SECTION B: LIVE PROCESSES

NUTRITION:

Nutrition is the intake of food, considered in relation to the body's dietary needs.

Nutrients are the components in foods that an organism utilizes to survive and grow. 

Types of nutrients:

1. Carbohydrates
2. Proteins 
3. Fats 
4. Vitamins 
5. Minerals 
6. Water 

Macronutrients
Macronutrients include carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. They are called macronutrients as
they are required in large amounts to fuel the body.
Carbohydrates - are required for energy. Glucose, which is a monosaccharide, is the most
essential source of energy in the body. The brain works entirely on glucose alone. Glucose
can be converted into glycogen which is stored in the liver. When energy is needed it is
converted into glucose again and used to release energy. Carbohydrates provide 17 kilojoules
of energy per gram.
Fats – have the highest caloric content. This means they provide the largest amount of energy
when burnt. When measured by a calorimeter, fats provide about 37 kilojoules per gram,
making them twice as energy-rich than protein and carbohydrates. Extra fat is stored in
adipose tissue and is burnt when the body has run out of carbohydrates. Fat is also needed to
take up fat-soluble vitamins.
Proteins- are the third and last source of energy. They are the last to be used of all
macronutrients. In cases of extreme starvation, the muscles in the body, that are made up of
proteins, are used to provide energy. This is called muscle wasting. Proteins also provide 17
kilojoules per gram.
Water
Water is found in the body’s cells and transports nutrients to cells and removes toxins from
our body. Water regulates the body temperature by our sweat. We get about 50% of the water
we need from our food. Remember that water contains no calories.
Fibre
A major role of insoluble fibre is to add bulk to faeces and to prevent constipation and
associated problems such as haemorrhoids and colon cancer. Good sources include
wheat bran, corn bran, rice bran, the skins of fruits and vegetables, nuts, seeds, dried beans
and wholegrain foods.

Micronutrients
These nutrients include minerals and vitamins. Unlike macronutrients, these are required in
very minute amounts. Together, they are extremely important for the normal functioning of
the body. Their main function is to enable the many chemical reactions to occur in the body.
Nevertheless micronutrients do not function for the provision of energy.
 Vitamins – are essential for normal metabolism, growth and development, and
regulation of cell function. Vitamins are either fat-soluble or water-soluble. Fat
soluble Vitamins can be stored in the fatty tissues in the body when in excess, and so
are not excreted easily. Fat soluble vitamins are Vitamin A, D, E and K. Green leafy
vegetables, milk and dairy products and plant oils provide these vitamins Water
soluble vitamins are excreted in urine when in excess and so need to be taken daily.
 Water soluble vitamins include Vitamin B and C. Green leafy vegetables are rich in
Vitamin B, whereas Vitamin C is found abundantly in citrus fruits.
 Minerals – are found in ionized form in the body. They are further classified
into macrominerals and microminerals (or trace minerals). Macrominerals present in
the body include Calcium, Potassium, Iron, Sodium and Magnesium to name a few.
Iron is a constituent of Hemoglobin which is present in blood. Hence macrominerals
constitute a larger percent of the body and are needed in more amounts, as compared
to microminerals. Microminerals include Copper, Zinc, Cobalt, Chromium and
Fluoride. They are necessary for the function of enzymes in the body, but are needed
only in minor quantities. Approximately 4% of the body’s mass consists of minerals.

A balanced diet
A balanced should contain food from the different groups in the right proportions.
FOOD GROUPS FOR THE CARIBBEAN
1. Staple Foods 2. Lugumes/Nuts 3. Dark Green Leafy,
(a) Cereals: Bread (from Red peas, gungo/pigeon Yellow and Other Non-
wholegrain or enriched flour), peas, black-eye peas, Starchy Vegetables
flour, cornmeal, cooked and cow peas, split peas, Callaloo, spinach,
ready-to-eat cereals, peanuts, other dried watercress, pak choy, string
macaroni, spaghetti, rice. peas, beans and nuts. beans, pumpkin, carrot.
(b) Starchy fruits, roots,
tubers and their products:
banana, plantain, breadfruit,
yam, Irish potato, sweet
potato, dasheen, coco/eddoe,
cassava.
4. Fruits 5. Foods from Animals 6. Fats
Mango, guava, orange, (a) Lean meat, fish, Polyunsaturated: vegetable
pineapple, West Indian poultry, eggs, cheese, oils (except coconut oil).
cherry, pawpaw. ham, sausages. Sardines, Saturated: butter,
liver, heart, kidney, margarine, bacon, salt pork,
tripe, etc. coconut oil, fat on meat, fat
(b) Milk-fresh, in whole milk.
evaporated, skimmed;
yoghurt, cheese.
Source: The Caribbean Food and Nutrition Institute

Food Tests
Starch: Add iodine solution (brown colour) to the food sample. If result is positive, a blue-
black precipitate forms.
Glucose: Add Benedict’s solution (blue colour) to the food sample and heat the mixture in a
water bath. If the result is positive, an orange-brown precipitate forms.
Proteins: Add Biuret solution (copper sulphate and sodium hydroxide solutions). A change
in colour from blue to purple occurs if the tested food contains proteins.
Fats: with ethanol (alcohol): A milky white solution (an emulsion) forms in the presence of
fat.

Deficiency diseases:

Malnutrition is defined as the insufficient, excessive or imbalanced consumption of

nutrients.

Effects of malnutrition:
Obesity is caused by consuming too much energy. This is a condition where excessive fat
deposits impair health, and is usually defined by having a body mass index (BMI) of 30 or
more. This indicates a weight of 20% over the recommended for your height.

BMI can be calculated using the following formula: BMI = mass (kg) / height (m) 2

Protein-energy malnutrition:
Marasmus is characterized by energy deficiency. A child with marasmus shows extreme
weight loss and thinness and an old man’s face.
Kwashiorkor is protein deficiency, though the energy intake may be adequate. Protein
wasting in kwashiorkor may lead to edema. The child has a moon face.
Eating disorders
Bulimia nervosa is characterized by binge eating and purging, or consuming a large amount
of food in a short amount of time followed by an attempt to rid oneself of the food consumed
(purging), typically by vomiting, taking a laxative, diuretic, or stimulant, and/or excessive
exercise, because of an extensive concern for body weight.
Anorexia nervosa is characterized by food restriction, inappropriate eating habits or rituals,
obsession with having a thin figure, and an irrational fear of weight gain.

Diarrhoea is the condition of having loose, watery stools. It generally lasts a few days and
often disappears without any treatment. Common causes of diarrhea may include: viral or
bacterial gastroenteritis, food poisoning (shigelosis, salmonella, E. coli), parasitic infection
(giardiasis, amoebiasis), food allergy, lactose intolerance, malabsorption syndrome,
kwashiorkor.

Dentition
The teeth are made of hardest substance found in the body. Humans have a permanent
dentition of 32 teeth, divided into 4 types: incisors (8) adapted for cutting food. canines (4)
for holing and tearing, premolars (8) for chewing and grinding food and molars (12) for
chewing and grinding food.

Tooth decay (dental caries) is caused by bacteria in the mouth which produce acids to digest
food stuck in and between the teeth. Eventually the acid dissolves the enamel making a hole
(cavity) on the surfaces that will reach the pulp, causing toothache.

Things you can do to prevent dental caries:

Brush teeth with a fluoride toothpaste
Use tooth floss
Wash mouth with a suitable mouth wash
Regular visits to the dentist

Types of nutrition:
Saprophytic: Saprophytic organisms such as fungi and some bacteria (called decomposers)
that feed on dead decaying matter. Saprophytes are useful to the environment because they
recycle nutrients.
Parasitic: When parasitic organisms feed on or in another organism harming it.
Holozoic (heterotrophic): Animals feed heterotrophically, because they must search for their
food. Herbivores eat vegetable matter and have special bodily structures to help them digest
cellulose. Carnivores eat meat and are usually predators. Omnivores, such as humans eat both
meat and vegetable matter.
Holophytic (autotrophic): Plants feed with this type of feeding. They are able to make their
own food by photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae and some bacteria manufacture their
own food from carbon dioxide and water, using sunlight energy.
Carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen
In a plant, the carbon dioxide enters the leaves through the stomata. Water is taken up through
the roots. Chlorophyll is a green pigment in the chloroplasts which traps light energy for
photosynthesis.
Plants use the glucose they make through photosynthesis for respiration to obtain energy, to
make starch (stored in plant cells), to make cellulose, to build up other nutrients, e.g.
aminoacids, proteins, fats and oils, etc.

The digestive system

DIGESTION is the mechanical and chemical breaking down of ingested food into particles,
then into molecules small enough to move into the blood.

Mechanical digestion starts in the mouth with the teeth chewing the food and the tongue
working the food into a ball (bolus) for swallowing. The Biological name for chewing is
mastication.
The food bolus is moved to the back of the mouth and pushed into the oesophagus.
Peristalsis is the process where muscles in the wall of the oesophagus contract and relax to
push the food down into the stomach. Peristalsis also happens in the stomach and the rest of
the digestive tract to push the food along.

Chemical digestion uses enzymes to break the food into its basic chemical compounds for
absorption by the body.
The enzymes control the chemical breakdown. Enzymes are sensitive to temperature and pH.
Different enzymes act in different pH levels in the various parts of the digestive system.
There are glands and organs associated with the digestive system. They provide chemical
substances that enhance the chemical digestion of food.

Source & Enzyme Substrate pH Site of Action End-products

(what they act on!) (where they work)

SALIVARY GLANDS
7
Salivary Amylase Starches Mouth Maltose

STOMACH

Pepsin Proteins 2 Stomach Peptides

PANCREAS
8.5
Pancreatic Amylase Starches Small Intestine Maltose
Lipase Fats 8.5 Small Intestine Fatty acids
and glycerol
8.5
Trypsin Polypeptides Small Intestine Peptides
8.5
LIVER

Bile (emulsifies) Fat Globules 8.5 Small Intestine Fat droplets

8.5
SMALL INTESTINE

Peptidase Polypeptides 8.5 Small Intestine Amino acids

Maltase Maltose 8.5 Small Intestine Glucose +
glucose
Lactase Lactose 8.5 Small Intestine Glucose +
galactose
Sucrase Sucrose 8.5 Small Intestine Fructose +
glucose

Digestion of food along the alimentary canal

Mouth
The mouth is where digestion begins. When you chew food, you moisten and lubricate it with
saliva. Saliva contains water, mucus, and salivary amylase, an enzyme that breaks down
starch into maltose, using water. Salivary amylase works best at 37oC and pH of 7.
To prevent food from going down the windpipe (trachea), a flap of tissue called the epiglottis
closes off the trachea when you swallow.
Food moves down the esophagus through peristalsis (rhythmical contractions of the
esophageal muscles).

Stomach
Contains three layers of muscle that contract to churn and mix its contents. The mucus lining
of the stomach contains GASTRIC GLANDS which produce GASTRIC JUICE. Gastric juice
contains PEPSINOGEN and hydrochloric acid (HCl). When the two combine, pepsinogen
forms PEPSIN, an enzyme that breaks down proteins into smaller chains of amino acids
called peptides.
HCl gives the stomach a pH of ~2. This kills bacteria in food and helps break it down.
After 2 - 4 hours, the food has been turned into a semi-liquid food mass called CHYME, and
the stomach empties into the first part of the small intestine (called the duodenum). This
emptying is controlled by the PYLORIC SPHINCTER at the bottom of the stomach.

Small Intestine
Most of digestion and absorption of most nutrients occur in the small intestine, which is
divided into three zones: DUODENUM, JEJUNUM, and ILIUM.

The small intestines are about 6 meters long compared to 1.5 m for large intestine.
The first 25 cm of small intestine, called the DUODENUM, plays a major role in digestion. It
is here that SECRETIONS SENT FROM THE LIVER AND PANCREAS break down fat and
peptides, and secretions of the duodenum itself also break down other nutrients.

The LIVER produces BILE, which is sent to the duodenum via a duct from the GALL
BLADDER (where bile is stored). Bile is a thick green liquid (it gets its green colour from
byproducts of hemoglobin breakdown.
Bile contains emulsifying agents called BILE SALTS which break FAT into FAT
DROPLETS.

The PANCREAS sends pancreatic juice into duodenum through duct. The juice contains
enzymes and sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) which makes the juice basic (pH ~ 8.5). It
neutralizes the acid.

Pancreatic juice contains enzymes including:

1. Pancreatic amylase: digests starch to maltose
2. Trypsin: digests protein to peptides
3. Lipase: digests fat droplets to glycerol & fatty acids

The walls of the duodenum and small intestine are lined with millions of INTERSTITIAL
GLANDS that produce enzymes to finish the digestion of protein and starch.

The interstitial glands produce enzymes:

1. Peptidases: peptides to amino acids.
2. Maltase: maltose to glucose.
3. Lactase: digests lactose the sugar in milk
4. Sucrase: digests sucrose
ABSORPTION of the end products of digestion

The STRUCTURE of the small intestine is well related to its FUNCTION of ABSORPTION.
It is LONG with CONVOLUTED walls specialized to increase surface area. The surface area
is further increased by the presence of finger-like projections called VILLI (a single one is
called a “villus”). Villi themselves are lined with MICROVILLI. Each villi contains blood
vessels and lymph vessels (lacteal). ABSORPTION takes place across the wall of each villus.

Fatty acids and glycerol absorbed across the villi, are recombined into fat molecules in the
epithelial cells of the villi. The fats then move into the LACTEAL of each villus and enter the
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM.
Sugars and amino acids enter the blood through the capillary network.

The blood vessels from the villi in the small intestine merge to form the HEPATIC PORTAL
VEIN which leads to the liver.

Large Intestine
Consists of COLON and RECTUM (the rectum is the last 20 cm of the colon). The opening
of the rectum is called ANUS.
The colon has 3 parts (ascending, transverse, and descending)
REABSORPTION OF WATER from undigested hardens the feces.
Feces also contain bacteria (E. coli) that break down some indigestible food, and in the
process produce some vitamins (K).
Rectum: The rectum stores the feces until evacuation.

Disorders of the Digestive System

Diarrhea: too much water is expelled in the feces.
Constipation: feces are dry, hard, difficult to expel.
Hemorrhoids: are swelling and inflammation of veins in the rectum and anus