we normally breathe 10-15
times per minute. Each breathing cycle involves two stages:

A. Inhalation - or inspiration - is when the lungs expand and air is pulled into them.
B. Exhalation - or expiration – is when the lungs reduce in volume and air leaves the lungs.

2. The lungs are not directly attached to any muscle, so they cannot expand or
contract on their own.
3. Inhalation and exhalation are produced by movements of two sets of muscles: the
diaphragm and the muscles between the ribs, known as the intercostal muscles.
4. There are two sets of intercostal muscles – the internal intercostals (inhalation)
and the external intercostals (exhalation).
5. The diaphragm lies along the bottom of the ribcage and separates the thorax from
the abdomen.
6. Before inhalation the diaphragm is curved upwards into the chest. During
inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and moves down, causing the volume of the
thorax to increase.
7. The pressure in the thorax therefore decreases, sucking air in.
8. When the diaphragm relaxes, it returns to its curved position, aid by contraction
of the muscles of the abdominal wall.
9. This causes the volume of the thorax to decrease, and the pressure to rise, thus
forcing air back out of the lungs.
10. The intercostal muscles work in the same way – the external intercostals contract,
swinging the ribs upwards and outwards, increasing the volume of the thorax, and
causing us to inhale.
11. Breathing out is easier, since both gravity pulling the ribs down and the natural
elasticity of the lungs help to collapse the lungs and squeeze air out.
12. We generally breathe with the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles only; it
is only when exercising that we use the other muscles – our internal intercostals
and the muscles of the abdominal wall to really force air out.
13. Since our breathing is based on atmospheric pressure, the lungs can only work if
the space around them is sealed – if there is a hole in the thoracic cavity, the lung
collapses and breathing ceases. This can happen with a broken rib, or when
stabbed. Each lung is separately sealed, to reduce the risk of death from a
(relatively) minor injury.
1. Percentage composition of the gases which are inhaled and exhaled:

GAS INHALED (%) EXHALED (%)

N2 79.25 75.4
O2 20.71 14.6
CO2 0.04 4.0
H2O 0.0 6.0

2. Three things happen to the air in our bodies – only when in the alveoli:

A. Oxygen is removed
B. Carbon dioxide is added
C. Water vapour is added

3. Blood flowing from the heart (pulmonary artery) enters capillaries surrounding each
alveolus and spreads around it. This blood is high in CO2 and low in O2. It is known as
deoxygenated blood, even though it is still about 70% saturated with O2!
4. Since the concentration of the gases in the blood and the alveoli are not equal, there is a
concentration gradient which causes the diffusion of CO2 from the blood to the alveolar
air and of O2 from the alveolar air into the blood. This process is known as gas exchange.
5. The blood leaving the alveoli (in the pulmonary vein) has almost tripled the oxygen it
carried when it arrived in the lungs (in the pulmonary artery).
Lung Capacity: A term associated with the amount of air a mammalian lung is able to move
and/or store/use.

TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH LUNG CAPACITY

1) Tidal Volume (TV) The volume of air inhaled and exhaled during a normal breath (about
500 mL)
2) Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) The additional volume of air that can be inhaled
beyond a normal inhalation. This is normally the “extra” air inhaled during a “deep
breath” (bout 2000 mL)
3) Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) The additional volume of air that can be exhaled
beyond your normal exhalation. This is the “extra” air you force out during a hard blow
of air outward (about 1500 mL)

4) Vital Capacity (VC) The TOTAL volume of gas that can be moved in or out of the
lungs.

For an average human:

VC =TV +IRV+ERV

VC =500mL +2000mL 1500+mL

VC =4000mL or 4L

5) Residual Volume The volume of gas that remains in the lungs after a full exhalation
(about 1500 mL). This amount of air “never” leaves the lungs because if it did, the lungs
and respiratory passageways would collapse.

Human Lung Capacity Graph

Respiratory System Disorders

1. LUNG CANCER The uncontrolled and invasive growth of abnormal cells within the
lungs. The abnormal cells become a malignant tumour (group of cells) known as a
carcinoma. The carcinoma eventually takes over healthy cells, killing them.

Tobacco smoke contains irritants and carcinogens. Its 4 main toxic chemicals: carbon
monoxide, nicotine, smoke particles and tar.

Carbon monoxide:- combines with haemoglobin in RBC ---> prevents them transporting
O2.

Nicotine:- addictive ---> continual smoking

Smoke particles: irritate air passages ---> inflammation + increase mucus production --->
chronic bronchitis. Presence of smoke particles in alveoli + coughing = emphysema
(breathlessness)

Tar: a carcinogen: increases risk of lung cancer; lines air passages; increases mucus
production; paralyses and damages cilia ---> bronchitis

2. PNEUMONIA A disease of the lungs causing the alveoli to inflame (swell) and fill with
liquids. This interferes with the alveoli’s normal ability to take in oxygen causing the
body’s cells to starve for oxygen.
2. ASTHMA A disease where the airways and lungs of a person can become obstructed
because they narrow and cut off air flow. Bronchioles can constrict (narrow) because of
muscle spasms. Can occur at any age. Persons normally suffer from “Asthma Attacks”
4. BRONCHITIS A condition where the bronchioles become inflamed and filled with
mucus resulting in a reduction of air flow into the lungs.

4. EMPHYSEMA The swelling and scarring of alveoli in the lung resulting in loss of
elasticity (cannot inflate and deflate) of the alveoli. This causes some of them to burst
resulting in a decrease of surface area for gas exchange. Difficulty breathing is a result.

RESPIRATION
Respiration is the chemical reactions that break down nutrient molecules in living cells to
release energy.

In humans, our cells need energy (ATP) for:

o muscle contraction
o making protein molecules: linking together amino acids into long chains
o cell division: to repair damaged tissues and so that we can grow
o active transport
o transmitting nerve impulses
 o maintenance of constant body t°
All this energy comes from the food we eat. Water soluble molecules are absorbed from the
intestine into the blood. The main energy–providing nutrient: glucose.

Aerobic vs. anaerobic respiration

There are 2 kinds of respiration: Aerobic and Anaerobic. The main difference between them is
that aerobic respiration involves oxygen and anaerobic respiration does not!

Aerobic respiration
The release of a relatively large amount of energy in cells by the breakdown of food substances
in the presence of O2.

Anaerobic respiration

Anaerobic respiration: the release of a relatively small amount of energy by the breakdown of
food substances in the absence of O2.

Anaerobic respiration in muscles during exercise:

Anaerobic respiration in yeast:

Muscles respire anaerobically when exercising vigorously, because the blood cannot supply
enough oxygen to maintain aerobic respiration. However, the formation and build-up of lactic
acid in muscles causes cramp (muscle fatigue).

The lactic acid that is made is transported to the liver, and later is broken down by combining it
with O2. This extra O2 is breathed in after the exercise has stopped, and it is known as the oxygen
debt.