Mechanical Vibrations

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Applications of Vibration

Useful vibration Harmful vibration

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Basic concepts of Vibration

Vibration: Any motion that repeats itself after an interval of time.

eg: Simple Pendulum, spring-mass system

Figure 1: Simple pendulum

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Basic concepts of Vibration
Degrees of Freedom The minimum number of independent coordinates
required to determine completely the positions of all parts of a system at
any instant of time.
Discrete and Continuous systems:

Figure 2: Discrete and Continuous systems

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Classification of Vibration
Free and Forced vibration:

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Classification of Vibration
Free and Forced vibration:
Undamped and Damped Vibration:

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Classification of Vibration
Free and Forced vibration:
Undamped and Damped Vibration:
Linear and Nonlinear vibration:

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Classification of Vibration
Free and Forced vibration:
Undamped and Damped Vibration:
Linear and Nonlinear vibration:
Deterministic and Random Vibration: If the value or magnitude of the
excitation (force or motion) acting on a vibratory system is known at
any given time, the excitation is called deterministic.

Figure 3: Deterministic and Random excitation

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Vibration parameters

Figure 4: Vibration parameters

means to store P.E. (spring or elasticity)

means to store K.E. (mass or inertia)
means by which energy is gradually lost (damper).
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Harmonic motion

Figure 5: Simple Harmonic motion: Scotch-Yoke mechanism.

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Complex Number representation of Harmonic motion

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Complex Number representation of Harmonic motion

−
→
Consider a rotating vector X = Re(Aeiωt )

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Terminology

Cycle
Amplitude
Period of Oscillation
Frequency of Oscillation

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Terminology

Cycle
Amplitude
Period of Oscillation
Frequency of Oscillation

Phase angle

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Terminology

Cycle
Amplitude
Period of Oscillation
Frequency of Oscillation

Phase angle
Natural frequency: If a system, after an initial disturbance, is left to
vibrate on its own, the frequency with which it oscillates without
external forces is known as its natural frequency
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Free Vibration of Single Degree of Freedom system

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Equation of motion of a spring mass system (undamped)

For static equilibrium W = mg = kδst

As per Newton’s second law, mẍ = −k(x + δst ) + W
Since kδst = W,
mẍ + kx = 0
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Assuming x(t) = Cest be a solution for

mẍ + kx = 0 (1)

Substituting x(t) in Eq.1, gives

C(ms2 + k) = 0
Since C cannot be zero,
(ms2 + k) = 0 (2)
and hence ( )
k 1/2
s=± − = ±ωn (3)
m
( )1/2
(1/2) k
where i = (−1) , and ωn = , ωn is the natural frequency Eq.2
m
is called auxiliary or characteristic equation, and the two values of s, are
known as eigen values or characteristics values.

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General solution for Eq.(1)

x(t) = C1 eiωn t + C2 e−iωn t (4)

where C1 , and C2 are constants.
By using identity, e±iαt = cosαt ± isinαt
Eq. 4 can be written as

x(t) = A1 cosωn t + A2 sinωn t (5)

Constants A1 , A2 or C1 , C2 can be found using initial conditions.

Consider the initial condition
x(t = 0) = A1 = x0
ẋ(t = 0) = ωn A2 = x˙0

x˙0
x(t) = x0 cosωn t + sinωn t (6)
ωn

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Eq. 4, 5, 6 are harmonic functions of time. Eq. 5 can be written in
another form by introducing the notation
A1 = Acosϕ, A2 = Asinϕ
where A and ϕ are new constants, which can be expressed in terms of A1 ,
and A2 as
[ ( )2 ](1/2)
2 2 (1/2) 2 x˙0
A = (A1 + A2 ) = x0 + = amplitude
ωn
( ) ( )
−1 A2 −1 x˙0
ϕ = tan = tan
A1 x0 ωn

x(t) = Acos(ωn t − ϕ) (7)

Similarly if we are using A1 = A0 cosϕ0 , A2 = A0 sinϕ0

x(t) = A0 sin(ωn t + ϕ0 ) (8)

[( )2 ](1/2) ( )
2 x˙0 −1 x0 ωn
where A0 = x0 + , ϕ0 = tan
ωn x˙0
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Figure 6: Graphical representation of motion of a harmonic oscillator.

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 Figure 6: Graphical representation of motion of a harmonic oscillator.

Velocity? Acceleration?
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Consider the equation x(t) = Acos(ωn t − ϕ)
If initial displacement
( ) x0 = 0;
x˙0
x(t) = sinωn t
ωn
If initial velocity x˙0 = 0;
x(t) = x0 cosωn t

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Consider the equation x(t) = Acos(ωn t − ϕ)
If initial displacement
( ) x0 = 0;
x˙0
x(t) = sinωn t
ωn
If initial velocity x˙0 = 0;
x(t) = x0 cosωn t
State space or Phase plane:
Response represented in Displacement- velocity plane
x(t) = Acos(ωn t − ϕ); ẋ(t) = −Aωn sin(ωn t − ϕ)

Figure 7: Phase-plane representation of undamped system

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Free vibration with viscous damping

Figure 8: SDOF with damper

Equation of motion:
mẍ = −cẋ − kx
or
mẍ + cẋ + kx = 0 (9)
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Assume a solution of the form:

x(t) = Cest (10)

Substituting in Eq. 9 gives the characteristic equation

ms2 + cs + k = 0 (11)

The roots are

√ √(
−c ± c2 − 4mk c c )2 k
s1,2 = =− ± − (12)
2m 2m 2m m
The general form of solution is
x(t) = C1 es1 t + C2 es2 t
{ √ } { √ }
c c 2 2
− 2m + ( 2m ) − mk t c
− 2m − c
( 2m ) k
−m t
= C1 e + C2 e (13)

C1 , C2 determined from Initial conditions of system.

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Critical Damping ratio (cc ): Value of damping constant (c), for which
the radial in Eq. 12 is zero.
√
k √
cc = 2m = 2 km = 2mωn (14)
m

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Critical Damping ratio (cc ): Value of damping constant (c), for which
the radial in Eq. 12 is zero.
√
k √
cc = 2m = 2 km = 2mωn (14)
m

Damping ratio (ζ): Ratio of damping constant to critical damping

constant.
ζ = c/cc
c c cc
= . = ζωn (15)
2m cc 2m

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 Critical Damping ratio (cc ): Value of damping constant (c), for which
the radial in Eq. 12 is zero.
√
k √
cc = 2m = 2 km = 2mωn (14)
m

Damping ratio (ζ): Ratio of damping constant to critical damping

constant.
ζ = c/cc
c c cc
= . = ζωn (15)
2m cc 2m
Solution can be written as
√ 2 √ 2
x(t) = C1 e−ζ+ (ζ −1)ωn t + C2 e−ζ− (ζ −1)ωn t (16)

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 Critical Damping ratio (cc ): Value of damping constant (c), for which
the radial in Eq. 12 is zero.
√
k √
cc = 2m = 2 km = 2mωn (14)
m

Damping ratio (ζ): Ratio of damping constant to critical damping

constant.
ζ = c/cc
c c cc
= . = ζωn (15)
2m cc 2m
Solution can be written as
√ 2 √ 2
x(t) = C1 e−ζ+ (ζ −1)ωn t + C2 e−ζ− (ζ −1)ωn t (16)

ζ = 0, corresponds to undamped system.

According to the value of ζ ̸= 0, three cases arises.
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Case1: Underdamped system(ζ < 1)

ζ 2 − 1 is negative;
Solution becomes
√ √
x(t) = C1 e−ζ+i (1−ζ )ωn t + C2 e−ζ−i (1−ζ )ωn t
2 2
(17)
{ √ √ }
= e−ζωn t C1 ei 1−ζ ωn t + C2 e−i 1−ζ ωn t
2 2

{ √ √ }
= e−ζωn t (C1 + C2 ) cos 1 − ζ 2 ωn t + i (C1 − C2 ) sin 1 − ζ 2 ωn t
{ √ √ }
= e−ζωn t C1′ cos 1 − ζ 2 ωn t + C2′ sin 1 − ζ 2 ωn t
(√ )
= Xe−ζωn t sin 1 − ζ 2 ωn t + ϕ
(√ )
= X0 e−ζωn t cos 1 − ζ 2 ωn t − ϕ 0
Where the constants (C′1 , C′2 ), (X, ϕ), and (X0 , ϕ0 ),to be determined from
initial conditions

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For initial conditions x(t = 0) = x0 and ẋ(t = 0) = x˙0 ,
x˙0 + ζωn x0
C′1 = x0 and C′2 = √
√( ) 1 − ( )2
ζ 2 ωn
2
X = X0 = C′1 + C′2
ϕ = tan−1 (C′1 /C′2 )
ϕ0 = tan−1 (−C′2 /C′1 )

Frequency of damped
√ vibration(ωd ):
ωd = 1 − ζ 2 ωn
ωd alwayslessthanωn

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Solution becomes
{ }
√ x˙0 + ζω n x0
√
x(t) = e−ζωn t x0 cos 1 − ζ 2 ωn t + √ sin 1 − ζ 2 ωn t (18)
1 − ζ 2 ωn

Figure 9: Underdamped solution

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 Figure 10: Variation of ωd with damping

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Case 2: Critically damped system (ζ = 1)

Two roots are equal

cc
s1 = s2 = − = −ωn (19)
2m
Solution is given by

x(t) = (C1 + C2 t)e−ωn t (20)

For initial conditions x(t = 0) = x0 and ẋ(t = 0) = x˙0 ,
C1 = x0 and C2 = x˙0 + ζωn x0
Solution becomes:

x(t) = [x0 + (x˙0 + ζωn x0 ) t] e−ωn t (21)

Eqn. 21 is nonperiodic (aperiodic).

e−ωn t → 0 as t → ∞, the motion diminish to zero

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Case 3: Overdamped systems (ζ > 1)

(
When roots are real and distinct √ )
S1 = −ζ + ζ 2 − 1 ωn < 0
( √ )
S2 = −ζ − ζ 2 − 1 ωn < 0
Solution becomes:

( √ ) ( √ )
−ζ+ ζ 2 −1 ωn t −ζ+ ζ 2 −1 ωn t
x(t) = C1 e + C2 e (22)

For initial conditions x(t

( = 0) = x0 and
) ẋ(t = 0) = x˙0 ,
√
x0 ωn ζ + ζ − 1 + x˙0
2
C1 = √
(2ω n ζ2 − 1 )
√
−x0 ωn ζ − ζ 2 − 1 − x˙0
C2 = √
2ωn ζ 2 − 1
Eqn. 22 is also aperiodic
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Comparison of three cases

Figure 11: Comparison of motions with different types of damping

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Figure 12: Locus of s1 and s2
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ζ = 0, Img roots
0 < ζ < 1, roots are symmetric about
real axis
ζ approaches 1, roots:−ωn on real axis
ζ > 1, Both in Re axis
ζ = 1, transition between Img and
Real roots
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 Figure 13: Phase plane of a damped system

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Logarthmic Decrement

It represents the rate at which the amplitude of a free damped vibration

decreases.
Defined as the natural logarithm of the ratio of any two successive
amplitudes.
x1 X0 e−ζωn t1 cos (ωd t1 − ϕ0 )
= (23)
x2 X0 e−ζωn t2 cos (ωd t2 − ϕ0 )
since t2 = t1 + τd , where τd = 2pi/ωd , period of damped vibration
x1
= eζωn τd (24)
x2
Logarithmic decrementδ,
x1 2π c
δ = ln = . (25)
x2 ωd 2m

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Experimentally finding ζ

If damping in the given system is unknown.

x1 , and xm+1 denotes the amplitude corresponding to time t1 and
tm+1 = t1 + mτd , where m is an integer.
x1 ( )m
= eζωn τd = emζωn τd (26)
xm+1

1 x1
δ= ln (27)
m xm+1

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