CHAPTER 1

SET

OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
1. understand the concept of sets and subsets; and
2. understand the operations on sets such as intersection, union, difference and products.

1.1 CONCEPT OF SET

Definition 1.1: A set is any well-defined collection of objects, called elements or members
of the set.

For example:
a) The collection of all students taking this course
b) The collection of all lecturers at the university
c) The collection of real numbers between zero and one

1.1.1 Listing the elements of sets

There are several ways to describe sets. One way of describing a set that has a finite number of
elements is by listing the elements of the set between braces.

Notation:
A = {elements of set A}
Where A is the name of the set or could be any variable name. Example, B, C, D…

Example 1.1a:
The equation
A = { 1, 2, 3, 4 }
describes a set A made up of the four elements 1, 2, 3, and 4.

A set is determined by its elements and not by any particular order in which the elements might
be listed. Another way in writing the equation above is as follows:
 A = { 1, 4, 3, 2 }
The elements making up a set are assumed to be distinct, and although for some reason we
may duplicate in our list. Only on occurrence of each element is in the set. For this reason we
my also describe the set A defined above as:
A = { 1, 2, 3, 3, 4 }

Table 1.1: Representation of Elements in a Set

Type of elements
Representation Description
in a set

Order A = { 1, 2, 3, 4 } A set is determined by its elements order in

which the elements might be listed.

Unorder A = { 1, 4, 3, 2 } A set is determined by its elements and not

by any particular order in which the elements
might be listed.

Distinct (unequal) A = { 1, 2, 3, 3, 4 } The elements making up a set are assumed

to be distinct, and although for some reason
we may duplicate in our list, only one
occurrence of each element is in the set.

Example 1.1b
The set V of all the vowels in the English alphabet can be written as
V = { a, e, i, o, u }

1.1.2 Specifying Properties of Sets

Sometimes it is inconvenient or impossible to describe a set by listing all its elements. Another
useful way to define a set is by spcifying a property that the elements of set have in common. If
a set is large finite set or an infinite set, we can describe it by listing a property necessary for
membership.

Example 1.1c
The equation
B = { x | x is a positive, even integer }
describes the set B made up of all positive, even integers; that is; B consists of the integer 2, 4,
6, and so on.
The vertical bar “|” is read “such that”. Equation B above can be read “B equals the set of all x
such that x is a positive, even integer”.

1.1.3 Set membership

Given a description of a set X such as (A = { 1, 2, 3, 4 }) or ( ={x | x is a positive, even integer })

and an element x, we can determine whether or not x belongs to X.

If x is a member in set X, we write It as x X. Otherwise, we write it as x X.

If X is a finite set, we let |X| to denote the number of elements in X.

Table 1.2: Symbols Representation

Symbols Description
Is a member/elements
Is not a member/elements

Example 1.1d
Let A = { 1, 3, 6, 9 }. Then 1 ∈ A, 3 ∈ A, but 2 ∉ A.
|A| = 4

Example 1.1e
A is a set consisting of the first 5 positive integers: A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }.
So 1 ∈ A, but 6 ∉ A.

Example 1.1f
For P = { 1, 2, 3, … } is a set of positive integers.

a) A = { 1, 4, 9, 16, 25 }

={ | x ∈ P, < 30 }

={ |x∈P∧ < 30 }

={x∈P| < 30 }

b) B = { 1, 4, 9, …., 64 }

={ | y ∈ P, < 70 }

={ | y ∈ P, < 80 }

={ |y∈P∧ < 65 }

={ ∈P| ≤ 64 }

c) C = { 2, 4. 6, 8, … }
C = { 2m | m ∈ P }

A and B are called finite sets while C is called an infinite set.

Table 1.3: Example of different set type

Set Type Example

A = { 1, 4, 9, 16, 25 }
={ | x ∈ P, < 30 }
={ |x∈P∧ < 30 }
={x∈P| < 30 }

Finite B = { 1, 4, 9, …., 64 }
={ | y ∈ P, < 70 }

={ | y ∈ P, < 80 }

={ |y∈P∧ < 65 }

={ ∈P| ≤ 64 }
 Infinite C = { 2, 4. 6, 8, … }
C = { 2m | m ∈ P }

Note: This symbol “∧” is pronounced as “and”.

1.1.4 Empty set

There is a special set that has no elements. This set is called the empty set or null set, and is
denoted by Ø. The empty set can also be denoted by { } (that is, we represent the empty set
with a pair of braces that encloses all the elements in this set).

Figure 1.1: Representation of an Empty Set

Example 1.1g
The set of all positive integers that are greater than their squares is the null set.

1.1.5 Set of Numbers

The following sets are normally used when dealing with numbers.
Table 1.4: Set of Numbers

Set of Numbers Notation Description

Z+ = { x | x is a positive integer }
Positive integers Z+
Example: 1, 2, 3 …

N = { x | x is a positive integer or zero }

Positive integers or zero N
Example: 0, 1, 2, 3 …
 Z = { x | x is an integer }
Integers Z
Example: … -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 …

Real Numbers R R = { x | x is a real number }

Exercise 1.1

1. Let A = { 1. 2, 4, a, b, c }. Identify each of the following as true or false:

a) 2∈A
b) 3∈A
c) a∉A
d) Ø∈A
e) {}∉A
f) A∈A

2. Let A = { x | x is a real number and x < 6 }. Identify each of the following as true or false:

a) 3∈A
b) 5∉A
c) 6∈A
d) 7∉A
e) -7 ∈ A
f) 2.5 ∉ A

3. In each part, give the set by listing its elements:

a) The set of all positive integers that are less than ten
b) { x | x ∈ Z and x2 < 15 }

4. In each part, write the set in the form { x | p(x)}, where p(x) is a property that describes
the elements of the set:

a) { 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 }
b) { a, e, i, o, u }
c) {1, 4, 9, 16, 25 }
d) {1, 8, 27, 64, 125 }
e) {-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 }
1.2 SET EQUALITY

A set is completely known when its members are all known. Thus we say two sets A and B are
equal if they have the same elements and we write A = B.

Example 1.2a

If A = { 1, 2, 3 } and B = { x | x is a positive integer and < 10 }, then A = B

Example 1.2b
If A = { ADA, BASIC, PASCAL } and B = {PASCAL, BASIC, ADA }, then A = B.

Example 1.2c

If A = { x | + x – 6 = 0 } and B = { 2, -3 }, then A = B.

Proof:

+x–6=0

( x – 2 )( x + 3 ) = 0
( x - 2 ) = 0 or ( x + 3 ) = 0
Therefore, x = 2 or x = -3
Hence A = B
Exercise 1.2

1. Let A = { 1. 2, 3, 4, 5 }. Which of the following sets are equal to A?

a) { 4, 1, 2, 5, 3 }

b) { 2, 3, 4, 5 }

c) { 1. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 }

d) { x | x is an integer and x2 ≤ 25 }

e) { x | x is a positive integer and x ≤ 5 }

f) { x | x is a positive rational number and x ≤ 5 }

2. Which of the following sets are the empty set?

a) { x | x is a real number and x2 – 1 = 0 }

b) { x | x is a real number and x2 + 1 = 0 }

c) { x | x is a real number and x2 = -4 }

d) { x | x is a real number and x = 2x + 1 }

e) { x | x is a real number and x = x + 1 }

3. Determine whether each of the following pairs of sets is equal?

a) { 1, 1, 3, 3, 3, 5, 5, 5, 5 }, { 5, 1, 3 }

b) { { 1 } }, { 1, { 1 }}

c) Ø, { Ø }
1.2 VENN DIAGRAM
Venn diagram provides pictorial views of sets. In a Venn diagram, a rectangle depicts a
universal set. Subsets of the universal set are drawn as circles. The inside of a circle represents
the members of that set.
The idea of Venn diagram was first proposed by a mathematician by the name of John Venn.
In Venn diagrams, the universal set E will normally be denoted by a rectangle, while sets within
E will be denoted by circles as shown below.

E
A
A

Figure 1.2
Subsets of the universal set are drawn as circles. The inside of a circle represents the numbers
of the set. Refer to Figure 1.3.

A B

Figure 1.3
To represent three sets, we use three overlapping circles as below:

E
A

B C

Figure 1.4

1.4 SUBSET

Definition 1.4a: If every element of A is also an element of B, that is if whenever x ∈ A

then x ∈ B, we say that A is a proper subset of B or that A is contained in B, and we write
A B. As A is a subset of itself, therefore we can generally write A ⊆ B. If A is not a
subset of B, we write A ⊄ B.

The Venn diagram below represents the subset for set A and B.

A B

Figure 1.5: Subset for set A and B

Example 1.4a
If C = { 1, 3 } and A = { 1, 2, 3, 4 }
Then C is a subset of A or C ⊆ A
We can present it in a Venn diagram as in Figure 1.6.

E
A

4
2 C
1
3

Figure 1.6: C subset of A

Example 1.4b
Let
A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 },
B = { 2, 4, 5 }, and
C = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }
Then B ⊆ A, B ⊆ C and C ⊆ A
E

A C A
1 1
1 6
B 3 2
3 2
6 2 3
B 4
4 4
5 C
5 5
 B⊆A B⊆C C⊆A

Figure 1.7: Venn Diagram Representation

Any set X is a subset of itself, since any element in X is in X, so X ⊆ X.

The empty set is a subset of any set. So for any set X, Ø ⊆ X.

Definition 1.4b: If X is a subset of any Y and X does not equal Y, we say that X is a proper
subset of Y.

We can define set equality by using the concept of subset, as follows:

Definition 1.4c: Two sets, A and B, is equal and can be written as A = B if

A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A.
Exercise 1.3

1. Let A = {1, 2, 5, 8, 11 }. Identify each of the following as true or false.

a) { 5, 1 } ⊆ A

b) { 8, 1 } ∈ A

c) (1, 8, 2, 11, 5 } ⊄ A

d) Ø⊆A

e) { 1, 6 } ⊄ A

f) {2}⊆A

g) { 3 } ∉A

h) A ⊆ { 11, 2, 5, 1, 8, 4 }

2. In each part, find the set of smallest cardinality that contains the given sets as subsets:

a) { A, b, c }, { a, d, e, f }, { b, c, e, g }

b) { 1, 2 }, ( 1, 3 }, Ø

c) { 1, a }, { b, 2 }

3. Suppose that A = { 2, 4, 6 }, B = { 2, 6 }, C = { 4, 6 } and D = { 4, 6, 8 }. Determine which

of these sets are subsets of which other of these sets.

4. Use a Venn diagram to illustrate the relationship A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C.

5. Suppose that A, B and C are sets such that A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C. Show that A ⊆ C.
1.5 POWER SET
Definition 1.5a: If A is a set, then the set of all subsets of A is called the power set of A
and is denoted by P (A).

Example 1.5a
If A = { a, b, c }, the members of P (A) are
P (A) = { Ø, { a }, { b }, { c }, { a, b }, { a, c }, { b, c }, { a, b, c } }
All but { a, b, c } are proper subset of A. P (A) may also be written as P ({ a, b, c }).

The number of elements in a power set is given by the following theorem:

Theorem 1.5a: If | X | = n, then | P (X) | = 2n

Example 1.5b
If A = { a, b, c }, then
| A | = 3, | P (A) | = 23 = 8

Example 1.5c
The number of P (Ø) = 1 since | Ø | = 0 and | P (Ø) | = 20 = 1
Exercise 1.4

1. Find the power set of each of the following sets:

a) {a}

b) { a, b }

c) { Ø, { Ø } }

2. Can you conclude that A = B if A and B are two sets with the same power set?

3. How many elements does each of the following sets have?

a) P ({ a, b, { a, b } })

b) P ({ Ø, { a, { a }, {{ a }}})

c) P (P (Ø))

4. Determine whether each of the following sets is the power set of a set:

a) Ø

b) { Ø, { a }}

c) { Ø, { a }, { Ø, a }}

d) { Ø, { a }, { b }, { a, b }}