Pump, centrifugal pumps, PD pumps, seals & mechanical seals data

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Here are some quick references you can use

● Introduction to the Tutorials
❍ Selecting an impeller

❍ Selecting a pump

❍ Installing the pump

❍ Modifying your pump for

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❍ Selecting a mechanical seal

● Sealing various fluids

● Troubleshooting pumps and seals
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● Selecting the correct O-ring material

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THE TUTORIALS

NOTE: The blue links do not work on this version of The Tutorials. They only work on the CD
version

In the following section we will be looking at overviews of several pump and seal subjects:

● Centrifugal pump selection.

● Centrifugal pump installation.
● Centrifugal pump modifications you can make to increase the pump's performance.
● Mechanical seal selection.

In these narratives I am attempting to put each of the subjects into perspective. You will use the
narratives for multiple purposes:

● To learn the terms we use for each of these individual subjects.

● To see how the various subjects fit together.
● To find out how much you know about any one of the subjects.
● And you can use the narratives as an outline to teach the subjects to other people.

I suggest that you read the entire narrative and then go back and look up the details of any unfamiliar
words or subjects. Any word or phrase in blue and underlined is a link to a detailed explanation of the
subject. Most of the time I have tried to use the link only for the first mention of the word or phrase;
otherwise the narrative would be full of links.

CENTRIFUGAL PUMP SELECTION. HOW TO PICK THE CORRECT SIZE PUMP FOR
YOUR APPLICATION.

We will begin by deciding what operating conditions our pump has to meet and then we will approach
pump suppliers to see how closely they can satisfy these needs. Unfortunately no comprehensive theory
which would permit the complete hydrodynamic design of a centrifugal pump has evolved in the many
years that pumps have been around, so the pump manufacturer will be doing the best he can with the
information you supply to him.

To clearly define the capacity and pressure needs of our system we will construct a type of graph called
a system curve. This system curve will then be given to the pump suppliers and they will try to match it
with a pump curve that satisfies these needs as closely as possible.

To start the construction of the system curve I will assume you want to pump some fluid from point "A"
to point "B". To do that efficiently you must make a couple of decisions:

● Decide the capacity you will need. This means the gallons per minute or cubic meters per hour.
You must also consider if this capacity will change with the operation of your process. A boiler
feed pump is an example of an application that needs a constant pressure with varying capacities
 to meet a changing steam demand. The demand for boiler water is regulated by opening and
closing a control valve on the discharge side of the pump with a discharge re-circulation line
returning the unneeded portion back to a convenient storage place, or the suction side of the
pump. Remember that with a centrifugal pump if you change its capacity you change the pressure
also. A rotary or positive displacement pump is different. It puts out a constant capacity
regardless of the pressure.
● For other centrifugal pump applications, you are going to have to calculate how much pressure
will be needed to deliver different capacities to the place where you will need them. You will
need enough pressure to :
❍ Reach the maximum static head or height the fluid will have to attain.

❍ Enough discharge pressure to over come any pressure that might be in the vessel where

the fluid is discharging, such as the boiler we just discussed. This is called the pressure
head.
❍ Overcome friction resistance in the lines, fittings and any valves or hardware that might be

in the system. As an example: high-pressure nozzles can be tricky, especially if they clog
up. This resistance is called the friction head.
● Will you need any special materials for the pump components?
❍ The pump manufacturer will try to choose pump metal components that are chemically

compatible with what you are pumping as well as any cleaners or solvents that might be
flushed through the lines. If the temperature of the pumpage changes the corrosion rate
can change also. His choice of materials could have a serious affect on your spare parts
inventory. Will he be selecting universal and easily obtainable materials? Unless you have
a great deal of experience with the product you are pumping do not select the metal
components by using a compatibility chart. Metal selection is a job for metallurgists or
your own experience.
❍ If the product you are pumping is explosive or a fire hazard, you should be looking at non-

sparking materials for the pump components. Do not depend totally upon the pump
manufacturer to make this decision for you. If you are not sure what materials are
compatible with your product, how will the pump man know? Also, keep in mind that
some of the fluids you will be pumping could be proprietary products known only by their
trade name.
❍ Dangerous and radioactive materials will dictate special materials.

❍ Food products require high-density seal and pump materials that are easy to clean.

❍ If there are abrasive solids in the pumpage you will need materials with good wearing

capabilities. Hard surfaces and chemically resistant materials are often incompatible. You
may have to go to some type of coating on the pump wetted parts or select an expensive
duplex metal.
● Occasionally you will find an application where metal is either not compatible or not practical.
There are many monomer and polymer materials available for these applications, but their cost is
generally higher than comparable metal parts. Be aware that if you are using a mechanical seal in
a non-metallic pump, the seal cannot have metal parts in contact with the fluid for the same
reasons the pump was manufactured from non-metallic materials. Use a non-metallic seal in these
applications

Since we are just getting into the subject, one of the first things we should learn is that centrifugal pump
people do not use the word pressure. As mentioned in an earlier paragraph they substitute the word
"head", so you will have to calculate the three kinds of head that will be combined together to give you
the total head of the system required to deliver the needed capacity. Here are the three kinds of head you
will be calculating:

● The static head or maximum height that the liquid will reach. We must also learn how to
compensate for the siphon affect from down running pipes on the discharge side of the pump.
Remember that if you fill a tank from the bottom instead of the top the static head will
continually increase. This is not a good application for a centrifugal pump because the capacity is
decreasing with an increasing head. If you must fill from the bottom, or if you will be using the
pump as an accumulator, a rotary positive displacement pump will be your best choice as long as
it can meet the needed capacities.
● The pressure heads are next if the container we are pumping to, or from, is pressurized. We will
have to learn how to convert pressure units to head units because later on we will need this
conversion knowledge to read the manufacturers pump curve. Pump gages are labeled in psi or
bar. Pump curves are labeled in feet of head, or meters of head.
● The friction head is the last one that we will have to calculate. This head tells us how much
friction or resistance head there is in both the suction and discharge piping, along with the fittings
and valves in the piping system. And to make the job a little tougher this head changes
dramatically as the pump capacity changes.

You will be calculating these heads on both the suction and discharge side of the pump. To get the total
head you will subtract the suction head from the discharge head and that will be the head that the pump
must produce to satisfy the application. It will become obvious in the calculations, but I should mention
here, that if the suction head is a negative number, the suction and discharge heads will be added
together to get the total head. If you subtract a minus number from a positive number you must add the
numbers together. As an example: 4 - (-2) = + 6

The total head of a pump seldom remains static. There are a number of factors that can change the head
of a pump while it is operating, and you should become familiar with most of them.

All of this head information is calculated from piping, valve, and fitting, friction graphs you will find in
the index.This head data will be plotted on a set of coordinates called a system curve. Since we will not
be operating at a single point all of the time we will make the calculations for a range of different
capacities and heads that we might expect to encounter. This range is described as the operating window
we will need to satisfy the application.

Making these calculations is not an exact science because the piping is seldom new, pipe inside
diameters are not exact, and the graphs you will be consulting cannot compensate for corrosion and
solids built up on the piping, valve and fitting walls.

Life is never simple. This is the point where most people start adding in safety factors to compensate for
some of the unknowns. These safety factors will almost always guarantee the selection of an oversized
pump that will run off of its best efficiency point (BEP) most of the time.

The final calculations are then plotted on the system curve that describes what the pump has to do to
satisfy the requirements of the application. You can learn to do all of this by referencing the following
subjects:

● Calculating the total head in metric units

● Calculating the total head in USCS (inch) units
● Making a system curve, S111

The pump manufacturer requires a certain amount of net positive suction head required (NPSHR) to
prevent the pump from cavitating. He shows that number on his pump curve. When you look at the
curve you will also note that the net positive suction head required (NPSHR) increases with any increase
in the pump's capacity.

You will also be calculating the net positive suction head available (NPSHA) to be sure that the pump
you select will not cavitate. Cavitation is caused by cavities or bubbles in the fluid collapsing on the
impeller and volute. In the pump business we recognize several different types of cavitation. :

● Vaporization cavitation.
● Air ingestion cavitation.
● Internal recirculation cavitation.
● Flow turbulence cavitation.
● Vane Passing Syndrome cavitation.

Pump cavitation is recognized in several different ways

● We can hear cavitation because it sounds like the pump is pumping rocks or ball bearings.
● We can see the damage from cavitation on the pump's impeller and volute.
● The operator can sometimes tell if the pump is cavitating because of a reduction in the pump's
capacity.
● The main problem with cavitation is that it shakes and bends the shaft causing both seal and
bearing problems. We call all of this shaking and bending shaft deflection.

Remember that the net positive suction head required (NPSHR) number shown on the pump curve is for
fresh water at 68° Fahrenheit (20°C) and not the fluid or combinations of fluids you will be pumping.

When you make your calculations for net positive suction head available (NPSHA) the formula you will
be using will adjust for the specific gravity of your fluid.

● In some cases you can reduce the NPSH required. This is especially true if you are pumping hot
water or mixed hydrocarbons.
● You may have to install an inducer on the pump, add a booster pump, or go to a double suction
pump design if you do not have enough net positive suction head available (NPSHA)

When the pump supplier has all of this in-exact information in his possession he can then hopefully
select the correct size pump and driver for the job. Since he wants to quote a competitive price he is now
going to make some critical decisions:

He might begin with the type of pump he will recommend:

● If the capacity were going to be very low he would recommend a rotary, or positive displacement
(PD) pump.
● Between 25 and 500 gpm (5 m3 /hr - 115 m3/hr) he will probably select a single stage end suction
centrifugal pump. It all depends upon the supplier. At higher capacities he may go to a double
suction design with a wide impeller, two pumps in parallel or maybe a high-speed pump.
● You might need a high head, low capacity pump. The pump supplier has several options you
should know about.
● Will he recommend a self-priming pump? These pumps remove air from the impeller eye and
suction side of the pump. Some operating conditions dictate the need for a self-priming design. If
you do not have a self-priming pump and you are on intermittent service, will priming become a
problem the next time you start the pump?
● How will the pump be operated?
❍ If the pump is going to run twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week and you are not

going to open and close valves; you will not need a heavy-duty pump. It is easy to select a
pump that will run at its best efficiency point and at the best efficiency point (BEP) there
is very little shaft displacement and vibration.
❍ Intermittent service is the more difficult application because of changing temperatures,

vibration levels, thrust direction, etc. Intermittent pumps require a more robust, heavy-
duty design with a low L3/D4 shaft.
● How important is efficiency in your application? High efficiency is desirable, but you pay a price
for efficiency in higher maintenance costs and a limited operating window. You should be
looking for performance, reliability, and efficiency in that order. Too often the engineer specifies
efficiency and loses the other two. The following designs solve some operation and maintenance
problems, but their efficiency is lower than conventional centrifugal pumps.
❍ A magnetic drive or canned pump may be your best choice if you can live with the several

limitations they impose.

❍ A vortex or slurry pump design may be needed if there are lot of solids or "stringy"

material in the pumpage.

❍ A double volute centrifugal pump can eliminate many of the seal problems we experience

when we operate off the pump's best efficiency point. The problem is trying to find a
supplier that will supply one for your application. Although readily available for impellers
larger than 14 inches (355 mm) in diameter they have become very scarce in the smaller
diameters because of their less efficient design.
● The supplier should recommend a centerline design to avoid the problems caused by thermal
expansion of the wet end if you are operating at temperatures over 200°F (100°C)?
● Will you need a volute or circular casing? Volute casings build a higher head; circular casing are
used for low head and high capacity.
● Do you need a pump that meets a standard? ANSI, API, DIN, VDMA or ISO are some of the
current standards. You should be aware of pump standards problems that contribute to premature
 seal and bearing failures. An ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standard back
pullout design pump has many advantages but presents problems with mechanical seals when the
impeller clearance is adjusted, unless you are purchasing cartridge seals.
● The decision to use either a single or multistage pump will be determined by the head the pump
must produce to meet the capacities you need. Some suppliers like to recommend a high speed
small pump to be competitive, other suppliers might recommend a more expensive low speed
large pump to lessen NPSH and wear problems.

There are additional decisions that have to be made about the type of pump the supplier will recommend:

● Will the pump be supplied with a mechanical seal or packing? If the stuffing box is at negative
pressure (vacuum) a seal will be necessary to prevent air ingestion.
● If he is going to supply a mechanical seal will he also supply an oversized stuffing box and any
environmental controls that might be needed?
● Will he specify a jacketed stuffing box so that the temperature of the sealed fluid can be
regulated? How does he intend to control the stuffing box temperature? Will he be using water,
steam or maybe a combination of both? Electric heating is sometimes an option.
● How will the open or semi-open impeller be adjusted to the volute casing or back plate? Can the
mechanical seal face loading be adjusted at the same time? If not, the seal face load will change
and the seal life will be shortened.
● If the pump is going to be supplied with a closed impeller you should have some means of
knowing when the wear rings have to be replaced. If the wear ring clearance becomes too large
the pumps efficiency will be lowered causing heat and vibration problems. Most manufacturers
require that you disassemble the pump to check the wear ring clearance and replace the rings
when this clearance doubles.
● Will he supply a "C" or "D" frame adapter, or will the pump to motor alignment have to be done
manually using dual indicators or a laser aligner to get the readings? A closed-coupled design can
eliminate the need for an alignment between the pump and driver.
● What type of coupling will he select to connect the pump to its driver? Couplings can compensate
for axial growth of the shaft and transmit torque to the impeller. They cannot compensate for
pump to driver misalignment as much as we would like them to. Universal joints are especially
bad because they have to be misaligned to be lubricated.
● He may decide to run two pumps in parallel operation if he needs a real high capacity, or two
pumps in series operation if he needs a high head. Pumps that run in parallel or series require that
they are running at the same speed. This can be a problem for some induction motors..
● An inline pump design can solve many pipe strain and thermal growth problems.
● The pump supplier must insure that the pump will not be operating at a critical speed or passing
through a critical speed at start up. If he has decided to use a variable speed drive or motor this
becomes a possibility.
● We all want pumps with a low net positive suction head required to prevent cavitation problems
but sometimes it is not practical. The manufacturer has the option of installing an inducer or
altering the pump design to lower the net positive suction head required, but if he goes too far all
of the internal clearances will have to be perfect to prevent cavitation problems. This
modification of the impeller to get the low net positive suction head required (NPSHR) and its
affects will be explained when you learn about suction specific speed.
 ● The difference between specific speed and suction specific speed can be confusing but you
should know the difference.
● Shaft speed is an important decision. Speed affects pump component wear and NPSH
requirements, along with the head, capacity, and the pump size. High speed pumps cost less
initially, but the maintenance costs can be staggering. Speed is especially critical if you are going
to be specifying a slurry pump.
● The ratio of the shaft diameter to its length is called the shaft L3/D4number. This ratio will have a
major affect on the operating window of the pump and its inital cost. The lower the number the
better, but any thing below 60 (2 in the metric system) is acceptable when you are using
mechanical seals. A low L3/D4 can be costly in a standard long shaft pump design because it
dictates a large diameter shaft that is usually found only on expensive heavy-duty pumps. A short
shaft with a smaller outside diameter would accomplish the same goal, but then the pump would
no longer conform to the ANSI or ISO standard. We often run into L3/D4problems when you
specify, or the pump supplier sells you a low cost, corrosion resistant sleeve, mounted on a steel
shaft rather than a more expensive solid, corrosion resistant shaft.

There are multiple decisions to be made about the impeller selection and not all pump suppliers are
qualified to make them:

● The impeller shape or specific speed number will dictate the shape of the pump curve, the NPSH
required and influence the efficiency of the pump.
● Has the impeller configuration been iterated in recent years? Impeller design is improving with
some of the newer computer programs that have become available to the design engineer.
● The suction specific speed number of the impeller will often predict if you are going to
experience a cavitation problem.
● The impeller material must be chosen for both chemical compatibility and wear resistance. You
should consider one of the duplex metals because most corrosion resistant materials are too soft
for the demands of a pump impeller.
● The decision to use a closed impeller, open impeller, semi-open, or vortex design is another
decision to be made.
● Closed impellers require wear rings and these wear rings present another maintenance problem.
● Open and semi-open impellers are less likely to clog, but need manual adjustment to the volute or
back-plate to get the proper impeller setting and prevent internal recirculation.
● Vortex pump impellers are great for solids and "stringy" materials but they are up to 50% less
efficient than conventional designs.
● Investment cast impellers are usually superior to sand cast versions because you can cast
compound curves with the investment casting process. The compound curve allows the impeller
to pump abrasive fluids with less vane wear.
● If you are going to pump low specific gravity fluids with an open impeller, a non-sparking type
metal may be needed to prevent a fire or explosion. You will be better off choosing a closed
impeller design with soft wear rings in these applications.
● The affinity laws will predict the affect of changing the impeller speed or diameter. You will
want to be familiar with these laws for both centrifugal and PD pumps..
Either you or the supplier must select the correct size electric motor, or some other type of driver for the
pump. The decision will be dictated by the specific gravity of the liquid you will be pumping along with
the specific gravity of any cleaners or solvents that might be flushed through the lines. The selection will
also be influenced by how far you will venture off the best efficiency point (BEP) on the capacity side of
the pump curve. If this number is under-estimated there is a danger of burning out some electric motors.

● How are you going to vary the pump's capacity? Are you going to open and close a valve or
maybe you will be using a variable speed drive like a gasoline or diesel engine. Will the
regulating valve open and close automatically like a boiler feed valve or will it be operated
manually? The variable speed motor might be an alternative if the major part of the system head
is friction head rather than static or pressure head.
● The viscosity of the fluid is another consideration because it will affect the head, capacity,
efficiency and power requirement of the pump. You should know about viscosity and how the
viscosity of the pumpage will affect the performance of the pump. There are some viscosity
corrections you should make to the pump curve when you pump viscous fluids.
● After carefully considering all of the above, the pump supplier will select a pump type and size,
present his quote and give you a copy of his pump curve. Hopefully you will be getting his best
pump technology. To be sure that is true you should know what the best pumping technology is.
● At this stage it is important for you to be able to read the pump curve. To do that you must
understand:
❍ Efficiency

❍ Best efficiency point (BEP)

❍ Shut off head.

❍ How to convert pressure to head so you can reference pump gage readings to the pump

curve. When you learn the three formulas you will get the conversion information.
❍ Brake horsepower (BHP)

❍ Water horsepower (WHP)

❍ Capacity

❍ Net positive suction head required (NPSHR)

❍ How to calculate the net positive suction head available (NPSHA) to the pump to insure

you will not have a cavitation problem.

If all of the above decisions were made correctly the pump supplier will place his pump curve on top of
your system curve and the required operating window will fall within the pump's operating window on
either side of the best efficiency point (BEP). Additionally, the motor will not overheat and the pump
should not cavitate.

If the decisions were made incorrectly the pump will operate where the pump and system curves
intersect and that will not be close to, or at the best efficiency point, producing radial impeller loading
problems that will cause shaft deflection, resulting in premature seal and bearing failures. Needless to
say the motor or driver will be adversely affected also.

With few exceptions pump manufacturers are generally not involved in mechanical sealing. You will
probably be contacting separate seal suppliers for their recommendation about the mechanical seal.
Recent mergers between pump and seal companies unfortunately does not produce the instant expertise
we would like sales and service people to posses.

CENTRIFUGAL PUMP INSTALLATION

Some one has to install the pump and all of its associated hardware. The quality of this pump and driver
installation will have a major affect on the performance and reliability of the pump, especially if it is
equipped with a mechanical seal.

The pump will be installed on a baseplate. The baseplate will be attached to a foundation and grout will
be placed between the baseplate and the foundation to transmit any vibrations from the pump to the
foundation.

Once the pump and driver are firmly on the foundation it will be time to connect the piping. Be sure to
pipe from the pump to the pipe rack and not the other way, so as to avoid pipe strain that will interfere
with the operation of the mechanical seal and bearings.

There are many piping recommendations that you should be familiar with. The leveling, and pump to
driver alignment can be made at this point, but you should check the alignment after the pump has come
up to its operating temperature because metal parts expand and contract with a change in temperature.

If this is a new piping system some people like to install packing in the pump and run on packing until
the new piping has been cleaned of slag or any junk that might be left in the piping system. If it is not a
new installation, and there is a mechanical seal in the stuffing box, then installing the mechanical seal
environmental controls will come next.

If the pump has an open or semi-open impeller it is time to make the initial impeller clearance setting.
The final clearance can be set when the pump comes up to its operating temperature. It is important to
note that if you do not have a cartridge seal installed in the pump the seal face loading will change as
you make both the initial and subsequent impeller settings and there is nothing you can do about it.

You will now want to do a proper venting of the pump. If it is a vertical installation you will have to pay
particular attention to keeping air vented from the stuffing box while the pump is running and be sure to
vent the space between dual seals if they have been installed.

After you have done all of the above, it is time to check out the mechanical seal environmental controls
to be sure they are working properly. In most cases the environmental control will continue to run after
the pump has stopped. Be sure the operators understand this or they might be tempted to shut the control
off when the pump is between batches. Seal quench is always a problem with operators because the
steam or water dripping out of the seal gland looks like the seal is leaking.

A constant monitoring of the pump is a good idea. Are you familiar with some of the more popular
monitoring methods? Unlike vibration analysis, monitoring can tell you if some part of the pump is
getting into trouble before the vibration starts.
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP MODIFICATION

If you find that your present centrifugal pump is not satisfying the application and running as trouble
free as you would like, and you have checked:

● All of the internal tolerances are correct.

● There is no excessive pipe strain.
● The open impeller has been adjusted to the volute or backplate after the pump came up to
operating temperature.
● The pump to driver alignment was made.
● The rotating parts were dynamically balanced.
● The wear ring clearance is within manufacturers specifications.
● The pump is running at the correct speed, in the right direction, with the correct size impeller.

Then you may have to purchase a different centrifugal pump or you might want to consider modifying
the existing pump to get the performance and reliability you are looking for.

Here are a few modifications and pump upgrades you can consider:

● Modifying the impeller diameter could get you closer to the best efficiency point. The affinity
laws will predict the affect the trimming will have on the pump's head; capacity, net positive
suction head required (NPSHR), and horsepower requirement.
● Converting to an impeller with a different specific speed number will change the shape of the
pump curve, power consumption and the NPSH required.
● Changing to a heavy-duty power end can stop a lot of shaft deflection, and with some pump
manufacturers get you the pilot diameter you need to install a "C or D" frame adapter to eliminate
pump alignment.
● Converting from a sleeved to a solid, corrosion resistant shaft will often reduce or stop shaft
deflection problems caused by operating off the best efficiency point (BEP). If you are using
mechanical seals be sure that you are using the type that prevents fretting corrosion. Most
original equipment manufactured (OEM) seals damage shafts, and that is one of the main reasons
they supply a sacrificial sleeve.
● Reducing the overhung shaft length can solve many shaft deflection problems. You should be
able to get the L3/D4 number down to a desirable 15-20 (0,5 &endash; 0,6 metric) by either
reducing the shaft length or increasing the shaft diameter.
● Changing the wet end to a double volute configuration will allow the pump to operate in a larger
window without the danger of deflecting the shaft too much.
● You can drill a hole in the end of the stuffing box, at the top, to increase stuffing box venting.
● Change the flushing or recirculation connection from the top lantern ring connection to the
bottom of the stuffing box to insure a better fluid flow through the stuffing box. Try to get close
to the seal faces.
● Enlarging the inside diameter of the stuffing box or going to an oversize stuffing box can solve
some persistent seal problems.
● Converting the wet end of the pump to a centerline design might solve some pipe strain problems
 by compensating for radial thermal growth.
● Increasing the impeller to cutwater clearance could stop a cavitation problem
● Installing a sight glass in the bearing case can help you maintain the correct oil level and prevent
overheating problems in the bearings.
● Replacing the bearing case grease or lip seals with either labyrinth or positive face seals for
bearings will keep moisture out of the bearing case and eliminate a lot of premature bearing
failure.
● Converting the radial bearing retention snap ring to a more rugged holding device will eliminate
many of he problems associated with axial movement of the shaft.
● Converting the packed pump to a good mechanical seal will reduce power consumption and
product leakage.
● Converting solid mechanical seals to split mechanical seals can reduce the time it takes to change
seals and eliminate the need for other trades to become involved in the process of disassembling a
pump and bringing it into the shop.

MECHANICAL SEAL SELECTION

● In the following pages I will be using the word "pump" to describe the piece of equipment that
you will be sealing. If your equipment is anything other than a single stage centrifugal pump with
an over hung impeller, the information still applies with a couple of exceptions:
❍ Mixers, agitators and similar pieces of equipment sometimes have severe axial thrust and

shaft deflection problems due to their high L3/D4 numbers (The ratio of the shaft length to
its diameter).
❍ Sleeve or journal bearing equipment allows more axial movement of the shaft than those

pieces of equipment provided with precision bearings. Axial movement is a problem for
mechanical seals because of the changing face load; especially at start up when the axial
thrust reverses in a centrifugal pump.
❍ Open impeller pumps require impeller adjustment that could cause excessive axial

movement of the shaft that will affect the seal face loading. Depending upon the severity
of the abrasives being pumped, this could be a frequent occurrence.
❍ Multi-stage pumps are seldom as sensitive to operating off the best efficiency point (BEP)

as single stage centrifugal pumps. The opposing cutwaters in these pumps tend to cancel
out the radial forces created when the pump is operating off of its best efficiency point
(BEP).
❍ Centrifugal pumps equipped with double volutes are not too sensitive to operating off the

best efficiency point (BEP), but do experience all of the other types of shaft deflection.
❍ Specialized equipment such as a refiner in a paper mill will experience a great deal of

axial travel as the internal clearances are adjusted.

Whenever I use the word fluid, I am talking about either a liquid or a gas. If I say either liquid or gas, I
am limiting my discussion to that one phase of the fluid.

Any discussion of mechanical face seals requires that you have many different types of knowledge. The
first is, "should you be converting packed pumps to a mechanical seal?" Seals cost a lot more money
than conventional packing and unless you are using split seals, they can be a lot more difficult to install.
There is a packing conversion down side.

Assuming you have made the decision that the mechanical seal is your best choice for sealing, you must
know how to select the correct design for your application. There are many different kinds of seals to
choose from:

● Rotating seals where the springs or bellows rotate with the shaft.
● Stationary seals where the springs or bellows do not rotate with the shaft.
● Metal bellows seals used to eliminate elastomers that can have trouble with temperature extremes
or fluid compatibility.
● Elastomer type seals utilizing O-rings and other shape elastomers.
● Single seals for most applications.
● Dual seal designs for dangerous and expensive products or any time back up protection is needed.
● Inside mounted designs that take advantage of centrifugal force to throw solids away from the
lapped seal faces.
● Outside seals. Usually the non-metallic variety for pumps manufactured from non-metallic
materials.
● Cartridge seals to ease installation and allow you to make impeller adjustments without
disturbing the seal face loading.
● Split seal designs that allow you to install and change seals without taking the pump apart and
disturbing the alignment.
● Hydrodynamic or non-contacting seals used for the sealing of gases.
● Hydrostatic designs are another version of non-contacting vapor seals.

There are some very desirable design features that you should specify for your mechanical seals:

● The ability to seal fugitive emissions without the use of dual seals, other than having the dual seal
installed as a "back-up" or spare seal.
● Will the seal dynamic elastomer damage or cause fretting corrosion of the pump shaft? Almost
all-original equipment designs do. Spring-loaded Teflon® and graphite are notorious for shaft
destruction. There are many seal designs available that will not cause fretting corrosion or
damage shafts and sleeves, and that is the kind you should be using.
● The seal should have built in non-clogging features such as springs out of the fluid.
● The seal should be able to compensate for a reasonable amount of both radial and axial
movement of the shaft. There are special mixer seal designs that can compensate for axial and
radial travel in excess of 0.125 inches (3 mm) and you should know about them
● The seal should be designed to be positioned as close to the bearings as possible to lessen the
affects of shaft deflection. Ideally the seal would be located between the stuffing box face and the
bearing case with a large diameter seal gland allowing plenty of internal radial clearance for the
seal.
● The seal should generate only a small amount of heat. Seal face heat generation can be a problem
with many fluids and there is no advantage in letting the seal faces, or the fluid surrounding them
get hot
❍ Any heat generation between the seal faces should be efficiently removed by conduction
 away from the lapped faces and dynamic elastomer. Check to see if your design does it
efficiently.
● Any dynamic elastomer (an O-ring is typical) should have the ability to flex and then roll, or slide
to a clean surface as the carbon face wears.
● The seal face load should be adjustable to compensate for open impeller adjustments and axial
growth of the shaft. Cartridge seals do this very well.
● Can you use universal materials to lower your inventory costs and avoid mix-up problems? All of
the seal materials should be clearly identified by type and grade. You will need this information
if you have to analyze a premature seal failure. Some seal companies try to make everything a
secret, do not tolerate it!
● Will the seals be hydraulically balanced to prevent the generation of unwanted heat between the
lapped faces? What is the percentage of balance? If you are using dual seals will the inner seal be
a double balanced seal that is hydraulically balanced in both directions? Pressures can reverse in
dual seal applications.
● You will want to become familiar with the effects of heat on:
❍ The seal faces, especially the carbon and plated or coated hard faces

❍ The elastomers, especially the dynamic elastomer

❍ Excessive corrosion of the seal components.

❍ The product. It can change with heat. It can vaporize, solidify, crystallize, coke or build a

film with an increase in the product's temperature.

❍ Internal tolerances of the seal especially face flatness and elastomer squeeze. Heat causes

thermal growth of these components that will alter their critical tolerances.

We would like to be able to install the seal without having to modify the pump. The seal should be the
shortest, thinnest design that will satisfy all of the operating conditions. Once you have the shortest,
thinnest design that will satisfy the operating conditions there is seldom a need to modify any seal design.

The specific sealing application will dictate which seal design you should choose. If your seal
application falls within the following parameters any stationary or rotating, "off the shelf" balanced O-
ring seal should be able to handle the application without any serious problems.

● Stuffing box pressures from a one Torr vacuum to 400 psi. (28 bar). Note that stuffing box
pressure is normally closer to suction than discharge pressure
● Stuffing box temperature from -40°F to 400°F. (-40°C to 200°C)
● Shaft speed within electric motor speeds. If the surface speed at the seal faces exceeds 5000 fpm.
(25 m/sec) you will have to select the stationary version of the seal.
● Shaft sizes from 1 inch to 4 inches. (25 mm to 100 mm)

You may have to go to a special seal design if your application falls into any of the following categories:

● Stuffing box pressures in excess of 400 psi. (28 bar) require heavy duty seals.
● Excessive shaft movement of the type you find in mixers, agitators, and some types of sleeve or
journal bearing equipment.
● The seal must meet fugitive emission standards.
● No metal parts are allowed in the system. You need a non-metallic seal.
 ● Nothing black is allowed in the system because of a fear of color contamination. You cannot use
any form of carbon face; you must use two hard faces.
● There is not enough room to install a standard seal.
● You are not allowed to use an environmental control or no environmental control is available.
● Odd shaft sizes often dictate special seals.
● If the seal components must be manufactured from an exotic metal.

If any of the following are part of the application, you may need a metal bellows design that eliminates
all elastomers.

● You are sealing a non-petroleum fluid and the stuffing box temperature exceeds 400°F (200°C)
Petroleum fluids have coking problems that require cooling in the seal area.
● Cryogenic temperatures.

You should go to a dual seal application if your product falls into any of the following categories:

● You need two seals to control the seal environment outside the stuffing box.
● To control the temperature at a seal face to stop a product from vaporizing, solidifying,
crystallizing, or building a film.
● To prevent a pressure drop across a seal face that can cause a liquid to vaporize.
● To eliminate atmospheric conditions outboard of a mechanical seal when there is a possibility of
freezing water vapor in the air.
● To break down the pressure in a high-pressure application, by inserting an intermediate pressure
between the seals. Two lower pressure seals can then be used to seal a high-pressure fluid that
would normally require a very expensive high-pressure mechanical seal.
● To provide a lubricant if one is needed to prevent slip stick between lapped seal faces. This is
always a problem when you are sealing a gas or non-lubricating liquid.

You need dual seals as a protection for personnel in the area if your product is any of the following
categories:

● A toxic liquid or gas.

● A fire hazard
● A pollutant
● A carcinogen
● A radioactive fluid
● An explosive fluid
● Etc.

The other places we use dual seals are:

● Expensive products that are too valuable to let leak.

● You cannot afford to be shut down in the middle of a batch operation.
● You do not have a standby pump and experience shows that the seal failure is your highest
probability of an unexpected shut down.
In the Sealing Application section you will learn:

● How to choose the correct seal materials.

● How to classify the fluid into specific sealing categories
● The environmental controls you might need to insure the seal will not fail prematurely.

Link to Mc Nally home page

IMPELLER SELECTION

NOTE: The blue links do not work on this version of the tutorials. They only work on the CD
version

There are multiple decisions to be made about the impeller selection and not all pump suppliers are
qualified to make them:

● The impeller shape or specific speed number will dictate the shape of the pump curve, the NPSH
required and influence the efficiency of the pump.
● Has the impeller configuration been iterated in recent years? Impeller design is improving with
some of the newer computer programs that have become available to the design engineer.
● The suction specific speed number of the impeller will often predict if you are going to
experience a cavitation problem.
● The impeller material must be chosen for both chemical compatibility and wear resistance. You
should consider one of the duplex metals because most corrosion resistant materials are too soft
for the demands of a pump impeller.
● The decision to use a closed impeller, open impeller, semi-open, or vortex design is another
decision to be made.
● Closed impellers require wear rings and these wear rings present another maintenance problem.
● Open and semi-open impellers are less likely to clog, but need manual adjustment to the volute or
back-plate to get the proper impeller setting and prevent internal recirculation.
● Vortex pump impellers are great for solids and "stringy" materials but they are up to 50% less
efficient than conventional designs.
● Investment cast impellers are usually superior to sand cast versions because you can cast
compound curves with the investment casting process. The compound curve allows the impeller
to pump abrasive fluids with less vane wear.
● If you are going to pump low specific gravity fluids with an open impeller, a non-sparking type
metal may be needed to prevent a fire or explosion. You will be better off choosing a closed
impeller design with soft wear rings in these applications.
● The affinity laws will predict the affect of changing the impeller speed or diameter. You will
want to be familiar with these laws for both centrifugal and PD pumps.

Link to Mc Nally home page

CENTRIFUGAL PUMP SELECTION. HOW TO PICK THE CORRECT SIZE PUMP FOR
YOUR APPLICATION.

NOTE: The blue links do not work on this version of the tutorials. . They only work on the CD
version

We will begin by deciding what operating conditions our pump has to meet and then we will approach
pump suppliers to see how closely they can satisfy these needs. Unfortunately no comprehensive theory
which would permit the complete hydrodynamic design of a centrifugal pump has evolved in the many
years that pumps have been around, so the pump manufacturer will be doing the best he can with the
information you supply to him.

To clearly define the capacity and pressure needs of our system we will construct a type of graph called
a system curve. This system curve will then be given to the pump suppliers and they will try to match it
with a pump curve that satisfies these needs as closely as possible.

To start the construction of the system curve I will assume you want to pump some fluid from point "A"
to point "B". To do that efficiently you must make a couple of decisions:

● Decide the capacity you will need. This means the gallons per minute or cubic meters per hour.
You must also consider if this capacity will change with the operation of your process. A boiler
feed pump is an example of an application that needs a constant pressure with varying capacities
to meet a changing steam demand. The demand for boiler water is regulated by opening and
closing a control valve on the discharge side of the pump with a discharge re-circulation line
returning the unneeded portion back to a convenient storage place, or the suction side of the
pump. Remember that with a centrifugal pump if you change its capacity you change the pressure
also. A rotary or positive displacement pump is different. It puts out a constant capacity
regardless of the pressure.
● For other centrifugal pump applications, you are going to have to calculate how much pressure
will be needed to deliver different capacities to the place where you will need them. You will
need enough pressure to :
❍ Reach the maximum static head or height the fluid will have to attain.

❍ Over come any pressure that might be in the vessel where the fluid is discharging, such as

the boiler we just discussed. This is called the pressure head.

❍ Overcome friction resistance in the lines, fittings and any valves or hardware that might be

in the system. As an example: high-pressure nozzles can be tricky, especially if they clog
up. This resistance is called the friction head.
● Will you need any special materials for the pump components?
❍ The pump manufacturer will try to choose pump metal components that are chemically

compatible with what you are pumping as well as any cleaners or solvents that might be
flushed through the lines. If the temperature of the pumpage changes the corrosion rate
can change also. His choice of materials could have a serious affect on your spare parts
inventory. Will he be selecting universal and easily obtainable materials? Unless you have
a great deal of experience with the product you are pumping do not select the metal
 components by using a compatibility chart. Metal selection is a job for metallurgists or
your own experience.
❍ If the product you are pumping is explosive or a fire hazard, you should be looking at non-

sparking materials for the pump components. Do not depend totally upon the pump
manufacturer to make this decision for you. If you are not sure what materials are
compatible with your product, how will the pump man know? Also, keep in mind that
some of the fluids you will be pumping could be proprietary products known only by their
trade name.
❍ Dangerous and radioactive materials will dictate special materials.

❍ Food products require high-density seal and pump materials that are easy to clean.

❍ If there are abrasive solids in the pumpage you will need materials with good wearing

capabilities. Hard surfaces and chemically resistant materials are often incompatible. You
may have to go to some type of coating on the pump wetted parts or select an expensive
duplex metal.
● Occasionally you will find an application where metal is either not compatible or not practical.
There are many monomer and polymer materials available for these applications, but their cost is
generally higher than comparable metal parts. Be aware that if you are using a mechanical seal in
a non-metallic pump, the seal cannot have metal parts in contact with the fluid for the same
reasons the pump was manufactured from non-metallic materials. Use a non-metallic seal in these
applications

Since we are just getting into the subject, one of the first things we should learn is that centrifugal pump
people do not use the word pressure. As mentioned in an earlier paragraph they substitute the word
"head", so you will have to calculate the three kinds of head that will be combined together to give you
the total head of the system required to deliver the needed capacity. Here are the three kinds of head you
will be calculating:

● The static head or maximum height that the liquid will reach. We must also learn how to
compensate for the siphon affect from down running pipes on the discharge side of the pump.
Remember that if you fill a tank from the bottom instead of the top the static head will
continually increase. This is not a good application for a centrifugal pump because the capacity is
decreasing with an increasing head. If you must fill from the bottom, or if you will be using the
pump as an accumulator, a rotary positive displacement pump will be your best choice as long as
it can meet the needed capacities.
● The pressure heads are next if the container we are pumping to, or from, is pressurized. We will
have to learn how to convert pressure units to head units because later on we will need this
conversion knowledge to read the manufacturers pump curve. Pump gages are labeled in psi or
bar. Pump curves are labeled in feet of head, or meters of head.
● The friction head is the last one that we will have to calculate. This head tells us how much
friction or resistance head there is in both the suction and discharge piping, along with the fittings
and valves in the piping system. And to make the job a little tougher this head changes
dramatically as the pump capacity changes.

You will be calculating these heads on both the suction and discharge side of the pump. To get the total
head you will subtract the suction head from the discharge head and that will be the head that the pump
must produce to satisfy the application. It will become obvious in the calculations, but I should mention
here, that if the suction head is a negative number, the suction and discharge heads will be added
together to get the total head. If you subtract a minus number from a positive number you must add the
numbers together. As an example: 4 - (-2) = + 6

The total head of a pump seldom remains static. There are a number of factors that can change the head
of a pump while it is operating, and you should become familiar with most of them.

All of this head information is calculated from piping, valve, and fitting, friction graphs you will find in
the index.This head data will be plotted on a set of coordinates called a system curve. Since we will not
be operating at a single point all of the time we will make the calculations for a range of different
capacities and heads that we might expect to encounter. This range is described as the operating window
we will need to satisfy the application.

Making these calculations is not an exact science because the piping is seldom new, pipe inside
diameters are not exact, and the graphs you will be consulting cannot compensate for corrosion and
solids built up on the piping, valve and fitting walls.

Life is never simple. This is the point where most people start adding in safety factors to compensate for
some of the unknowns. These safety factors will almost always guarantee the selection of an oversized
pump that will run off of its best efficiency point (BEP) most of the time.

The final calculations are then plotted on the system curve that describes what the pump has to do to
satisfy the requirements of the application. You can learn to do all of this by referencing the following
subjects:

● Calculating the total head in metric units

● Calculating the total head in USCS (inch) units
● Making a system curve, S111

The pump manufacturer requires a certain amount of net positive suction head required (NPSHR) to
prevent the pump from cavitating. He shows that number on his pump curve. When you look at the
curve you will also note that the net positive suction head required (NPSHR) increases with any increase
in the pump's capacity.

You will also be calculating the net positive suction head available (NPSHA) to be sure that the pump
you select will not cavitate. Cavitation is caused by cavities or bubbles in the fluid collapsing on the
impeller and volute. In the pump business we recognize several different types of cavitation. :

● Vaporization cavitation.
● Air ingestion cavitation.
● Internal recirculation cavitation.
● Flow turbulence cavitation.
 ● Vane Passing Syndrome cavitation.

Pump cavitation is recognized in several different ways

● We can hear cavitation because it sounds like the pump is pumping rocks or ball bearings.
● We can see the damage from cavitation on the pump's impeller and volute.
● The operator can sometimes tell if the pump is cavitating because of a reduction in the pump's
capacity.
● The main problem with cavitation is that it shakes and bends the shaft causing both seal and
bearing problems. We call all of this shaking and bending shaft deflection.

Remember that the net positive suction head required (NPSHR) number shown on the pump curve is for
fresh water at 68° Fahrenheit (20°C) and not the fluid or combinations of fluids you will be pumping.

When you make your calculations for net positive suction head available (NPSHA) the formula you will
be using will adjust for the specific gravity of your fluid.

● In some cases you can reduce the NPSH required. This is especially true if you are pumping hot
water or mixed hydrocarbons.
● You may have to install an inducer on the pump, add a booster pump, or go to a double suction
pump design if you do not have enough net positive suction head available (NPSHA)

When the pump supplier has all of this in-exact information in his possession he can then hopefully
select the correct size pump and driver for the job. Since he wants to quote a competitive price he is now
going to make some critical decisions:

He might begin with the type of pump he will recommend:

● If the capacity were going to be very low he would recommend a rotary, or positive displacement
(PD) pump.
● Between 25 and 500 gpm (5 m3 /hr - 115 m3/hr) he will probably select a single stage end suction
centrifugal pump. It all depends upon the supplier. At higher capacities he may go to a double
suction design with a wide impeller, two pumps in parallel or maybe a high-speed pump.
● You might need a high head, low capacity pump. The pump supplier has several options you
should know about.
● Will he recommend a self-priming pump? These pumps remove air from the impeller eye and
suction side of the pump. Some operating conditions dictate the need for a self-priming design. If
you do not have a self-priming pump and you are on intermittent service, will priming become a
problem the next time you start the pump?
● How will the pump be operated?
❍ If the pump is going to run twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week and you are not

going to open and close valves; you will not need a heavy-duty pump. It is easy to select a
pump that will run at its best efficiency point and at the best efficiency point (BEP) there
is very little shaft displacement and vibration.
 ❍ Intermittent service is the more difficult application because of changing temperatures,
vibration levels, thrust direction, etc. Intermittent pumps require a more robust, heavy-
duty design with a low L3/D4 shaft.
● How important is efficiency in your application? High efficiency is desirable, but you pay a price
for efficiency in higher maintenance costs and a limited operating window. You should be
looking for performance, reliability, and efficiency in that order. Too often the engineer specifies
efficiency and loses the other two. The following designs solve some operation and maintenance
problems, but their efficiency is lower than conventional centrifugal pumps.
❍ A magnetic drive or canned pump may be your best choice if you can live with the several

limitations they impose.

❍ A vortex or slurry pump design may be needed if there are lot of solids or "stringy"

material in the pumpage.

❍ A double volute centrifugal pump can eliminate many of the seal problems we experience

when we operate off the pump's best efficiency point. The problem is trying to find a
supplier that will supply one for your application. Although readily available for impellers
larger than 14 inches (355 mm) in diameter they have become very scarce in the smaller
diameters because of their less efficient design.
● The supplier should recommend a centerline design to avoid the problems caused by thermal
expansion of the wet end if you are operating at temperatures over 200°F (100°C)?
● Will you need a volute or circular casing? Volute casings build a higher head; circular casing are
used for low head and high capacity.
● Do you need a pump that meets a standard? ANSI, API, DIN, VDMA or ISO are some of the
current standards. You should be aware of pump standards problems that contribute to premature
seal and bearing failures. An ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standard back
pullout design pump has many advantages but presents problems with mechanical seals when the
impeller clearance is adjusted, unless you are purchasing cartridge seals.
● The decision to use either a single or multistage pump will be determined by the head the pump
must produce to meet the capacities you need. Some suppliers like to recommend a high speed
small pump to be competitive, other suppliers might recommend a more expensive low speed
large pump to lessen NPSH and wear problems.

There are additional decisions that have to be made about the type of pump the supplier will recommend:

● Will the pump be supplied with a mechanical seal or packing? If the stuffing box is at negative
pressure (vacuum) a seal will be necessary to prevent air ingestion.
● If he is going to supply a mechanical seal will he also supply an oversized stuffing box and any
environmental controls that might be needed?
● Will he specify a jacketed stuffing box so that the temperature of the sealed fluid can be
regulated? How does he intend to control the stuffing box temperature? Will he be using water,
steam or maybe a combination of both? Electric heating is sometimes an option.
● How will the open or semi-open impeller be adjusted to the volute casing or back plate? Can the
mechanical seal face loading be adjusted at the same time? If not, the seal face load will change
and the seal life will be shortened.
● If the pump is going to be supplied with a closed impeller you should have some means of
knowing when the wear rings have to be replaced. If the wear ring clearance becomes too large
 the pumps efficiency will be lowered causing heat and vibration problems. Most manufacturers
require that you disassemble the pump to check the wear ring clearance and replace the rings
when this clearance doubles.
● Will he supply a "C" or "D" frame adapter, or will the pump to motor alignment have to be done
manually using dual indicators or a laser aligner to get the readings? A closed-coupled design can
eliminate the need for an alignment between the pump and driver.
● What type of coupling will he select to connect the pump to its driver? Couplings can compensate
for axial growth of the shaft and transmit torque to the impeller. They cannot compensate for
pump to driver misalignment as much as we would like them to. Universal joints are especially
bad because they have to be misaligned to be lubricated.
● He may decide to run two pumps in parallel operation if he needs a real high capacity, or two
pumps in series operation if he needs a high head. Pumps that run in parallel or series require that
they are running at the same speed. This can be a problem for some induction motors..
● An inline pump design can solve many pipe strain and thermal growth problems.
● The pump supplier must insure that the pump will not be operating at a critical speed or passing
through a critical speed at start up. If he has decided to use a variable speed drive or motor this
becomes a possibility.
● We all want pumps with a low net positive suction head required to prevent cavitation problems
but sometimes it is not practical. The manufacturer has the option of installing an inducer or
altering the pump design to lower the net positive suction head required, but if he goes too far all
of the internal clearances will have to be perfect to prevent cavitation problems. This
modification of the impeller to get the low net positive suction head required (NPSHR) and its
affects will be explained when you learn about suction specific speed.
● The difference between specific speed and suction specific speed can be confusing but you
should know the difference.
● Shaft speed is an important decision. Speed affects pump component wear and NPSH
requirements, along with the head, capacity, and the pump size. High speed pumps cost less
initially, but the maintenance costs can be staggering. Speed is especially critical if you are going
to be specifying a slurry pump.
● The ratio of the shaft diameter to its length is called the shaft L3/D4number. This ratio will have a
major affect on the operating window of the pump and its inital cost. The lower the number the
better, but any thing below 60 (2 in the metric system) is acceptable when you are using
mechanical seals. A low L3/D4 can be costly in a standard long shaft pump design because it
dictates a large diameter shaft that is usually found only on expensive heavy-duty pumps. A short
shaft with a smaller outside diameter would accomplish the same goal, but then the pump would
no longer conform to the ANSI or ISO standard. We often run into L3/D4problems when you
specify, or the pump supplier sells you a low cost, corrosion resistant sleeve, mounted on a steel
shaft rather than a more expensive solid, corrosion resistant shaft.

There are multiple decisions to be made about the impeller selection and not all pump suppliers are
qualified to make them:

● The impeller shape or specific speed number will dictate the shape of the pump curve, the NPSH
required and influence the efficiency of the pump.
 ● Has the impeller configuration been iterated in recent years? Impeller design is improving with
some of the newer computer programs that have become available to the design engineer.
● The suction specific speed number of the impeller will often predict if you are going to
experience a cavitation problem.
● The impeller material must be chosen for both chemical compatibility and wear resistance. You
should consider one of the duplex metals because most corrosion resistant materials are too soft
for the demands of a pump impeller.
● The decision to use a closed impeller, open impeller, semi-open, or vortex design is another
decision to be made.
● Closed impellers require wear rings and these wear rings present another maintenance problem.
● Open and semi-open impellers are less likely to clog, but need manual adjustment to the volute or
back-plate to get the proper impeller setting and prevent internal recirculation.
● Vortex pump impellers are great for solids and "stringy" materials but they are up to 50% less
efficient than conventional designs.
● Investment cast impellers are usually superior to sand cast versions because you can cast
compound curves with the investment casting process. The compound curve allows the impeller
to pump abrasive fluids with less vane wear.
● If you are going to pump low specific gravity fluids with an open impeller, a non-sparking type
metal may be needed to prevent a fire or explosion. You will be better off choosing a closed
impeller design with soft wear rings in these applications.
● The affinity laws will predict the affect of changing the impeller speed or diameter. You will
want to be familiar with these laws for both centrifugal and PD pumps..

Either you or the supplier must select the correct size electric motor, or some other type of driver for the
pump. The decision will be dictated by the specific gravity of the liquid you will be pumping along with
the specific gravity of any cleaners or solvents that might be flushed through the lines. The selection will
also be influenced by how far you will venture off the best efficiency point (BEP) on the capacity side of
the pump curve. If this number is under-estimated there is a danger of burning out some electric motors.

● How are you going to vary the pump's capacity? Are you going to open and close a valve or
maybe you will be using a variable speed drive like a gasoline or diesel engine. Will the
regulating valve open and close automatically like a boiler feed valve or will it be operated
manually? The variable speed motor might be an alternative if the major part of the system head
is friction head rather than static or pressure head.
● The viscosity of the fluid is another consideration because it will affect the head, capacity,
efficiency and power requirement of the pump. You should know about viscosity and how the
viscosity of the pumpage will affect the performance of the pump. There are some viscosity
corrections you should make to the pump curve when you pump viscous fluids.
● After carefully considering all of the above, the pump supplier will select a pump type and size,
present his quote and give you a copy of his pump curve. Hopefully you will be getting his best
pump technology. To be sure that is true you should know what the best pumping technology is.
● At this stage it is important for you to be able to read the pump curve. To do that you must
understand:
❍ Efficiency
 ❍ Best efficiency point (BEP)
❍ Shut off head.
❍ How to convert pressure to head so you can reference pump gage readings to the pump
curve. When you learn the three formulas you will get the conversion information.
❍ Brake horsepower (BHP)
❍ Water horsepower (WHP)
❍ Capacity
❍ Net positive suction head required (NPSHR)
❍ How to calculate the net positive suction head available (NPSHA) to the pump to insure
you will not have a cavitation problem.

If all of the above decisions were made correctly the pump supplier will place his pump curve on top of
your system curve and the required operating window will fall within the pump's operating window on
either side of the best efficiency point (BEP). Additionally, the motor will not overheat and the pump
should not cavitate.

If the decisions were made incorrectly the pump will operate where the pump and system curves
intersect and that will not be close to, or at the best efficiency point, producing radial impeller loading
problems that will cause shaft deflection, resulting in premature seal and bearing failures. Needless to
say the motor or driver will be adversely affected also.

With few exceptions pump manufacturers are generally not involved in mechanical sealing. You will
probably be contacting separate seal suppliers for their recommendation about the mechanical seal.

Recent mergers between pump and seal companies unfortunately does not produce the instant expertise
we would like sales and service people to posses.

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CENTRIFUGAL PUMP INSTALLATION

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Some one has to install the pump and all of its associated hardware. The quality of this pump and driver
installation will have a major affect on the performance and reliability of the pump, especially if it is
equipped with a mechanical seal.

The pump will be installed on a baseplate. The baseplate will be attached to a foundation and grout will
be placed between the baseplate and the foundation to transmit any vibrations from the pump to the
foundation.

Once the pump and driver are firmly on the foundation it will be time to connect the piping. Be sure to
pipe from the pump to the pipe rack and not the other way, so as to avoid pipe strain that will interfere
with the operation of the mechanical seal and bearings.

There are many piping recommendations that you should be familiar with. The leveling, and pump to
driver alignment can be made at this point, but you should check the alignment after the pump has come
up to its operating temperature because metal parts expand and contract with a change in temperature.

If this is a new piping system some people like to install packing in the pump and run on packing until
the new piping has been cleaned of slag or any junk that might be left in the piping system. If it is not a
new installation, and there is a mechanical seal in the stuffing box, then installing the mechanical seal
environmental controls will come next.

If the pump has an open or semi-open impeller it is time to make the initial impeller clearance setting.
The final clearance can be set when the pump comes up to its operating temperature. It is important to
note that if you do not have a cartridge seal installed in the pump the seal face loading will change as
you make both the initial and subsequent impeller settings and there is nothing you can do about it.

You will now want to do a proper venting of the pump. If it is a vertical installation you will have to pay
particular attention to keeping air vented from the stuffing box while the pump is running and be sure to
vent the space between dual seals if they have been installed.

After you have done all of the above, it is time to check out the mechanical seal environmental controls
to be sure they are working properly. In most cases the environmental control will continue to run after
the pump has stopped. Be sure the operators understand this or they might be tempted to shut the control
off when the pump is between batches. Seal quench is always a problem with operators because the
steam or water dripping out of the seal gland looks like the seal is leaking.

A constant monitoring of the pump is a good idea. Are you familiar with some of the more popular
monitoring methods? Unlike vibration analysis, monitoring can tell you if some part of the pump is
getting into trouble before the vibration starts.

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CENTRIFUGAL PUMP MODIFICATION

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version

If you find that your present centrifugal pump is not satisfying your application and running as trouble
free as you would like, and you have checked:

● All of the internal tolerances are correct.

● There is no excessive pipe strain.
● The open impeller has been adjusted to the volute or backplate after the pump came up to
operating temperature.
● The pump to driver alignment was made.
● The rotating parts were dynamically balanced.
● The wear ring clearance is within manufacturers specifications.
● The pump is running at the correct speed, in the right direction, with the correct size impeller.

Then you may have to purchase a different centrifugal pump, or you might want to consider modifying
the existing pump to get the performance and reliability you are looking for.

Here are a few modifications and pump upgrades you can consider:

● Modifying the impeller diameter could get you closer to the best efficiency point. The affinity
laws will predict the affect the trimming will have on the pump's head; capacity, net positive
suction head required (NPSHR), and horsepower requirement.
● Converting to an impeller with a different specific speed number will change the shape of the
pump curve, power consumption and the NPSH required.
● Changing to a heavy-duty power end can stop a lot of shaft deflection, and with some pump
manufacturers get you the pilot diameter you need to install a "C or D" frame adapter to eliminate
pump alignment.
● Converting from a sleeved to a solid, corrosion resistant shaft will often reduce or stop shaft
deflection problems caused by operating off the best efficiency point (BEP). If you are using
mechanical seals be sure that you are using the type that prevents fretting corrosion. Most
original equipment manufactured (OEM) seals damage shafts, and that is one of the main reasons
they supply a sacrificial sleeve.
● Reducing the overhung shaft length can solve many shaft deflection problems. You should be
able to get the L3/D4 number down to a desirable 15-20 (0,5 &endash; 0,6 metric) by either
reducing the shaft length or increasing the shaft diameter.
● Changing the wet end to a double volute configuration will allow the pump to operate in a larger
window without the danger of deflecting the shaft too much.
● You can drill a hole in the end of the stuffing box, at the top, to increase stuffing box venting.
● Change the flushing or recirculation connection from the top lantern ring connection to the
 bottom of the stuffing box to insure a better fluid flow through the stuffing box. Try to get close
to the seal faces.
● Enlarging the inside diameter of the stuffing box or going to an oversize stuffing box can solve
some persistent seal problems.
● Converting the wet end of the pump to a centerline design might solve some pipe strain problems
by compensating for radial thermal growth.
● Increasing the impeller to cutwater clearance could stop a cavitation problem
● Installing a sight glass in the bearing case can help you maintain the correct oil level and prevent
overheating problems in the bearings.
● Replacing the bearing case grease or lip seals with either labyrinth or positive face seals for
bearings will keep moisture out of the bearing case and eliminate a lot of premature bearing
failure.
● Converting the radial bearing retention snap ring to a more rugged holding device will eliminate
many of he problems associated with axial movement of the shaft.
● Converting the packed pump to a good mechanical seal will reduce power consumption and
product leakage.
● Converting solid mechanical seals to split mechanical seals can reduce the time it takes to change
seals and eliminate the need for other trades to become involved in the process of disassembling a
pump and bringing it into the shop.

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MECHANICAL SEAL SELECTION

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version

In the following pages I will be using the word "pump" to describe the piece of equipment that you will
be sealing. If your equipment is anything other than a single stage centrifugal pump with an over hung
impeller, the information still applies with a couple of exceptions:

● Mixers, agitators and similar pieces of equipment sometimes have severe axial thrust and shaft
deflection problems due to their high L3/D4 numbers (The ratio of the shaft length to its diameter).
● Sleeve or journal bearing equipment allows more axial movement of the shaft than those pieces
of equipment provided with precision bearings. Axial movement is a problem for mechanical
seals because of the changing face load; especially at start up when the axial thrust reverses in a
centrifugal pump.
● Open impeller pumps require impeller adjustment that could cause excessive axial movement of
the shaft that will affect the seal face loading. Depending upon the severity of the abrasives being
pumped, this could be a frequent occurrence.
● Multi-stage pumps are seldom as sensitive to operating off the best efficiency point (BEP) as
single stage centrifugal pumps. The opposing cutwaters in these pumps tend to cancel out the
radial forces created when the pump is operating off of its best efficiency point (BEP).
● Centrifugal pumps equipped with double volutes are not too sensitive to operating off the best
efficiency point (BEP), but do experience all of the other types of shaft deflection.
● Specialized equipment such as a refiner in a paper mill will experience a great deal of axial travel
as the internal clearances are adjusted.

Whenever I use the word fluid, I am talking about either a liquid or a gas. If I say either liquid or gas, I
am limiting my discussion to that one phase of the fluid.

Any discussion of mechanical face seals requires that you have many different types of knowledge. The
first is, "should you be converting packed pumps to a mechanical seal?" Seals cost a lot more money
than conventional packing and unless you are using split seals, they can be a lot more difficult to install.
There is a packing conversion down side.

Assuming you have made the decision that the mechanical seal is your best choice for sealing, you must
know how to select the correct design for your application. There are many different kinds of seals to
choose from:

● Rotating seals where the springs or bellows rotate with the shaft.
● Stationary seals where the springs or bellows do not rotate with the shaft.
● Metal bellows seals used to eliminate elastomers that can have trouble with temperature extremes
or fluid compatibility.
● Elastomer type seals utilizing O-rings and other shape elastomers.
 ● Single seals for most applications.
● Dual seal designs for dangerous and expensive products or any time back up protection is needed.
● Inside mounted designs that take advantage of centrifugal force to throw solids away from the
lapped seal faces.
● Outside seals. Usually the non-metallic variety for pumps manufactured from non-metallic
materials.
● Cartridge seals to ease installation and allow you to make impeller adjustments without
disturbing the seal face loading.
● Split seal designs that allow you to install and change seals without taking the pump apart and
disturbing the alignment.
● Hydrodynamic or non-contacting seals used for the sealing of gases.
● Hydrostatic designs are another version of non-contacting vapor seals.

There are some very desirable design features that you should specify for your mechanical seals:

● The ability to seal fugitive emissions without the use of dual seals, other than having the dual seal
installed as a "back-up" or spare seal.
● Will the seal dynamic elastomer damage or cause fretting corrosion of the pump shaft? Almost
all-original equipment designs do. Spring-loaded Teflon® and graphite are notorious for shaft
destruction. There are many seal designs available that will not cause fretting corrosion or
damage shafts and sleeves, and that is the kind you should be using.
● The seal should have built in non-clogging features such as springs out of the fluid.
● The seal should be able to compensate for a reasonable amount of both radial and axial
movement of the shaft. There are special mixer seal designs that can compensate for axial and
radial travel in excess of 0.125 inches (3 mm) and you should know about them
● The seal should be designed to be positioned as close to the bearings as possible to lessen the
affects of shaft deflection. Ideally the seal would be located between the stuffing box face and the
bearing case with a large diameter seal gland allowing plenty of internal radial clearance for the
seal.
● The seal should generate only a small amount of heat. Seal face heat generation can be a problem
with many fluids and there is no advantage in letting the seal faces, or the fluid surrounding them
get hot
❍ Any heat generation between the seal faces should be efficiently removed by conduction

away from the lapped faces and dynamic elastomer. Check to see if your design does it
efficiently.
● Any dynamic elastomer (an O-ring is typical) should have the ability to flex and then roll, or slide
to a clean surface as the carbon face wears.
● The seal face load should be adjustable to compensate for open impeller adjustments and axial
growth of the shaft. Cartridge seals do this very well.
● Can you use universal materials to lower your inventory costs and avoid mix-up problems? All of
the seal materials should be clearly identified by type and grade. You will need this information
if you have to analyze a premature seal failure. Some seal companies try to make everything a
secret, do not tolerate it!
● Will the seals be hydraulically balanced to prevent the generation of unwanted heat between the
lapped faces? What is the percentage of balance? If you are using dual seals will the inner seal be
 a double balanced seal that is hydraulically balanced in both directions? Pressures can reverse in
dual seal applications.
● You will want to become familiar with the effects of heat on:
❍ The seal faces, especially the carbon and plated or coated hard faces

❍ The elastomers, especially the dynamic elastomer

❍ Excessive corrosion of the seal components.

❍ The product. It can change with heat. It can vaporize, solidify, crystallize, coke or build a

film with an increase in the product's temperature.

❍ Internal tolerances of the seal especially face flatness and elastomer squeeze. Heat causes

thermal growth of these components that will alter their critical tolerances.

We would like to be able to install the seal without having to modify the pump. The seal should be the
shortest, thinnest design that will satisfy all of the operating conditions. Once you have the shortest,
thinnest design that will satisfy the operating conditions there is seldom a need to modify any seal design.

The specific sealing application will dictate which seal design you should choose. If your seal
application falls within the following parameters any stationary or rotating, "off the shelf" balanced O-
ring seal should be able to handle the application without any serious problems.

● Stuffing box pressures from a one Torr vacuum to 400 psi. (28 bar). Note that stuffing box
pressure is normally closer to suction than discharge pressure
● Stuffing box temperature from -40°F to 400°F. (-40°C to 200°C)
● Shaft speed within electric motor speeds. If the surface speed at the seal faces exceeds 5000 fpm.
(25 m/sec) you will have to select the stationary version of the seal.
● Shaft sizes from 1 inch to 4 inches. (25 mm to 100 mm)

You may have to go to a special seal design if your application falls into any of the following categories:

● Stuffing box pressures in excess of 400 psi. (28 bar) require heavy duty seals.
● Excessive shaft movement of the type you find in mixers, agitators, and some types of sleeve or
journal bearing equipment.
● The seal must meet fugitive emission standards.
● No metal parts are allowed in the system. You need a non-metallic seal.
● Nothing black is allowed in the system because of a fear of color contamination. You cannot use
any form of carbon face; you must use two hard faces.
● There is not enough room to install a standard seal.
● You are not allowed to use an environmental control or no environmental control is available.
● Odd shaft sizes often dictate special seals.
● If the seal components must be manufactured from an exotic metal.

If any of the following are part of the application, you may need a metal bellows design that eliminates
all elastomers.

● You are sealing a non-petroleum fluid and the stuffing box temperature exceeds 400°F (200°C)
Petroleum fluids have coking problems that require cooling in the seal area.
 ● Cryogenic temperatures.

You should go to a dual seal application if your product falls into any of the following categories:

● You need two seals to control the seal environment outside the stuffing box.
● To control the temperature at a seal face to stop a product from vaporizing, solidifying,
crystallizing, or building a film.
● To prevent a pressure drop across a seal face that can cause a liquid to vaporize.
● To eliminate atmospheric conditions outboard of a mechanical seal when there is a possibility of
freezing water vapor in the air.
● To break down the pressure in a high-pressure application, by inserting an intermediate pressure
between the seals. Two lower pressure seals can then be used to seal a high-pressure fluid that
would normally require a very expensive high-pressure mechanical seal.
● To provide a lubricant if one is needed to prevent slip stick between lapped seal faces. This is
always a problem when you are sealing a gas or non-lubricating liquid.

You need dual seals as a protection for personnel in the area if your product is any of the following
categories:

● A toxic liquid or gas.

● A fire hazard
● A pollutant
● A carcinogen
● A radioactive fluid
● An explosive fluid
● Etc.

The other places we use dual seals are:

● Expensive products that are too valuable to let leak.

● You cannot afford to be shut down in the middle of a batch operation.
● You do not have a standby pump and experience shows that the seal failure is your highest
probability of an unexpected shut down.

In the Sealing Application section you will learn:

● How to choose the correct seal materials.

● How to classify the fluid into specific sealing categories
● The environmental controls you might need to insure the seal will not fail prematurely.

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 HOW TO SEAL VARIOUS FLUIDS

● Sealing common fluids

● Classifying chemicals to assure effective sealing 2-12
● Clearing up the confusion about flushing mechanical seals 3-6
● Controlling the pressure in the stuffing box area 4-10
● Controlling the temperature in the stuffing box area 4-6
● Environmental controls and special seal designs 3-2
● More about the sealing of condensate 10-7
● Sealing high pressure and hard vacuum fluids 5-7
● Sealing high temperature oil 3-5
● Sealing hot water 3-3
● Sealing liquid slurries 3-4
● Sealing mixers and agitators 3-7
● Sealing non lubricants including gases and dry powders 4-8
● Sealing products sensitive to a change in temperature or pressure 8-9
● Sealing products that are affected by agitation 6-12
● Sealing to the OSHA 1910.119 standard 8-10

Selecting the correct seal materials

● How the carbon graphite seal face is manufactured4-7
● Limits of the super elastomer compounds. 10-6
● Selecting the correct elastomer for your application 4-9
● Selecting the correct hard face material for your mechanical seal 5-2
● Selecting the correct metal for the mechanical seal parts 5-9

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SUBJECT : A new way of classifying chemicals to assure effective sealing 2-12

The most common question asked by seal salesmen is "what are you sealing?" This is usually followed
by asking about shaft size, product, temperature, speed, stuffing box pressure and any other operating
conditions they can think of.

The problem with this simplistic approach is that you would have to have a very large data bank of
information to reference a particular problem so as to be able to make a sensible seal recommendation.
There is a much more logical approach to the problem that we will be discussing in the following
paragraphs.

A sensible approach to the sealing of various chemicals, mixtures, and compounds would be divided into
three parts:

● You must know how to select mechanical seal components that will not corrode or be attacked in
any way by the fluid you are sealing, or any other chemicals that might come into contact with
the seal as a result of cleaning the system, flushing the stuffing box, using barrier fluids between
double seals, quenching behind the seal etc..
● You must understand the total range of operating conditions of the equipment and then select seal
designs that can handle this range.
● You need a method of classifying chemicals that puts them into neat, logical categories that can
be handled by the use of a special seal design and/or environmental controls. It is important to
note that the sealing environment will affect the sealing fluid often preventing the lapped sealing
faces from staying in contact..

In this paper we will concentrate on the classification of chemicals and leave the selection of seal
materials, types of seals and use of various environmental controls to other papers on this site

A fluid can be classified as either a liquid or a gas, and can be divided into seven categorizes:

1. Fluids sensitive to changes in temperature and/or pressure.

2. Fluids that require two mechanical seals.

3. Non lubricating liquids, gases and solids.

4. Slurries, classified as solids in liquid . The solids may or may not be abrasive.

5. Liquids sensitive to agitation.

6. Liquids that react with each other to form a solid.

7. Lubricating liquids.
We will be investigating each of these categories in detail and learn how they affect the life of a
mechanical seal. In other papers on this site we will learn the detailed methods of sealing each of these
problems

Fluids that are sensitive to changes in temperature and/or pressure.

● Corrosive liquids - Most corrosives will double their corrosion rate with a 18 degree Fahrenheit
(10 C.) rise in temperature. The temperature at the seal face is always hotter than the temperature
recorded in the stuffing box or seal chamber. Keep in mind that any contact between the rotating
shaft and a stationary component will cause high heat and will be detected as localized corrosion.
Wear rings and throttle bushings are subject to this rubbing. If the equipment is provided with a
cooling jacket. and it is not being utilized, the air inside can act as an insulation increasing the
heat in the stuffing box considerably.
● Liquids that vaporize - Most any liquid will vaporize if it becomes hot enough, or if the stuffing
box pressure gets too low. It is the product with a low specific gravity that give us the most
trouble. If the product vaporizes between the lapped seal faces it will separate the faces as the
gases expand. When hot water vaporizes it leaves behind any chemicals that were dissolved in
the water. Most of these chemicals are left in a hard crystal form that will damage the lapped
faces.
● Fluids such as benzene and others with a low specific gravity, will freeze as they vaporize. If any
oil or lubricant was placed on the seal face it will freeze and possibly damage the lapped faces.
Moisture on the outboard side of the seal will freeze also and restrict movement of the sliding or
flexing seal components
● Liquids that solidify - Some solidify with an increase in temperature, others with a decrease.
Solvents vaporize with lower pressure leaving any solids behind. Paint is a good example of a
product where the solvent will vaporize at or below atmospheric pressure. In most cases you can
reference a vapor pressure chart to learn when the solvent or carrier will vaporize in your
application.
● Viscous Products - Their viscosity usually decreases with an increase in temperature and
increases with a decrease in temperature. Oil is a good example of this type of fluid. High
viscosity can interfere with free seal movement and cause seal face contact problems. Lowering
the viscosity can often increase the seal face wear as there is not enough film thickness to keep
the surfaces separated. You need a film thickness of at least one micron to keep the lapped seal
faces separated.
● Film building liquids - Petroleum products will form a varnish when first heated and then
gradually form a layer of coke as the temperature is elevated. These transformations are not
reversible and the resultant hard film restricts sliding and/or flexing of the seal components. Hard
water is another example of a film building fluid.
● Hot water systems pick up magnetite (Ferric Oxide) from the inside of the pipes. It is black or
reddish in color and will be attracted by a magnet. This abrasive material will collect on the seal
components and destroy the dynamic O-Ring as well as restrict the movement of the seal causing
the lapped faces to open. Magnetite is a severe problem in new , hot water systems. The problem
will lessen as the system ages and the protective film stabilizes.
● Liquids that crystallize - Sugar and salt solutions are two examples of these fluids. If the crystals
form between the faces they can destroy the carbon. If they form in the sliding or flexing
components they will open the seal faces as the shaft moves. Any leakage across the seal faces
will form a solids build up on the other side of the seal causing interference as the seal tries to
 move when it compensates for wear.

The names of these chemicals is not important. If you knew how to seal any one of them you
could seal all of them. It is just a matter of fitting the particular chemical into the right categories
and learning how to seal that category. Common sense would dictate that the product temperature
and/or pressure must be controlled in the seal area to prevent any of the above from occurring. In
most cases you should try to avoid the use of two hard faces in these applications because of the
additional heat that will be generated between the faces. Needless to say, only hydraulically
balanced seals are acceptable in any temperature/ pressure sensitive fluid.

Liquids that require two mechanical seals : These seals are installed with a circulating barrier fluid that
can be a "forced circulation", or in many cases a convection system with a "pumping ring". The pressure
of the barrier or buffer fluid can be regulated to indicate a failure in either of the mechanical seals
allowing time for a pump shut down, isolation and no subsequent loss in the pumping fluid.

● Costly products - Some times the product costs so much you just cannot afford to have it leak.
There are plenty of charts to show how much leakage you get from various sized drips or steady
streams. The smallest steady stream you can produce will be between twenty five and thirty U.S.
gallons per day (95 to 115 liters/day)
● Dangerous products - these fluids are given a special category because even small amounts of
leakage are not acceptable. The danger could fall into many categories: radiation, toxic, fire,
explosion, bacteria, etc.. The new United States' "right to know law" is having a major affect on
how mechanical seals used in these type of products will be repaired.
● Pollutants - Usually there is a "penalty" involved and the bad publicity does no one any good. In
this day and age a responsible company will not let pollutants leak to the atmosphere or to the
earth for any reason. Fugitive emission legislation has increased the need for these type of
mechanical seals.
● Any time an unexpected seal failure would be inconvenient - Down time can be a very costly
time in many plants. Two seals prevents the unexpected seal failure shut down. This is especially
important with batch operations or when there is no back up pump installed. On the atomic
submarine NAUTILUS the back up shaft seal allowed us to get to the surface if a main shaft seal
failed while we were submerged.

Sealing non lubricants.

● Dry solids - They can clog the sliding components and provide no lubrication for seal faces. Once
the faces are open they penetrate between the faces and usually destroy the lapped surfaces.
Pharmaceuticals, freeze dried coffee and cake mix are examples of this category. You can think
of many more.
● Non lubricating fluids such as solvents and hot water. We experience more rapid face wear with
these types of fluids. In most cases their film thickness is less than one micron and cannot support
a load between two sliding surfaces
● Dry gases- unlike non lubricating liquids they will not conduct heat very well and often are
dangerous at the same time. This is a common problem if you forget to vent the stuffing box of a
vertical pump. A top entering mixer is another example of this type of application.
Slurries, especially abrasive slurries. Clog the seal components and destroy faces like the dry solids
mentioned above.

● The list of these products is without end. A slurry is defined as solids in liquid that cannot be
dissolved by normal control of the temperature or pressure. The number of solids or their size is
not important. They will collect on or in the sliding or flexing components of the seal causing the
faces to open and then penetrate between the lapped faces causing leakage and damage. In some
designs the springs or bellows (metallic or elastomer) will experience severe wear in a short
period of time. In these designs it is important to rotate the fluid rather than have the bellows
component rotate within the abrasive slurry.

Liquids sensitive to agitation :

● Dilatants - Their viscosity increases with agitation. This is how cream becomes butter. Some clay
slurries have the same problem. The resulting high viscosities will restrict the free movement of
the seal. When dealing with dilatants it is important that you do not continually rotate the fluid in
the stuffing box area.
● Thixotropic fluids lower their viscosity with agitation. They seldom present a problem for
mechanical seals except for an increase in seal face wear.
● Plastic fluids change their viscosity suddenly. Catsup is a good example of this type of fluid.
● Newtonian fluids do not change viscosity with agitation. They present no problem for mechanical
seals.

Liquids that combine together to form a solid.

● Epoxy is a combination of a Resin and a hardener.

● Styrofoam is formed by combining several liquids together.

We seldom have problems with these liquids in pumps because the blending takes place outside of the
pump, but the problem sometimes comes up in mixer applications. You will note that I have not
included anaerobic fluids (they solidify in the absence of air) in any of the categories (super glue is the
product that first comes to mind).

lubricating liquids

● This is the ideal application for a mechanical seal but we seldom see it. More often than not we
are sealing raw product that falls into one or more of the above categories. Back in the days when
we were using packing in pumps we did not pay too much attention to these categories because
we were either prepared to let the product leak on the ground or we would flush in clean liquid
and concentrate on sealing the clean flush instead.

Now that leakage is no longer tolerable and product dilution is no longer desirable you must have
knowledge of these categories to approach the job of effective sealing. In most cases the fluid you are
sealing will fall into several of the above mentioned categories. Using Heat transfer oil as an example
we note that it falls into the following :
 ● Hot - Normally pumped at 600 -700 Fahrenheit ( 315 -370 C.) the fluid is too hot for available
elastomers.
● Film Building - The product "cokes" at these temperatures.
● Dangerous - You do not need this temperature oil leaking out. It is not only a fire hazard, but a
personnel hazard as well. Recent information indicates that some of these oils are also
carcinogenic.
● Costly - Most of these transfer oils cost between $12.00 to $20.00 per gallon (3,8 Ltrs.)
● Slurry - Because of the coking, solids are always present.

To successfully seal heat transfer oil you would have to address all of these problems at the same time.
As is the case with all slurry applications, you would also have to recognize the problems with vibration
(impeller imbalance), thermal growth, and frequent impeller adjustments.

In addition to handling various chemicals we are often faced with extreme or severe operating
conditions. These conditions would include:

● Hot products - Defined as too hot for one of the seal components, or hot enough to cause the fluid
to change form. Heat transfer oil is a good example of a fluid that will "coke" at elevated
temperature.
● Cryogenic fluids - They present a problem for elastomers and some carbon faces. Liquid
Nitrogen or Oxygen would be an example.
● High Pressure - Defined as stuffing box, (not discharge) pressure in excess of 400 psi. (28 bar).
Pipe line and boiler circulating pumps can have stuffing box pressures of this magnitude.
● Hard Vacuum - Defined as 10-2 Torr or below. This number is well below most condenser or
evaporator applications, but does come up every once in a while.
● High Speed - Defined as the seal faces moving greater than 5000 Feet Per Minute or 25 meters
per second. Most process pumps do not approach this speed. The Sundstrand "Sundyne" pump is
typical of a high speed application.
● Excessive motion - defined as more than 0.005 inches (0,15 mm.) in a radial or axial direction.
Mixers, agitators and specialized equipment have shaft movements up to 1/8 inch (3 mm). Long
shaft vertical pumps and pumps equipped with sleeve or babbitt bearings, are another application
for excessive motion.
● Excessive vibration - Unfortunately there are no reliable numbers for the vibration limits of
mechanical seals. Most vibration studies have addressed the bearings. It is important to consider
that excessive vibration can:
❍ Open the lapped seal faces.

❍ Chip the outside diameter of the carbon face.

❍ Break the metal bellows used in some seal designs.

❍ Wear the driving mechanism used to transmit torque from the set screws to the seal faces.

❍ Loosen drive screws.

❍ Shorten bearing life

❍ Most seal designs can damage (frett) expensive sleeves and shafts.

❍ Some, but not all designs have built in vibration dampers to relieve some of these

problems.

In other papers on this site you can learn how to seal each of these fluid categories and learn how to
protect the mechanical seal against the affects of these extreme operating conditions.

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SUBJECT : Let's clear up the confusion about flushing seals 3-6

Consumers use the term "flushing" to describe six different methods of bringing fluid to the stuffing box
area of a centrifugal pump. Experienced seal people use different terms to differentiate between the
methods.

DISCHARGE RECIRCULATION

A line is connected between the discharge of the pump and the stuffing box. The high pressure fluid is
then recirculated through the stuffing box to the back of the impeller and eventually to the pump
discharge. This technique presents several problems for maintenance people:

● If the fluid contains solids ( and most of them do) the centrifugal action of the impeller will
concentrate the solids on the inside diameter of the pump volute and it is this dirty fluid that is
being recirculated to the stuffing box. Needless to say this will not be good for the mechanical
seal because the solid particles will act as a "sand blaster" cutting into the lapped seal faces and
clogging the sliding seal components.
● The pump wear rings, critical tolerances and close fitting bushings will experience rapid wear as
the solids pass through the narrow clearances.

The only legitimate use of this technique is to pressurize the stuffing box to prevent a liquid from
vaporizing. Be careful if you use this method in hot water applications especially if a heat exchanger is
installed in the recirculation line. A high temperature water or steam leak in any of the fittings could be
dangerous for any personnel in the area and the solids can clog up the heat exchanger.

When this line is used to pressurize the stuffing box you should keep several additional things in mind:

● Install a close fitting bushing in the bottom of the stuffing box. It will look like the thermal
bushing described in the above illustration. The clearance should be .002 inches/ inch (0,002 mm/
mm) of shaft diameter.
● Be sure to direct the line away from the lapped seal faces and the thin metal plates if you use a
metal bellows seal.
● If you are using properly installed , balanced O-ring seals (and you should be), The sealed
product will not flash between the faces as long as the stuffing box pressure is a least one
atmosphere higher than the liquid vapor pressure. The discharge recirculation line should
guarantee you will have this pressure difference.

SUCTION RECIRCULATION

A line is connected between the suction of the pump and the bottom of the stuffing box or seal gland
connection. Many pumps have a connection already tapped at the suction throat of the pump for a
suction gage, but if none is available you can install one in the piping or a pipe flange if the piping is not
thick enough to be drilled and tapped.
Stuffing box pressure is almost always higher than the suction pressure of the pump. Liquid from behind
the impeller will be circulated through the stuffing box to the pump suction. This liquid has been
centrifuged by the impeller and the result is that the liquid in the stuffing box is considerably cleaner
than what you are pumping. In many cases you can eliminate the need for bringing in clean liquid and
diluting your product.

This environment control works very well in closed impeller pump designs and those open impeller
designs that adjust towards the pump volute rather than the back plate, such as the Duriron pump.

FLUSHING

A clean liquid, from an outside source is brought into the stuffing box through a regulating valve at one
atmosphere (15 psi. /1 bar) higher than stuffing box pressure. The liquid should be brought in at the
bottom of the stuffing box to insure thorough cleaning. All of this liquid will eventually go into your
product.

If you are using balanced O-ring seals you will only need enough liquid to remove solids that might
interfere with the seal movement. You will not need additional liquid to provide cooling because
balanced seals do not generate enough heat to cause problems in most applications.

Seal designs that have the springs out of the fluid require only one to two gallons per hour (4 to 8 Ltrs./
hour) of flush. NOTE: this is per hour, not per minute. If you are using designs with multiple springs in
the fluid check with your manufacturer for his recommendations. The clean flush can come from several
sources:

● Clean water
● A compatible fluid
● A solvent
● One of the ingredients in the product
● Finished product will never hurt raw product. Finished product is almost always clean.
● An additive that is going to be put into the product down stream and can be added at the pump
stuffing box instead.

If you are using shop water as the flush you must be careful or solids in the flushing water will clog up
the flow control valve. The shop water pressure also tends to vary through out the day and in some
instances it can fall below the pump stuffing box pressure. Most states require an air gap in the line if
you want to use shop or city water as a flushing medium. A back flow presenter valve is used many
times but it is illegal in most states.

BARRIER OR BUFFER FLUID

Any time you use two seals in an application you will need a fluid between them. If the fluid between
the seals is higher than stuffing box pressure we call it barrier fluid. If it is lower than stuffing box
pressure we call it buffer fluid The liquid can be circulated either by forced circulation, a pumping ring
or convection. The method that you will use will be dictated by the pressure, pump speed and shaft size.
All seal manufacturers have charts available to give you the correct guidelines.

If you elect to use a forced circulation system be sure to introduce the fluid into the bottom connection
and out the top connection. This arrangement will insure that the space between the seals is vented and
proper cooling will take place.

Forced circulation is the recommended method with all vertical shaft applications, although it is possible
to offset the centering of the seal gland and get a small amount of pumping action as the liquid
circulating in the seal changes its velocity at the convection tank connections. Check with your local
distributor for an explanation of this principle.

Many of the latest seal designs utilize a built in pumping ring to enhance convection. This pumping
arrangement is very necessary when ever oil is used as the barrier fluid. The following illustration shows
a typical convection system that can be used with two balanced seals.

Water is one of the best barrier or buffer fluids because of its high specific heat and good conductivity.
Petroleum oil is probably one of the worse because of its low specific heat and poor conductivity. Keep
this in mind when you select a barrier or buffer fluid for your seals.

The type of seal you select will determine if the barrier fluid has to be kept higher or lower than the
stuffing box pressure. Fluctuating pressures are normal in this business so you should select seals that
balance in both directions to eliminate any problems that might be caused when the barrier fluid or
system pressure varies.

Be sure to connect the convection tank or forced lubrication system so that the inlet is at the bottom of
the double seal and the outlet discharges from the top of the seal. This arrangement will allow the seal to
vent, and insure that the passages are full of liquid.

JACKETING FLUID (B)

High temperature pumps have a cooling/ heating jacket installed around the pump stuffing box. If a
jacket has not been installed on your pump it can be purchased from the pump manufacturer or an "after
market" supplier.

The secret to using a jacketed stuffing box is to install a thermal bushing into the bottom of the stuffing
box and then "dead end" the stuffing box liquid. Dead ending means that no suction or discharge
recirculation lines should be installed. Any material that has poor thermal conducting properties will be
satisfactory for the bushing provided it is compatible with what you are sealing. Carbon is an excellent
choice because unlike Teflon it does not change dimensions too much with a change in temperature.

A small amount of liquid or steam through the jacket can control the stuffing box to what ever
temperature range you need. In some instances cool heat transfer oil is utilized. Keep in mind that this
jacket is also providing cooling to the bearing case as well as the stuffing box.

Be sure the jacketing fluid is free from calcium (hard water) or any substance that can build a film on the
inside of the jacket surface and restrict the heat transfer. A number of cleaners are available if you
experience this problem. Condensate is a good jacketing fluid that presents few problems and is usually
available.

QUENCHING - Often called vent and drain (Q connection on an A.P.I. gland)

● Some seal glands have a vent or quench connection provided behind the seal so that steam or
some other fluid can be used to control temperature in the seal area. A close fitting carbon ( or
any other non sparking material) bushing is installed outboard of this connection to provide a
close clearance between the gland and the shaft.
● Refinery applications use a version of the quench gland and call it an A.P.I. ( American
Petroleum Institute) gland.
Now that you know the names of the six different methods let's see how we use them in various sealing
applications:

DISCHARGE RECIRCULATION

● You can use it to pressurize the stuffing box to prevent product vaporization.
● You can install a heat exchanger in this line but it is only effective when the pump is running.
● Do not install a filter into this line because it will clog up and restrict stuffing box recirculation.
● Many consumers install a "cyclone separator" type of device into the recirculation line. These
separators have never proven to be very effective in removing solids from the stuffing box fluid.

SUCTION RECIRCULATION

● You will need this line to vent a vertical pump.

● Use the line for normal product recirculation and to replace the stuffing box fluid with cleaner
fluid that has been recirculated from behind the impeller..
● This connection provides a safe way to drain the stuffing box prior to seal removal.

FLUSHING

● To introduce clean liquid into the stuffing box, to remove solids or any problem fluid.
● Cool a hot liquid by flushing in a cold one.
● Remove a liquid that is sensitive to changes in either temperature and/ or pressure.
● You can use this connection to cross connect the stuffing boxes in a double ended pump
application, and thereby equalize the pressures in the stuffing boxes.

BARRIER OR BUFFER FLUID

● To stop a pressure drop across the inboard seal.

● To protect the dynamic O-ring in Ethylene Oxide applications.
● To control temperature at the seal faces
● To stage pressure in a high pressure application.
● To keep air or oxygen away from a seal face.
● To detect inner seal leakage when used with a convection tank.
● To shift the load to the outboard seal when sealing a non lubricant with the inboard seal.
● This is the normal method of sealing a gas.

JACKETING FLUID

● The best method of controlling temperature in the stuffing box when the pump is shut down. Be
sure to install the thermal bushing or it will not work very well.
● Make sure that there are no suction or discharge recirculation lines connected.

QUENCHING OR VENT & DRAIN - plus the disaster bushing.

 ● The disaster bushing will protect the seal from hitting the inside of the stuffing box if you have a
bearing failure. This is a very important feature in those applications where the product will burn
or explode if overheated.
● The disaster bushing will protect personnel if there is a massive seal failure. The majority of the
leakage can be directed, down the drain connection, to a collecting tank or vent.
● To wash away solids from the outboard side of the seal that will prevent "hang up" as the seal
face wears and the seal moves forward.
● To wash away toxic or corrosive vapors that might leak across the seal faces.
● To control the temperature in the seal area.
● As a back up to a heating/ cooling jacketing failure.

The rest of the world calls all of these techniques "FLUSHING". Try to acquire the habit of using the
proper terminology so that you will avoid confusion when you communicate with seal people and your
fellow workers.

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SUBJECT: Controlling the pressure in the stuffing box area 4-10

We have very little control over the products that we must seal, but we have a great deal of control over
how we elect to seal them. Special seals are seldom the answer. In most cases satisfactory seal life can
be obtained by carefully choosing the seal materials for temperature and chemical compatibility,
selecting a balanced O- ring seal design and then controlling the environment in the stuffing box to
prevent a change in the fluid characteristics from affecting the seal performance.

Controlling stuffing box pressure is one of these controls and is extremely important in many seal
applications. In the following paragraphs we will discuss several methods of controlling pressure but
first we will learn where the environmental control is necessary.

We can raise the pressure in the stuffing box to :

● Prevent a fluid from vaporizing in the stuffing box or across the seal faces. If the product
vaporizes across the seal faces it can open the faces and possibly do some damage as the faces
rapidly open and close. In many cases solids will be left between the faces as the fluid vaporizes.
● To destroy a vacuum in the stuffing box. A balanced O-ring seal can seal either vacuum or a
positive pressure. Vacuum often implies higher heat at the seal faces and that is never good for a
mechanical seal.
● Most split seal designs can accommodate either vacuum or a positive pressure application, but
not one that alternates between them ( the reverse pressure is forcing the splits open). Raising the
stuffing box pressure will keep it positive so that a split seal can be applied.

We can raise the pressure between two seals to :

● Stop a pressure differential across a dynamic elastomer from failing the elastomer. This is a
serious problem when we seal ethylene oxide or any fluid capable of penetrating the elastomer
and blowing out on the low pressure side.
● To prevent sub micron solids from penetrating between the lapped faces. Kaoline is a good
example of this type of product. Sub micron products have no problem penetrating lapped seal
faces when the pressure drop is from the outside diameter to the inside diameter of the seal face.
● To take the load off the inboard face that is sealing a non lubricating fluid and transfer the load to
the outboard seal. This can make a dramatic difference in the life of the inboard seal
● To prevent a pressure drop across the faces that could cause a product to solidify. Many solids are
dissolved in a liquid that will vaporize at atmospheric pressure. Paint is a good example of this
application.
● To prevent a liquid from vaporizing between the inboard faces and blowing them open.

We can lower the pressure in the stuffing box :

● If it is too high for a standard balanced O-ring seal

● To vent the air from a vertical pump.

Now to the actual techniques :

Discharge recirculation.

In this application we connect a recirculation line from the discharge side of the pump to the stuffing
box or a flush connection in the gland. You should install a close fitting bushing into the bottom of the
stuffing box with a clearance of .002 inch/ inch (0.002 mm/mm) of shaft diameter. The bushing can be
manufactured from any compatible material with the fluid you are sealing. Carbon is often selected as a
first choice.

A properly installed balanced O-ring seal will not generate enough heat to flash a liquid between the seal
faces as long as the stuffing box pressure is at least one atmosphere (one bar or 15 psi.) higher than the
product vapor point. You should have no problem in getting this additional pressure if you have installed
the restriction bushing.

Suction recirculation

The technique is the same as discharge recirculation, but in this application we connect the stuffing box
or seal gland to the suction side of the pump or a low pressure sump instead. We do not use a restriction
bushing in this application because the differential pressure can cause the bushing to move and contact
the mechanical seal. Suction recirculation works best with the proper gland connection but it can be used
with the lantern ring connection if necessary. Be sure the connection is on the bottom or as close to the
bottom as possible of the stuffing box or gland.

Caution: Lowering the pressure in the stuffing box is sometimes a bad idea because of the danger of
flashing the sealing fluid. The technique is commonly used, however, to remove air that might be
trapped in the stuffing box of a vertical pump or to provide normal circulation through the stuffing box
when the sealing fluid contains solids. By connecting to the suction side you will be pulling fluid from
behind the impeller, through the stuffing box and then to the lower pressure on the suction side of the
pump. Fluid behind the impeller usually contains less solids than fluid coming from the pump discharge
side. It should be mentioned that this technique works very well on most closed impeller pumps and
those open impeller designs that adjust to the volute of the pump. Open impeller designs that adjust to
the back plate and double ended, single impeller designs have the stuffing box pressure just about at
suction pressure so this application does not work very well. We go to larger diameter stuffing boxes in
those applications.

Another common application for this technique is to cross connect the stuffing boxes of a multi stage
pump to equalize the pressures and balance the seal face wear.

Using two or more seals with a lower pressure between them.

Some seal companies use this as a technique to stage the pressure in a high pressure application. I do not
approve of this method because the operator is lead to believe that there are multiple seals in the pump
when in fact the multiple seals are acting as one and a failure in any one of the seals will fail them all. I
believe you would be better off purchasing a high pressure seal for this application.
Using two seals with a convection tank installed between them.

This is done to take the load off the seal that is sealing a non lubricant or to prevent a pressure drop
across the seal faces. The convection tank is filled with a lubricating liquid and the pressure is adjusted
to provide the necessary pressure differential. With the proper instrumentation you will be able to tell
which seal wears out or fails first. The second seal will act as a back up until you can shut the valves and
start the repair.

As an example : In the pump stuffing box you have a 75 psi.(5 bar) non lubricating liquid. You cannot
afford product dilution so you install two seals with a lubricating buffer fluid of 75 psi. (5 bar) between
them. This will take the load off of the inboard seal that is sealing the non lubricant and shift the load to
the outer seal that is containing the lubricating barrier fluid.

The convection tank can be purchased or manufactured from an appropriate corrosion resistant material.
Some companies (Coca Cola as an example) ship their product in a similar tank and then scrap the tank
because of sanitary or safety regulations. Many of these tanks can be purchased at a low price and
modified for your needs. The air connection on the top will allow you to pressurize the tank to the
correct pressure for your application.

Keep in mind that convection tank applications are limited by the combination of seal size, face
combination, barrier fluid pressure and shaft speed. Check with your seal supplier for a specific
recommendation.

When ever possible avoid selecting petroleum base liquids for the barrier fluid circulating in the tank
and between the two seals. Petroleum fluids have a very low specific heat that will cause overheating
and "coking" problems. If you have the choice. Water is the ideal heat barrier fluid because of its
conductivity and high specific heat number. If water is not acceptable choose any compatible fluid with
a high conductivity and high specific heat value.

Link to Mc Nally home page

SUBJECT: Controlling the temperature in the stuffing box area 4-6

Many fluids are adversely affected by a change in their temperature, and when this reaction takes place
seal failure is almost sure to follow. The reaction can take several forms:

● One of the seal components can be destroyed. The elastomer, seal faces, or metal parts will
almost always be altered at some degree of change in ambient temperature.
● Coated hard faces can "heat check" (crack).
● Carbon fillers can melt and pits can form in carbon/ graphite faces as trapped air expands and
blows out pieces of the carbon.
● Hydrocarbons can solidify (coke) between the seal faces and pull out pieces of carbon also,
causing small pits that will prevent you from conforming to fugitive emission standards.
● Carbon graphite faces can lose their lubricating ability at cryogenic temperature and chip on the
outside diameter as "slip stick" vibration takes place.
● Elastomers can take a "compression set" and crack at elevated temperature
● Cold temperatures can cause elastomers to harden.
● The liquid can crystallize restricting seal movement and opening the faces.
● The liquid can vaporize between the faces causing them to open.
● The viscosity of the fluid can change either restricting seal movement or making the fluid less of
a lubricant.
● The liquid can solidify causing the seal to become inoperative.
● The liquid's corrosion rate will double with an 18° Fahrenheit (10° C) rise in temperature.
● The liquid can convert to a film between the sliding seal components, restricting their
movements. The magnetite that forms in hot water is a good example of this.
● A film can form on the seal faces causing them to separate.
● Lapped seal faces can distort and go out of flat at elevated or cryogenic temperatures.

By keeping the stuffing box temperature within specified limits you can prevent all of the above from
happening. These limits vary with each fluid, but they can be obtained from any one knowledgeable
about the fluid that has to be sealed.

A balanced mechanical seal incorporating the following features and installed at the proper compression,
is your best insurance against a significant rise in stuffing box temperature:

● Proper face balance. 70/ 30 is the most common to 5000 fpm. (25 Meters per sec.)
● Low friction face materials. Carbon/ graphite vs. a hard face is the best.
● The correct spring compression to control face loading.
● Faces with good heat conductivity. Tungsten carbide and silicone carbide have excellent thermal
conductivity compared to most other hard face materials.
● A small cross section carbon/ graphite face press fit into a metal holder is better than solid
carbon/ graphite for removing heat from between the seal faces.

Sometimes, however, that is not good enough, so occasionally you will have to come up with some
additional method of controlling the temperature in the stuffing box area and between the lapped seal
faces.
THE HEATING / COOLING JACKET.

If your pump does not have a heating/ cooling jacket installed one is usually available from the pump
distributor. If possible try to select an oversized stuffing box with a cooling/ heating jacket cast around
it. This jacket can be used to heat a product, cool a product, or keep the product within close temperature
limits. When using the jacket there are several important things to keep in mind:

● Install a carbon bushing into the bottom of the stuffing box to act as a thermal barrier. The
clearance over the shaft should be about 0.002" per inch diameter of shaft (0,002 mm/ mm of
shaft diameter). The length should be at least 3/8 inch (10 mm).
● Dead end the stuffing box. In other words no discharge, flush or suction recirculation lines
connected to the stuffing box. Many hot fluids contain lots of solids; the dead ending feature will
allow you to centrifuge the fluid and clean it up.
● If you elect to use water as the jacketing fluid make sure that it is not hard water as it will form a
layer of calcium on the walls of the jacket restricting the heat transfer.
● This jacket is also used to cool the rotating shaft in hot applications. If the cooling is lost the heat
will conduct back to the bearings causing their premature failure.
● Steam is an excellent medium to control heating or cooling. A regulating valve can be installed
on the discharge side of the jacket for precision pressure control which will, in turn, control the
stuffing box temperature within narrow limits. A mixing valve proportioning steam and water is
another method of controlling temperature within precise limits.

THE QUENCH OR DRAIN CONNECTION

Quench and drain connections are available in American Petroleum Institute (API ) type glands. The
quench and drain connection (Q) is used in conjunction with a close fitting, non sparking disaster
bushing (DB)

● When using the quench for temperature control keep in mind:

❍ Excessive fluid will be directed towards the bearing case. Be sure to use only small

amounts of steam or water. It would be wise to replace the existing grease seals with
 mechanical bearing seals if you elect to use quench as your primary temperature control
method.
❍ The drain connection should be connected to a suitable tank to save the condensed steam.
❍ The quench connection can be used to vent a volatile product to a flare where it can be
burned.
❍ The quench fluid can also remove any solids that have built up outboard of the seal as well
as remove any vapors that might leak across the seal faces. This is an important feature
when sealing products that can crystallize at the seal faces and on the outboard side of the
seal.
❍ The drain connection is used to direct the major amount of failed seal leakage away from
the bearings or any personnel in the area. It should be connected to an appropriate tank for
retention.

THE FLUSH CONNECTION

In temperature control applications we flush in cooled product to control the stuffing box temperature. If
you use the pump fluid cooled, or cooled finished product you will have no problem with product
dilution.

THE DUAL SEAL

Another method of providing temperature control is to utilize two seals with the correct temperature
liquid circulating between them as a barrier or buffer fluid. Look at the following illustration:

● When using a dual seal for heating/ cooling be sure to bring the fluid into the bottom of the seal
gland and out the top of the gland to insure that the void between the seals is full of fluid. This is
an excellent method of controlling the temperature at the seal faces if you are experiencing an
over heating problem.
● In many instances a convection tank can be installed between the seals but it will seldom do an
adequate job of lowering or raising the barrier fluid temperature. In almost every instance forced
circulation will be necessary if you need any degree of heating or cooling. Convection tanks are
satisfactory for removing the heat generated by balanced seal faces, but that is about all.
● In some instances a convection tank has been used with an installed cooling coil and a pumping
ring built into the mechanical seal.
● The amount of barrier fluid circulation needed will be determined by the seal size, speed, and
stuffing box pressure. Your seal supplier will gladly supply this information.
● Water should be selected for the barrier fluid when ever possible. Oil is a poor choice because of
its low specific heat and poor conductivity.
THE HEAT EXCHANGER

The normal procedure is to install the heat exchanger in the discharge recirculation line connected
between the pump discharge and the stuffing box. If you elect to use this method be careful of the
following:

● This can be dangerous in hot water applications because a leak in any of the fittings will direct
high pressure, hot water into the atmosphere and some one may be standing close by and become
injured.
● Many hot fluids also contain solids that will clog up the heat exchanger.
● The temperature control is effective only while the pump is running. Many seal failures occur at
start up because of lack of proper temperature control while the pump was idle.
● If you want to use this method, and only a small amount of cooling is necessary, a commercial
automotive, automatic transmission cooler can be used effectively in many applications.
● A heat exchanger can be used with a pumping ring. In this application low pressure fluid is
circulated out of the top of the stuffing box, to the heat exchanger, and then back to the seal
through the bottom connection on the seal gland.

OTHER CONSIDERATIONS

● Vertical pumps require venting or the seal will trap air in the stuffing box, causing high heat at
the seal faces. To vent the stuffing box properly, connect a suction recirculation line between the
seal flush connection and the pump suction. Vertical pump applications also present a problem
for dual seal applications. You will need to provide some method of venting air trapped at the
outside seal.
● Carbon/ metal composites are a good choice for heat dissipation across the carbon seal face.
● Try to avoid seal faces that are thermally isolated by elastomers.
● Silicone carbide is a good choice for the hard face because of its excellent thermal conductivity
feature. Use the alpha sintered type to avoid chemical compatibility problems
● If you elect to use anti freeze as a barrier fluid between two seals, do not use the automotive
brands as many of them contain an anti leak chemical that will clog up the mechanical seal.
Water is the best barrier fluid because of its high specific heat (1.0) and good conductivity. Oil is
a bad choice because of its low specific heat (0.25/0.30), but if you must use it, try to select a heat
transfer oil.
● Heat pipes should have application in stuffing box cooling, but their application experience is
very limited.
● Try to select seal designs that have the elastomer positioned away from the seal faces. The
elastomer is the one seal component that is very sensitive to temperature change. Because
elastomers usually have poor thermal conductivity, cooling one side of the elastomer has a
minimal affect on the other side.
● Unfilled carbon/ graphite seal faces are absolutely necessary in higher temperature applications.
Less dense seal faces experience trouble when air trapped below the surface of the carbon,
expands and blows out pieces of carbon from the center of the seal face. The exception to this is
high temperature oil that will coke at the seal faces and pull pieces of carbon away. These
resultant pits will cause problems if you are trying to meet fugitive emission standards.
 ● In those pump designs where the open impeller is adjusted back against the back plate (Duriron),
any impeller adjustment tends to over compress the seal faces causing high heat. Proper face load
is essential to long seal life so cartridge designs should be specified any time you use open
impellers and high heat is a problem.
● Keep in mind that the pump cooling jacket is also used to cool the shaft that is conducting heat
back to the bearings. If you have a high heat application, you might consider a stainless steel
shaft because of its' poor heat conductivity compared to steel. Some bellows seal manufacturers
tend to tell people that they no longer need the stuffing box cooling and the result is premature
bearing failure.
● A centerline design pump is always desirable in hot applications to prevent pipe strain at the
pump suction and damage to the close clearance wear rings. Instead of supporting the volute at
the bottom this design bolts the pump feet to the sides of the volute, allowing the volute to
expand both up and down. The wet end off your pump can be modified to this configuration or a
new wet end can be purchased.
● If the seal is going to be used in a hot oil application do not hydrostatically test the seal with
water or a water based fluid. Moisture trapped in gaskets, elastomer clearances, and other small
crevices will flash when it comes into contact with the hot oil, causing a potential damage to the
equipment, seal and/ or the people that might be in the area.
● In cryogenic applications it is not practical to heat the seal area to protect the elastomer. A non
elastomer seal with a special self lubricating cryogenic carbon is your best solution to this
application. Be aware that the moisture laden atmosphere can freeze on the out board side of the
seal restricting the seal movement as the faces wear. In most cases a dual, non elastomer seal
with a non freezing barrier fluid between the seals is going to be your best choice.

Link to Mc Nally home page

SUBJECT : Environmental controls and special seals 3-2

For any given seal application problem there are two generally accepted solutions :

● Build a special seal that can compensate for the problem once it occurs.
● Control the environment surrounding the seal to prevent the problem from occurring in the first
place. If you control the seal environment you will avoid the inventory and delivery problems
associated with special seals.

In the following paragraphs I will be covering each of these environmental controls in detail.

CONTROLLING THE TEMPERATURE IN THE STUFFING BOX AREA.

● Flush the stuffing box ( port "C" in the illustrations at the end of this paper) with a compatible,
cool, clean liquid. Many seal glands have this connection available in a more convenient location
than the lantern ring connection. Flush is a misunderstood term. It describes six very different
functions:
● Discharge recirculation, where a line is connected from the discharge side of the pump to the
lantern ring connection in the stuffing box (A), or an appropriate connection in the gland.
● Suction recirculation, The recirculation line is connected from the bottom of the stuffing box to
the suction side of the pump (A).
● Jacketing fluid, The cooling or heating fluid flows through a jacket that is surrounding the
stuffing box (B).
● Barrier or buffer fluid, The fluid is circulated between two seals either by convection or by a
separate circulation system (E).
● Quench, The fluid is passed between the seal and a disaster bushing that has been installed in the
rear of the seal gland (D).
● Flush, A liquid, from an outside source, is injected into the stuffing box at one atmosphere above
stuffing box pressure and dilutes the product a small amount (C).
● Use two seals with a cool liquid circulating between them (E). A two way balanced cartridge seal
would be an excellent choice. This arrangement provides cooling at the seal faces where it will
often do the most good.
● Use the jacketed stuffing box that came installed on the pump (figure "B") or install one if it is
missing. These jackets are available as a replacement part for the back plate on most popular
pumps or as an after market bolt on accessory. To use the jacket properly:
❍ Dead end the fluid you are trying to control. This means no lines in or out of the stuffing

box except those used to circulate the jacketing fluid.

❍ Install a thermal bushing in the bottom of the stuffing box. Carbon is a good choice

because it is a poor conductor of heat compared to the metal pump components. A typical
clearance over the shaft would be 0.002 inches per inch of shaft diameter ( 0,01 mm/mm
of shaft diameter).
❍ Circulate the heating or cooling fluid, through the jacket, to control the temperature. Six to

eight gpm. (25 to 30 liters /min.) is typical of the amount of cool water needed to cool
down heat transfer fluid to the point where it will stop "coking" and Viton O-rings will be
acceptable. If your water is too hard you can substitute condensate or low pressure steam.
 ● An A.P.I. Gland is available for most mechanical seals. The gland has several features to provide
various functions. It can be used as:
❍ A quench connection (Q) to provide heating, cooling, or to remove any vapors that might

escape between the seal faces. Steam can be injected to lower the seal temperature in the
event of a fire. In the event of a major seal failure, this quench connection can be used, in
conjunction with the gland disaster bushing, to direct seal fluid leakage to point where it
can be collected.
❍ A flush connection (F) to provide clean fluid to the stuffing box or it can be used to vent

the stuffing box and seal in a vertical pump application.

❍ A close fitting, non sparking, disaster bushing (DB) to provide shaft support in the event

of a bearing failure or to protect personnel in the event of a massive seal failure.

● Heat tape or tracing lines can be installed around the stuffing box to provide a small amount of
temperature control.
● Install a cooler in the line between the pump discharge and the stuffing box. Keep in mind that
this system only works while the pump is operating so it would be of no value if the problem
occurs during pump shut down
● Use only balanced seals in these applications to avoid the heat problems associated with
unbalanced seal designs. Elastomers in the faces and two hard faces should also be avoided for
the same reason.

CONTROLLING THE PRESSURE IN THE STUFFING BOX AREA

● Increase stuffing box pressure by installing a recirculation line from the pump discharge back to
the stuffing box (figure "A") with a close fitting bushing in the bottom of the stuffing box. Try to
avoid positioning the recirculation line so that it aimed at the lapped seal faces or thin bellows
seal plate materials.
● Eliminate the pressure drop between seal faces by using two seals with a higher pressure barrier
fluid circulating between them. This is very important in the sealing of chemicals such as
ethylene oxide that will penetrate into the elastomer, expand and blow out the other side causing
severe damage to the elastomer.
● Flush the stuffing box with a high pressure liquid. This is the best solution if the fluid contains
solid particles that could interfere with the seal movement.
● The only reason to lower stuffing box pressure is because your seal does not have high pressure
sealing capability. It is possible to lower stuffing box pressure by the use of environmental
controls but a high pressure seal would be a much better choice. In an emergency you could
lower the pressure by one of the following environmental controls:
❍ Equalize the pressure in the stuffing boxes, of a double ended pump, by connecting the

stuffing boxes together to get even seal wear. This is a common application for a double
ended centrifugal pump.
❍ It is possible to lower stuffing box pressure by installing a close fitting bushing in the

bottom of the stuffing box and recirculate to the suction side of the pump. Be sure to "lock
in" the position of this bushing with either a snap ring or some other retaining device to
prevent it from moving towards the seal. Be careful of using this control on a vertical
turbine pump because the high velocity liquid, recirculating to the suction, can heat up the
line to the point where it can become "red hot".
❍ Lower the sealing pressure by utilizing an intermediate fluid pressure between two tandem

or "two way balanced seals"

PROVIDING A LUBRICANT IF THE SEALING PRODUCT IS A NON LUBRICANT ( Non
lubricants have a film thickness less than one micron)

● Use two seals with a higher pressure lubricant as the barrier fluid. This is an excellent choice in
most gas applications or liquids that have little to no lubricating properties. This form of
lubrication will often solve the problems associated with seal "slipstick" and some other types of
vibration.
● Flush the stuffing box with a liquid lubricant.
● Cooling the product will sometimes turn a non lubricant such as hot water into a lubricating
liquid.
● For some vacuum applications it makes sense to install a discharge recirculation line to destroy
the vacuum in the stuffing box area.

NOTE. If the impeller has been adjusted too close to the back plate the "pump out vanes" can cause a
vacuum to occur in the stuffing box. This often happens if the impeller adjustment has been made
backwards (as is the case with Duriron pumps). The problem exists with those open impeller designs
that adjust towards the volute (Goulds is an example).

DECREASING THE AMOUNT OF LIQUID AGITATION IN THE STUFFING BOX.

This becomes very important if you have to seal a liquid that increases its viscosity with agitation. We
call these liquids DILATANTS. Connect the bottom of the stuffing box to the suction side of the pump
to allow a single pass of the liquid through the stuffing box. Make sure the connection is very close to
the seal faces. You will be better off using the seal gland flush connection rather than the stuffing box
lantern ring connection.

Some liquids decrease their viscosity with agitation. We call these liquids THIXOTROPHIC. In some
instances the thinner liquid film can cause more face wear and seal "slip stick". If this problem exists use
one of the environmental controls mentioned above.

HANDLING SLURRY APPLICATIONS.

● Flush with a clean liquid. Check with your seal manufacture for the minimum amount of flush
that is needed. Balanced seal designs with the springs located outside of the fluid and most metal
bellows designs require only one to two gallons (4 to 8 liters) per hour.
❍ Note: this is per hour not per minute. At shaft speeds below 2900 rpm. filling the seal

cavity with a compatible grease is usually satisfactory.

● Increase the seal clearance in the stuffing box area. Replacement back covers with extra large
stuffing box designs are available for most pumps. Bolt on, large diameter stuffing boxes are also
available in the after market. If your product is cool you can probably run the fluid "dead ended"
with no connections coming into or out of the stuffing box.
● If you product contains sub micron particles as is the case with Kaoline (china clay), you will
have to circulate a higher pressure clean liquid between two seals to prevent solids penetration
between the faces. In some cases two hard faces also helps. Almost any dual seal design is
acceptable with the exception of the "back to back" rotating design which is never acceptable in
 any application.
● Recirculate to the suction side of the pump when possible. This will circulate cleaner fluid from
behind the impeller, through the stuffing box, and then back to the suction side of the pump.
Original equipment manufacturers do just the opposite by having the stuffing box fitting
connected to the discharge side of the pump.
❍ CAUTION! Do not connect to the suction side of the pump if the fluid is being pumped at

or near its vapor point as this could cause flashing in the stuffing box location. If the
solids have a low specific gravity (they float on the liquid) you may have to go to a clean
liquid flush because centrifugal force will work against you.
● Any time that you deal with a slurry application you are going to have a couple of other problems
as well so be prepared for them:
❍ Frequent impeller adjustment and excessive wear ring wear. You will need a cartridge seal

or a sleeve mounted split seal to compensate for the impeller adjustment. Cartridge seals
can generally be reused if the pump has been disassembled to replace the wear rings.
❍ Vibration will increase as the impeller goes out of balance due to abrasive wear. This can

cause drive lug wear and carbon face chipping. Vibration damping will become very
important. Seal designs that incorporate O- rings have a built in natural vibration damper.
Metal bellows seals require another solution.
❍ Wear of the rotating components. This is especially true if the seal rotates in the fluid.

Better seals are designed to cause rotation of the fluid in the seal chamber.

If you prefer to solve the application problem by using a special seal. the following thoughts might help
in deciding your selection.

SEAL DESIGN FEATURES THAT ADDRESS THE PROBLEMS OF EXTREMES IN HOT AND
COLD.

● Metal bellows seals. An excellent choice for cryogenic and high temperature, non petroleum
liquids. Petroleum products "coke" in the presence of high heat so cooling is necessary in these
applications.
● Carbon / metal composites to conduct heat away from the seal faces. Do not use "glued in"
versions.
● Elastomers located some distance from the seal face to protect the elastomer (rubber part) from
the additional heat generated at the seal faces
● Low friction face combinations. Carbon / tungsten carbide or Carbon/ silicone Carbide are among
the best. Some duplex material faces are showing good results in these applications. Carbon
impregnated silicone carbide is an example of such a material.
● Elastomers that have a wide range of operating temperature. Kalrez® is a good example.
● Low expansion metals such as Carpenter 42 and Invar 36 that will still retain the carbon or hard
face in the holder even though the temperature changes greatly. Be aware that low expansion
metals have poor chemical resistance so be careful in using them.
● Stationary seal designs are subject to a differential temperature across the seal face and body if a
recirculation line or flush is being used. This differential temperature can cause the face to go out
of flat. You will be better off with a rotating design in this instance.

If you elect to solve only the sealing problem you must keep in mind that the extremes in heat and cold
will also affect the bearing seals as well as the bearing oil. Unless you address these problems separately
you will be better off controlling the temperature in the stuffing box area and solving most of the bearing
area problems at the same time.

SEAL DESIGN FEATURES THAT ADDRESS THE PROBLEM WITH SLURRIES.

● Springs out of the fluid, the most common place to clog a seal.
● Vibration damping because the wear causes the rotating assembly to go out of balance.
● Be sure the dynamic elastomer moves to a clean surface as the seal carbon face wears.
● Use centrifugal force to clean the sliding seal components. Rotating seals (the spring loaded face
rotates) should be your first choice.
● Non stick coatings on the metal parts to prevent a build up of solids on the sliding components.
These coatings are porous so do not use them for corrosion resistance.
● If possible, rotate the slurry to reduce seal component wear. In future papers I will address the
problem of sealing individual applications. In the mean time the above information should help
you to get started.
®Dupont Dow elastomer

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●
SUBJECT: Some more about condensate 10-7

What is condensate?

● Steam that has been condensed back into water by either raising its pressure or lowering its
temperature. Not to be confused with demineralized, de-ionized, make up, or softened water.
When the condensate enters the boiler feed pump additional chemicals are added and the product
is now called boiler feed water.

Where does condensate come from?

● Condenser hotwells, the bottom part of the condenser

● Steam traps. They trap steam in the lines and let the condensate drain through.
● Heat exchangers. Condensate must be removed to allow the heat transfer. The condensate flows
to the bottom where the steam trap will open and allow the condensate to flow to the receiver.
There must be a positive differential pressure between the heat exchanger and the condensate line
so that the condensate will flow out of the heat exchanger. If the differential pressure is not there
a pump will have to be installed to remove the condensate.
● Or any other place that you are using steam.

We want to keep dissolved oxygen out of condensate. Why?

● It changes the pH of the water. This will contribute to corrosion problems in the system.
Especially the boiler.
❍ Boilers like a ph of somewhere between 10 and 11.

❍ Hot water is almost the perfect solvent. Give it enough time and it will dissolve anything.

Remember that boilers have to last thirty years or more. This means that water has plenty
of time to do its damage. It is the oxygen in the condensate that makes condensate a strong
oxidizing agent that can attack metals.
● Some carbon seal faces can be attacked by high oxygen levels in the condensate.
● The more gases entrained in the condensate the more likely the pump will experience cavitation
problems.
● The condensate temperature determines the amount of dissolved oxygen. You are trying to
conserve the energy (temperature) that was added to the steam to keep the amount of dissolved
oxygen down

TEMPERATURE °F. TEMPERATURE °C. PPM DISSOLVED OXYGEN

30 1 10 ppm

90 32 5 ppm

120 50 4 ppm
150 65 3 ppm

180 82 2 ppm

210 100 0 ppm

The average level detected in condensate receivers is three parts per million. This is almost one thousand
times greater than the five parts per billion level that can induce pitting corrosion.

How does oxygen get into the condensate system?

● Through the packing of condensate pumps. The stuffing box is under a negative pressure, and air
that is one third oxygen, leaks in.
● Valves above the water line can introduce oxygen as the velocity of the water lowers the pressure
at the valve stem.
● Flanges can have the same problem as valves.
● Oxygen is dissolved in makeup water that was added to the boiler because of condensate leaks.
● Pumps with built in repellers that create a negative pressure in the pump stuffing box.

How do you get rid of the dissolved oxygen?

● Add chemicals to convert it. Hydrazine is an example. You are adding hydrogen that will
combine with the oxygen to form water.
● In nuclear applications it is common to add hydrogen to the system for the same reason.
Hydrogen and oxygen will combine to form water in a neutron flux.
● Deaerate the condensate. This is normally done by heating the condensate with steam in a
deaerating tank that is located close to the suction of the boiler feed pump.
● Use balanced, O-ring mechanical seals that will prevent air from coming into the stuffing boxes
of condensate pumps.
● Seal valves and flanges to prevent air from entering the system.

Why do we have to use so much "make up" water in our boiler ?

● Because we lose so much of it.

❍ Condensate pump discharge recirculation lines that are trying to put a positive pressure on

packing are a common source of condensate loss.

❍ Boiler blow down is a major problem. Some boilers run with a constant blow down

because air that is entering the system is changing the pH of the water, causing chemical
addition that increases the total solids, causing the need for additional blow down..
❍ Steam tools.

❍ Air ejectors that are used to create a vacuum in receivers etc.

❍ Steam traps that drain to the ground.

What are some methods for conserving condensate?

● The discharge recirculation line used with packed pumps is a big waste. Convert to a balanced o-
ring seal and save a pile of condensate.
● Stop air from entering the system. The air is causing frequent boiler blowdowns. You can easily
seal flanges, valves and rotating shafts.
● Do not drain steam traps to the ground. Collect it in a tank that can be pumped back into the
system.
● If condensate is being circulated through the cooling jacket on a pump, make sure it is not being
discharged to a drain. There is no reason it cannot be returned to the condensate system.
● If condensate is being circulated between dual mechanical seals, it is not a good idea to return it
to the condensate system. There is too a high probability of contaminating the condensate with
product leakage.

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SUBJECT: The sealing of high pressure and hard vacuum 5-7

High pressure does three things that will damage any mechanical seal :

● It will create a high axial hydraulic load on the seal faces. This load will be in addition to the
axial force created by the single spring, multiple springs, or metal bellows that are used to create
the initial face loading in popular seal designs. This excessive axial loading can:
❍ Generate heat that could be detrimental to one or more of the seal components such as the

elastomer or in some cases, the product that you are sealing.

❍ It can cause excessive wear in a short period of time. This will be a very important

consideration when you are sealing non, or poor lubricating fluids. Thixotrophic fluids
(they lose their viscosity when agitated) will also be affected.
❍ If the product is a poor lubricant or a non lubricant, a high axial load can cause "slip stick"

problems that can chip the carbon outside diameter and possibly open the lapped seal
faces.
❍ It can change critical dimensions, such as the lapped seal faces going out of flat.

● It can distort one or more of the seal components causing the lapped seal faces to go "out of flat."
❍ Seal faces are subjected to "hoop stresses" that attempt to shrink the material. Since these

faces are seldom designed as a "solid block" the affect is to alter the lapped face flatness.
Finite element analysis design techniques help, but are still limited in practice.
● High pressure can extrude the elastomer (rubber part) in many seal designs, either "locking up"
the seal or causing leakage where the elastomer was extruded. In almost every case the elastomer
suffers permanent damage.

The excessive hydraulic pressure can come from several sources that include:

● The normal system pressure. In most single stage pump applications the stuffing box pressure is
slightly higher than suction pressure, but multi stage pump applications, boiler circulating pumps,
and some pipe line service pumps can experience very high stuffing box pressures.
● Water hammer and pressure surges can cause a very high temporary pressure in the system.
● Unusual system operation is another cause. The rapid opening and closing of valves can cause
these surges of pressure.
● A loss of power to a running pump can cause vacuum pockets in the lines. As the liquid rushes to
fill up these vacuum voids, very high pressures can be experienced.

The solution to high pressure sealing falls into three separate categories. You must decide which of the
approaches makes the best sense in any given application. The three approaches you can use are:

● Build a seal that can handle the excessive pressure.

❍ Select hydraulic pressure balanced seal designs to lower the axial load.

❍ Higher modulus materials are seldom available. You will have to go to a finite element

stress analyzed design. Look for seal components that have uniform thickness cross
sections, or go to larger cross section seals that will require more stuffing box radial room.
❍ Laminated bellows are available for many higher pressure metal bellows applications

(same principal as plywood).

 ❍ Higher durometer O-rings with non-metallic back up rings are available to prevent
elastomer extrusion.
● Stage the seals in an application so that several seals will be sharing the pressure.
❍ Tandem sealing with an intermediate lower barrier fluid pressure is the most common. In

some nuclear applications three seals have been connected in tandem to handle the high
pressure. Tandem and other types of multiple seal arrangements take a great deal of axial
room. In every case you are moving the first seal further away from the bearings so shaft
stabilization becomes very important. You should also remember that the multiple units
are acting as a single seal. In other words if you fail one of the seals, you fail them all.
● Lower the pressure in the stuffing box.
❍ Locking a restriction bushing into the bottom of the stuffing box and then connecting a

suction recirculation line from the bottom of the stuffing box to a lower pressure location
in the system is the normal way to accomplish this. Watch out for erosion of this bushing,
especially in abrasive applications. Be aware that if stuffing box pressure is near the
product vapor pressure, flashing could occur in the stuffing box or between the lapped seal
faces.
❍ You can cross-connect stuffing boxes in a multiple stage, double ended pump design.

Keep in mind that this will not work with single stage centrifugal pumps.

Vacuum means less than atmospheric pressure and vacuum sealing falls into two categories:

Normal vacuum. This vacuum is usually measured in inches or millimeters of mercury.

● This is the vacuum found in condensers, evaporators and at the suction side of the pump every
time you use the centrifugal pump to lift liquid.
● Hydraulic balanced seal designs can handle this vacuum because vacuum only means one
atmosphere of pressure (15 psi. or one bar) coming from the other side of the seal.
● O-rings are preferred for the elastomer design. Continuous O-rings can seal either vacuum or
pressure. They also have the ability to flex and roll to compensate for shaft movement.
● Carbon metal composite seal faces are satisfactory as long as the carbon is sealed at the inside
diameter to prevent the pressure from penetrating behind the carbon, upsetting the hydraulic face
balance and possible blowing the carbon out of its holder.

Hard vacuum. This vacuum is normally measured in microns, micro inches, or portions of a millimeter
of mercury (Torr).

● Elastomers are not acceptable for hard vacuums. The vacuum will cause the elastomer to "out
gas" increasing the elastomers' density and reducing the volume to a point where leakage is
possible. All metal seal designs will probably be your first choice.
● Seal face density and self lubrication can be a real problem in hard vacuum applications because
of the lack of moisture to release the graphite from the carbon/ graphite compound. Conventional
seal designs are seldom satisfactory in these applications. A great many materials exist that can
solve the problem, so you will want to contact your seal supplier for the availability of higher
density and self lubricating carbons for these special applications.
● Tandem dual seals with a higher pressure lubricating barrier fluid is the most common solution to
hard vacuum sealing.
Link to Mc Nally home page
SUBJECT : The sealing of hot oil 3-5

The largest user of hot oil pumps is the heat transfer oil customer. Many consumers use these products
with oil temperatures exceeding 500° Fahrenheit (260° C.) and 600° to 700° F. ( 315° to 370° C.)
becoming common. Some hotels have recently installed these systems in their laundry to dry clothing.

Heat transfer oils have many advantages over the steam that was formally used in these applications.

● The product does not flash.

● No boiler blow down.
● No deaeration heat loss.
● No high pressure. This means it is not only safer but also tends to leak less.
● No licensed boiler operator needed.
● The temperature can be kept uniform over a large processing area.
● You can heat and cool with the same system.
● These oils are excellent in systems that are water/ steam sensitive.
● The product is kept in a closed system. This means that all leakage can be stopped.
● There is less corrosion in the system.

In addition to these heat transfer oils you will encounter hot petroleum oil applications in refineries and
hot organic oil applications in various other industries. There are several problems associated with
sealing these hot oil products and each of them has to be solved if satisfactory seal life is ever to be
obtained.

● High temperature oil is generally too hot for most commercially available elastomers. (the rubber
parts)
● The product "cokes". These coke particles form at the elevated temperatures and coat them selves
inside the system piping, hardware and on the mechanical seal working parts. These "coke"
particles restrict the movement of sliding/flexing seal components causing the lapped seal faces
to open. The amount of coke that forms is a function of time and temperature. In other words,
coking will be a more severe problem in a closed loop system than it will be in the oil refining
business. Contrary to popular opinion testing has shown that air or oxygen is not needed for the
formation of coke. This means that seal designs that try to eliminate the oxygen by quenching or
some other method will not work. The use of steam quenching is limited to its' cooling effect
only.
● The product is always a fire hazard and depending upon the type and brand you purchase, there
could be toxicological problems. Keep in mind that the seal is going to wear out or fail at some
time and the product will leak out to the atmosphere.
● Thermal growth of the pump parts will cause problems in maintaining proper pump "wear ring"
and impeller clearances, as well as the correct seal compression.
● Misalignment between the driver and the pump and between the piping and the pump suction is a
serious problem at elevated temperatures.
● The product is costly. Leakage represents large monetary losses and personnel danger as well as
environmental problems.
● Heat tracing must be provided throughout the system to prevent the product from becoming too
 viscous during periods of prolong shut down. No one ever heat traces the stuffing box.
● Vibration is always a problem with hot oil pumps because the coke attaches to rotating
components interfering with the dynamic balance.
● You always end up pumping a slurry which means frequent impeller adjustments or wear ring
replacement and excessive vibration due to the imbalance caused by wear of the rotating parts.
● As the coke builds up on the inside of the discharge piping the pump will operate further off of its
best efficiency point (B.E.P.) causing shaft deflection, vibration, and excessive seal movement.
Coking on the inside of the suction piping can cause cavitation problems

Although there are many techniques available to the seal man to address each of these problems the
combination of these problems eliminates most of the common techniques and leaves the customer with
very few options to get good seal life. Regardless of the seal selected you must address all of the
problems or the seal life will be shortened.

Oil refineries pump hot oil with closed impeller pumps and as a result have to put up with the additional
problems associated with replacing "closed impeller" wear rings. Unlike the chemical industry they
cannot take advantage of the features of an open impeller design that can be easily adjusted to maintain
maximum efficiency. There are two reasons why oil refineries chose closed impeller designs with
mechanical seals and A.P.I. glands :

● Fear of a bearing failure that could cause sparking as the metal impeller contacted the metal
volute. The soft non sparking, metal wear ring on one end of the shaft and the carbon disaster
bushing installed in the A.P.I. Gland on the other, would insure no hard metal contact if a bearing
failed as the shaft was turning.
● Shaft expansion or impeller adjustment could cause the rotating, open impeller to contact the
stationary volute. To prevent sparking the impeller or volute would have to be manufactured
from a soft non sparking metal such as aluminum or bronze and this would not be very practical.

To insure long seal life you must do the following:

The product has to be cooled in the seal chamber :

● The oil must be cooled to stop the coking. Coke is a function of heat. Many years ago it was
believed that oxygen had to be present for coking to occur, but testing has shown that this is not
true. You can coke any petroleum product in an inert atmosphere as long as the temperature is
high enough. The finest lubricating oil available will start to coke at 300° F (150° C). The amount
of coking that you get is determined by the oil temperature and time.
● The oil must be cooled to prevent damage to any elastomers that might be installed in the seal or
shaft sleeve. Elastomers that are subjected to high heat will first take a compression set and then
shrink in volume. They will eventually grow hard, crack and leak excessively.
● The oil must be cooled to reduce the amount of heat that will be transferred through the shaft to
the bearing oil or grease. This heat will reduce the viscosity of the lubricating oil or grease and
eventually cause premature bearing failure. The SKF bearing company states in their lubrication
literature, that the life of bearing oil is cut in half for each ten degrees Centigrade (18° F) increase
in bearing oil temperature. They recommend 60° C to 70° C (140° F to 158° F) as an ideal oil
temperature.
 ● The grease or lip seals are sensitive to any increase in shaft temperature. A stainless steel shaft is
a good choice in these applications because stainless steel is a poor conductor of heat compared
to carbon steel. This is the reason there are no stainless steel frying pans unless they are clad with
either aluminum or copper.

You must install a back up seal for the following reasons:

● The product is dangerous. Leaking hot oil can start a fire or injure any personnel in the area.
Many brands are toxic and some have been identified as possibly carcinogenic.
● The product is too costly to tolerate even small amounts of leakage.
● Back up cooling is necessary if the primary cooling method fails. A back up seal, with a cool
barrier fluid system, can provide this cooling
● If you elect not to use a back up seal, then be sure to install an American Petroleum Institute (A.P.
I.) type gland. Look at the following illustration. The gland can perform several functions for you:

● The disaster bushing can provide shaft support if you lose a bearing.
● The leakage will be directed to the quench and drain connection when the seal wears out or fails.
● The quench connection will allow you to use steam for product cooling, but do not use too much
because it could penetrate into the bearing case.
● You can connect steam to the quench connection and use it to put out a fire, should it occur on
the outboard side of the seal.
● In this application the flush connection is not used. The stuffing box is "dead ended" to take full
advantage of the heating/ cooling jacket.

A large diameter cooled sealing chamber should be installed on the pump.

● To allow centrifugal force to throw solid coke particles away from the seal faces and sliding or
flexing components
● Misalignment is always a problem in these pumps. This shaft displacement can cause the rotating
seal to rub against stationary parts in a conventional stuffing box.
● Vibration means movement . The seal must be free to move within the seal chamber.
● When the pump stops gravity will pull solid particles to the bottom of the stuffing box. A large
seal chamber will almost guarantee that the particles will not collect around the seal at this time.

A Cartridge seal is necessary.

● Thermal growth will cause volute casing and shaft expansion. Only a cartridge seal will
compensate for this movement and allow for the impeller adjustment that will be necessary.
 ● The wear caused by the slurry will cause frequent impeller adjustments. The average pump used
in these applications has almost 0.250 inches (6 mm) of adjustment possible.

To compensate for misalignment you will have to :

● Use a "C" or "D" fame adapter to compensate for misalignment between the pump and its driver.
❍ These adapters are available from all good pump companies and will compensate for

misalignment as the pump goes through its temperature transients.

❍ No other method of alignment works any where near as well. If you are going to do a

conventional alignment with dual indicators or a laser aligned be sure your calculations
compensate for thermal growth.
● Use a "centerline" wet end to prevent excessive wear ring wear and pipe strain at the pump
suction. If your pump did not come equipped with this type of wet end it can easily be installed in
the maintenance shop. Look at the following illustration:

The illustration shows the centerline design. It will allow the pump volute to thermally expand both up
and down, and thereby eliminate strain on the suction piping.

Now that we have discussed these important points lets take a look at some solutions that are often
offered, but that we should not adopt as our solution. Here are the things that do not work well :

Bad solution #1. Use a metal bellows seal to eliminate the need for cooling in the seal area.

Comment: Although the metal bellows does not have rubber parts that are sensitive to high temperature
cooling is still needed for the coking. Most bellow suppliers offer an A.P.I. type gland to provide low
pressure steam behind the seal for cooling purposes and thereby eliminate the option of backup sealing.
This quenching should be limited to only a back up cooling status. If quenching is done with water
rather than steam, watch out for a calcium build up outboard of the seal. This "hard water" build up can
restrict the movement of the flexing portion of the seal as it tries to compensate for face wear.

If you substitute condensate for the quenching fluid the build up can be eliminated almost entirely.

Bad solution #2. Run a line from the discharge of the pump through a cooler and filter to cool down and
clean up the oil going into the stuffing box.

● Comment: The problems with this solution are obvious. The filter will clog and the cooler will
 become inoperative as coke builds up on the tubes.

Bad solution #3. Use two seals and run a cool oil between them.

● Comment: You have addressed the cooling problem but you have not addressed the problem of
the slurry with this solution.

What then is the best solution that addresses all of the problems? Look at the following illustration:

● Install a large jacketed sealing chamber. These bolt on accessories are available from your local
pump/seal supplier. Many suppliers can provide a replaceable pump back plate with a large seal
chamber cast into the plate
● Dead end the stuffing box. In other words no lines coming into or away from the inner seal
chamber. Do not worry about the heat. With a six to eight gallon per minute( 20 to 30 liters/
minute) flow through the cooling chamber the cooling jacket can keep the temperature down to
200° to 250° Fahrenheit (95° to 120° C.) without any trouble. If you have hard water in your area,
condensate may be the best choice to use as the cooling medium. In some cases low pressure
stream is satisfactory. If you anticipate long periods of shut down, low pressure steam will be
your best choice as it will keep the heat transfer oil at the proper low viscosity during these shut
down periods.
● Install a cartridge dual seal that has the inner seal balanced in both directions. If the pump does
not have precision bearings a double motion seal with the same features will work just as well.
"Two way" balance is necessary because the system and barrier fluid pressure can and will vary.
● The dual seal is necessary to conserve the expensive product and to provide a safety feature when
the inboard seal wears out or fails. It will also allow you time to schedule a seal replacement.
● Install a convection tank between the two seals and use cool heat transfer oil as the barrier or
buffer fluid. A lower pressure or buffer fluid is preferred. A slight pressure on the tank will allow
you determine which seal has worn out or failed first. A pumping ring or forced lubrication
between the seals is necessary
● Install a carbon restrictive bushing into the bottom of the stuffing box to act as a thermal barrier.
Applications have worked without this bushing but not as well as with it. Any material that has
poor heat conductivity will work as well as carbon as long as it is non sparking and
dimensionally stable.
That is all there is to the application. Centrifugal force will clean up the small amount of fluid in the
sealing chamber while the cooling jacket holds the temperature low enough to prevent coking and
injuring the seal elastomer.

The only problem with this system is that it works so well we often forget to clean the cooling jacket on
the pump. A small layer of calcium inside this jacket will provide an insulation and destroy the cooling
affect of the jacket. Be sure to keep this jacket clean or substitute steam or condensate for the cooling
water, and then don't worry about it.

Here are a few additional thoughts:

● A cartridge dual bellows seal can be substituted as long as adequate vibration damping has been
provided to prevent breakage of the bellows. With metal bellows seals try to rotate the fluid in the
sealing chamber to prevent excessive wear of the thin bellows plates.
● The bearing grease or lip seals should be replaced with labyrinth or positive face seals. The O.E.
M. lip seals have a design life of about two thousand hours (84 days) and they will cause costly
shaft fretting damage. These grease or lip seals will also allow moisture to penetrate into the
bearing case dramatically reducing bearing life.
● If you eliminate these lip seals, you will be able to convert to a solid shaft and improve the
"stiffness ratio" enough to prevent some of the shaft bending and vibration that is experienced at
start up, and as the pump runs off of its' best efficiency point.
● A cool oil flush with a restriction bushing installed into the bottom of the stuffing box, is another
choice. Be sure that the flushing pressure remains at least one atmosphere (15 psi. or 1 bar)
higher than the stuffing box pressure.
● Do not hydrostatically test the seal with water. Any moisture left in the seal or trapped in a gasket
will flash to steam when the hot oil enters the seal. This could be dangerous.
● When using an A.P.I. type gland be sure to check that the quench and drain ports have not been
confused with the flush ports. If these ports are connected incorrectly it could be very dangerous.
● If you are using stationary bellows seals with a cool oil flush be careful to direct the flushing
fluid away from the seal face. Since the bellows is not rotating the cooling on one side and the
hot system temperature on the other can cause the bellows seal face to go "out of flat".
● Recent tests show that carbon faces always experience some pitting in hot oil applications. In the
past these pits were ignored, but fugitive emission standards dictate that two hard faces should be
use in all hot oil applications.

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SUBJECT : The sealing of hot water 3-3

Water is normally considered a good lubricant and can do an adequate job of providing lubrication
between the lapped faces of a mechanical seal, but there are a few problems:

● At elevated temperature the water lubricating film is not thick enough to separate the sliding
surfaces of the seal faces. Cold water has a film thickness of about one micron which will keep
lapped seal faces separated most of the time. Hot water has a film thickness of only one third to
one half of that amount depending upon the temperature.
● At some combination of temperature and pressure the water will vaporize, expand, and open up
the lapped seal faces. When this occurs:
❍ The carbon outside diameter can become chipped and damaged as the constant vaporizing

and subsequent cooling vibrates the seal faces causing them to bang together. Drive lugs
will wear, metal bellows can break and lug driven hard or soft, faces can crack.
❍ Solids dissolved or suspended in the water will be left between the seal faces when the

water vaporizes. They will imbed into the softer face causing severe wear and damage to
the hard face.
❍ A phonograph finish can form on the carbon if a large particle of scale or any foreign

matter is blown across the two faces. The seal will leak through this damaged face.
● "Slip stick" can occur because the faces are trying to stick together due to a lack of lubrication
between them. The alternating sticking and slipping will produce a vibration that will chip
carbon, break bellows and crack lug driven faces unless some form of vibration damping has
been installed.
● In many piping systems magnetite ( Fe304 ) forms on the inside surfaces as a corrosion resistant
covering. This magnetite breaks loose from the piping walls and often collects on the seal
components. It can be recognized by its black or reddish color and its attraction to a magnet. The
magnetite affects the seal a couple of ways :
❍ Being an abrasive material, it will mechanically attack the seal sliding elastomer by

penetrating into it This will cause "hang up" and eventual leakage.
❍ It will wear the sliding elastomer sealing surface.

❍ Loose magnetite is very common in new water systems. The problem will eventually clear

its self up after the system has been in use for about a year and the ferric oxide has formed
into a stable layer.
● Hot water is dangerous. The leakage will be invisible as it flashes to steam.
❍ If the hot water is part of a condensate system it may have to be sealed under vacuum

conditions.

In order to seal this product effectively, you must address all five problems at the same time. We will
begin by learning how to pick the correct materials for the seal components, then we will choose a seal
design and finally apply the correct environmental controls to insure that the above problems are being
addressed.

Picking the correct seal materials:

● The seal face combination should be an unfilled carbon graphite running against either solid
 silicon carbide or tungsten carbide as your first choice. Plated or coated faces should not be used
in this application. A new face material made from graphite impregnated silicon carbide has
become very popular in recent years because of its better heat conductivity.
● The elastomer. Use ethylene propylene to 275 degrees Fahrenheit (135 C.) If you seal at a higher
temperature, either Dupont's Kalrez or an equivalent will be necessary. In most cases you should
be trying to cool the water to increase the face life. If the water is cooled a high temperature
elastomer is not necessary. Be sure that you do not put petroleum grease on the ethylene
propylene. Any petroleum product will attack ethylene propylene rubber (epr)
● The metal components. 316 grade stainless steel is preferred. Metal bellows or springs should not
be manufactured from stainless steel to avoid chloride stress corrosion problems. Hastelloy "C" is
your best choice for the springs or metal bellows.

Choosing the correct mechanical seal

● A balanced, O-ring mechanical seal should be used. Both rotating and stationary versions are
acceptable although stationary is preferred. The O-ring will allow sealing in both directions if the
application alternates between vacuum and pressure.
● A cartridge seal should be used for ease of installation and in the case of open impeller pumps, to
allow for impeller adjustment as the pump cycles between operating and ambient temperature.
Do not use cartridge mounted stationary seals unless they have been fitted with some type of self
aligning feature.
● A motion seal should be specified if the pump is equipped with sleeve or babbitt bearings. This is
a very common arrangement with multiple stage boiler feed pumps.
● A high pressure seal should be used if the seal chamber pressure (not the pump discharge
pressure) exceeds 350 psi. (24 bar). High pressure seals are of a more rugged construction that
prevents face distortion and elastomer extrusion.
● Split seals can be used in some of these applications, but some designs have trouble when the
pressure alternates between a positive pressure and vacuum. Sleeve mounting the split seal helps
with impeller adjustment, or in the case of vacuum applications the seal can be installed
backwards, or with a discharge recirculation line installed to keep a positive pressure in the
stuffing box. Note: many hot water applications are dangerous so dual seals are recommended.
● Care must be exercised if you use a stationary metal bellows seal design. Flow through the
normal flush or recirculation connection can cause a substantial temperature differential across
the seal face that can cause the lapped seal faces to become distorted.

The environmental controls you will need to seal hot water:

● To insure the longest possible seal life, the water should be cooled as close to ambient
temperature as possible. The cooler the water the better it will lubricate the faces.
● Install a carbon bushing into the bottom of the stuffing box to act as a thermal barrier. Utilize the
jacketed stuffing box on the pump, to cool down the stuffing box fluid. Be sure there are no
recirculation or flush lines coming into, or out of, the stuffing box. If there is no jacket installed
on the stuffing box one can be purchased from the pump manufacturer or an outside vendor. If
you purchase the jacket from an outside vendor be sure to order the enlarged, jacketed seal
chamber or replacement back plate with the large, jacketed seal chamber cast into it.
❍ NOTE : Be sure the cooling jacket is functioning. If you are in an area that has hard water
 calcium can coat the jacket surfaces interfering with the heat transfer. In that instance you
must provide for jacket cleaning on a regular basis or substitute condensate as the cooling
medium. The cooling jacket is also necessary to prevent heat transfer to the bearing case.
Each 18 degree Fahrenheit (10 C.) rise in oil temperature will cut the life of the oil in half.
● If cooling is not at all possible, another alternative is to pressurize the stuffing box to at least one
atmosphere above the water vaporization pressure. This can be done by installing a close fitting
bushing into the bottom of the stuffing box and using a recirculation line from the pump
discharge to pressurize the box. As noted above, be careful of leaks in the fittings. This could be
dangerous in some high pressure boiler feed pump or boiler circulating pump applications.
Depending upon the pressures involved you may be better off with a special high pressure seal
design.
❍ NOTE : You are going to have trouble when the heat transfers back to the bearing oil.

Many pumps have a bearing oil cooler available to provide the necessary cooling. Check
with the manufacturer for this accessory. At 200° Fahrenheit (100° C.) non contaminated
oil has a useful life of only three months. The lip or grease seals used in these applications
have a useful life of only three months also, even when the temperature is closely
controlled. These seals should be replaced with labyrinth or positive face seals.
● It is not wise to install a cooler between the pump discharge and a conventional stuffing box.
Although this arrangement will provide adequate cooling, in most cases it is too dangerous at
elevated temperatures because of possible leaks in the piping and fittings.
● Tandem seals, with a pumping ring and cooler installed between the seals is another alternative,
but this application takes a great deal of axial room.
● An A.P.I. type gland with a cool quench is not a good choice for this application.
❍ The quench water will vaporize when it hits the hot surfaces under the seal, causing solids

to form that will restrict the seal movement and contribute to the corrosion of the seal
sleeve and other components.
❍ Those designs that have the springs out of the sealing fluid can easily clog the springs in

this solution.
❍ Excess quenching water can leak back into the bearings through the grease or lip seal.

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SUBJECT : The sealing of liquid slurries 3-4

A slurry is defined as solids suspended in liquid that cannot be dissolved by controlling the temperature
and/ or pressure. The solids may or may not be abrasive. It does no good to try to identify the number of
solids or their size because no one knows how these numbers relate to slurry related seal problems.
Whenever you deal with slurries there are several problems you must consider:

● The slurry can clog the flexing parts of a mechanical seal causing the lapped faces to open as a
result of both shaft and seal movement.
● If the slurry is abrasive it can wear the rotating components. This can be a serious problem with
thin plate metal bellows seals.
● The pump rotating assembly will go out of balance as the slurry wears the impeller and other
rotating components. This will cause excessive moving of the seal components.
● The pump will lose its efficiency as critical tolerances wear rapidly. This can cause vibration and
internal recirculation problems. The wear will also cause the need for frequent impeller
adjustments that will cause problems with mechanical seals

It is generally believed that the main problem with slurries is that they penetrate between the lapped seal
faces and cause damage. Although this is true, it is also true that they cannot penetrate until the seal
faces open.

Seal faces should be lapped flat to within three helium light bands. That is a distance just a little bit shy
of one micron. Compare this to the fact that the smallest object that can be seen with the human eye is
forty microns in size, and you will appreciate the technology used in the manufacture of mechanical
seals. As a matter of comparison look at a common coffee filter. It filters out particles larger than ten to
fifteen microns.

All of this means that the seal is in fact a superior filter and as long as you can keep the two lapped faces
in contact there little chance for solids to penetrate the faces and do any type of damage.

There are three approaches to the sealing of solids :

● Design a seal with non clogging features.

● Create a clean sealing environment for the mechanical seal.
● Do a combination of both

Let's look at each of the approaches, and in the process learn a sensible method of sealing a slurry.

Build a seal with non clogging features.

● Take the springs out of the sealing fluid.They cannot clog if they are not in the slurry.
● Make sure the sliding or flexing components move towards a clean surface as the seal faces wear.
● Take advantage of centrifugal force to throw the solids away from the sliding/flexing components
and lapped seal faces.
 ● Use a non stick coating to prevent the slurry from sticking to the sliding components.
● Use only balanced seal designs. Additional heat generated at the seal faces can cause many
products to solidify, coke, and crystallize creating even more solids problem.
● Metal bellows designs can be used, but they must have extra thick plates to resist excessive wear.
Extra convolutions will have to be provided to compensate for the higher spring rate caused by
these thicker plates. Rotating the abrasive fluid with the bellows can be a big asset. Some
commercial designs have this feature.

Create a clean sealing environment.

Give the seal as much radial room as possible. You can either bore out the packing chamber or install a
large bore sealing chamber. Try to give yourself at least 1 inch (25 mm. ) radial space if possible. The
more room you can provide for the seal the better off you are going to be.

Try to remove the solids from the sealing area. There are a number of techniques for doing this. Some
work and some do not. Let's look at each of them. First we will look at the solutions that do not work
very well and comment on their problems :

● Bad Solution #1. Connect a filter in the line from the pump discharge to the stuffing box. Since
the discharge is a higher pressure the flow of liquid through the filter will clean up the fluid and
then there will be clean liquid flowing to the stuffing box..
❍ Comment : The problem with this idea is that the filter will clog and no one will clean it.

● Bad Solution #2. Install a cyclone separator into the line instead of a filter. Connect it between
the pump discharge and suction with the third (the center) port connected to the stuffing box.
❍ Comment: This idea is just as bad. The cyclone was never intended to be a single pass

device. They work well if used in a bank of several filters but there is not enough pressure
differential between the suction side of a pump and the stuffing box for them to be
effective.
● Bad Solution #3. Install the seal outside the stuffing box so the springs will not be located in the
dirty fluid.
❍ Comment: The problem with this idea is that as the seal faces wear they must move

forward and in doing so they will move into the dirty fluid. The result will be that the
movable face will hang up in the solids and the faces will open. Another problem with this
approach is that centrifugal force throws the solids into the seal faces and not away from
them.
● Bad Solution #4. Install a double rotating seal in the "Back to Back" configuration with a higher
pressure, clean liquid barrier between the seals.
❍ Comment: This is a very common approach to the problem and has all of the problems

associated with installing the seal outside the stuffing box. In addition to a rapid failure
you will also experience product dilution as the barrier fluid leaks into the pump.
● Bad Solution #5. Since we are discussing things that don't work we might as well try two hard
faces.
❍ Comment: Needless to say they will not prevent the faces from opening and when they do

open, experience shows that you are going to destroy both hard faces. Some seal salesmen
may even try to convince you that the seal faces are designed to "grind up" the solid
particles into a fine powder. In other words the seal is designed as some type of a "quasi-
 milling machine"

Now we will look at some methods that do work:

Good Solution #1.

● Flushing with a clean liquid is a good method of cleaning up the pumping fluid. The amount of
flushing you will need depends upon the design of your seal. If the design has multiple small
springs in the fluid then more flushing will be required. There are various sources for the flushing
liquid :
❍ Finished, clean product or one of the mixture's clean ingredients

❍ A compatible fluid.

❍ A solvent.

❍ An additive that is going to be added down stream and could be injected into the stuffing

box location.
❍ Clean water.

❍ A compatible grease can be used with most balanced seals running at lower speeds

● NOTE : Never introduce live steam into the stuffing box as it could cause the product to flash and
the pump to cavitate.
● Be sure to start with a flushing pressure that is at least one atmosphere (15 psi or 1 bar) higher
than the stuffing box pressure. You can use a pressure gauge to determine stuffing box pressure.
You can then use a flow meter to regulate the amount of flushing fluid.
● With intermittent service pumps it is a good idea to have an electrician install a solenoid valve
with a delay switch that would allow the flushing fluid to come on thirty seconds prior to the
pump starting and to leave the flushing valve open for a few minutes after the pump has stopped

Good Solution #2.

● Install an oversize, jacketed sealing chamber and "dead end" the fluid. "Dead ending" means that
there are no circulation lines coming in or going out of the sealing chamber.
● You can use the cooling jacket to remove the heat being generated by the seal faces as centrifugal
force cleans up the solids that are present in the small amount of fluid, trapped in the seal
chamber. This solution works exceptionally well with fluids where temperature control is
important. Heat Transfer Oil is a prime example.
● If the fluid you are sealing is not hot, the cooling jacket will not be necessary. Some times one
shot of clean liquid into this oversize, dead ended stuffing box, is all that is necessary to seal even
a severe slurry. Needless to say this application works best on a continuous running pump.
● If the specific gravity of the solids is less than the liquid they are mixed in, centrifugal force will
not work for you. A clean flush will be necessary in this instance or one shot of a higher specific
gravity compatible liquid.

Good Solution #3.

● If the solid particles are sub micron in size two seals with a higher pressure barrier fluid becomes
necessary. In some instances you might want to use two hard faces on the inner seal. Kaoline and
some dyes are a good example of products with sub micron size particles.
Good Solution #4.

● Install a large seal chamber on the pump and connect a recirculation line from the bottom of the
stuffing box back to the suction side of the pump. The size of this line will be determined by the
size and number of solids that you are trying to remove.
● This will cause liquid to flow from behind the impeller to the stuffing box and then on to the
suction of the pump. Fluid entering the stuffing box, from behind the impeller has been
centrifuged and should be a lot cleaner than the fluid you are pumping. This solution works well
with closed impeller pumps and those open impeller designs that adjust to the front of the pump
volute. If your open impeller adjusts to the back plate (as is the case with the Duriron pump) this
method is not as effective.
● Do not use this technique if:
❍ You are pumping close to the vapor point of the fluid, as lowering the pressure could

cause the pumping fluid to vaporize in the stuffing box and in some cases between the seal
faces.
❍ You are sealing a Duriron pump where the impeller adjusts to the back plate.

❍ You are sealing double ended pups where the stuffing boxes are at suction pressure.

❍ If the solids have a low specific gravity or density and float on the liquid.

Compensate for the fact that the rotating unit will go out of balance.

● The seal faces have to be vibration dampened. O-Ring type seals are equipped with a natural
vibration damper because of the dynamic elastomer that has been installed. Metal bellows seals
have to be provided with some other method. Letting the seal face holder rub and vibrate along
the shaft is a normal approach used by most metal bellows seal manufacturers. The logic is
questionable.
● Give the seal room to move. Shaft run out and vibration can cause the seal rotating components
to contact the inside of the stuffing box unless you have installed an oversized sealing chamber.
● Use motion seals if the run out or vibration is excessive. Unlike pump seals, these seals have
much wider hard faces and extra internal clearances. Most popular designs can compensate for
plus or minus 1/8" (3 mm. ) in a radial direction and 1/8" (3 mm) in an axial direction.
● Move the seal closer to the bearings. Split seal designs are a logical choice because most of them
come with a stuffing box extension gland that positions them next to the bearings. A support
bushing or sleeve can be installed in the end of the stuffing box to minimize the affects of
unbalance, vibration and shaft whip or wobble. A variety of materials are available for these
support sleeves. Check with your supplier for availability in your area.

The pump will lose its efficiency and experience more shaft movement as close tolerances wear.

● If you are using open impellers it will mean frequent impeller adjustment. In this case a cartridge
seal is your best approach as impeller adjustments can be made without disturbing the seal face
loading. Split seals can compensate for the initial impeller setting and split seals mounted on a
split sleeve will easily compensate for movement caused by temperature growth or impeller
adjustment.
● Closed impeller pumps will have to be disassembled and the wear rings changed when the
 clearances become excessive. If you are fortunate enough to have adjustable wear rings on your
pump then only an outside adjustment will be needed and the pump will not have to be put out of
service. Cartridge seals can almost always be reused in these applications because the seal faces
were not separated as the pump was disassembled.
● Remember that with closed impeller pumps the wear rings will have to be replaced when the
normal clearance doubles. A typical normal clearance would be 0.008" to 0.015" ( 0,2 to 0,4
mm). A good rule of thumb is that the pump will lose 1% of its capacity for each .001 inch (0,025
mm.) of wear ring wear.

A few more thoughts about the sealing of slurries :

● Kaoline (China clay) is a product that is used in many industries including paper and
pharmaceutical. Its' abrasive particles are less than one micron in size and as a result will
penetrate lapped seal faces causing rapid carbon and hard face wear. In this application it is
necessary to use two mechanical seals with a higher clean barrier pressure between the faces to
prevent most of the penetration.
● In addition to one of the recommended solutions mentioned above, two hard seal faces can also
be used as some particles will always penetrate the faces.
● Using a combination of packing and a split mechanical seal is proving to be an ideal solution in
many applications. With the seal installed there is no pressure differential across the packing and
therefore the solids do not try to penetrate. Move the packing flushing line to the bottom of the
split seal housing and flush the packing through this connection instead of the lantern ring or seal
cage. The flushing is necessary to remove the additional heat being generated by the packing.
● You should be able to cut the flushing fluid volume down to about one third of the amount you
had been using. Since the packing is not being forced to the shaft only a small amount of cooling
is necessary.
❍ CAUTION! It is important that the flushing fluid be kept at a higher pressure than the

stuffing box pressure. If this pressure differential fails it could force the packing into the
rear of the mechanical seal. A split adapter plate installed between the split seal and the
stuffing box face can prevent the packing from blowing out if the flushing pressure is lost.
● If you elect to use a rotating metal bellows in a slurry application, remember that the bellows
should rotate the fluid in the sealing chamber. Most bellows designs allow the thin bellows plates
to cut through the abrasive slurry and experience severe wear and breakage in a short period of
time.

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SUBJECT: The sealing of mixers and agitators 3-7

Mixer applications are the same as process pump applications except for a couple of things:

● The mixer seal is subject to much more radial and axial shaft movement.
● Dual seals are usually required (especially in top entering mixers) because the seal is frequently
located above the fluid causing a single seal to run dry.
● Many mixers run under vacuum conditions requiring the use of balanced seals.
● Bottom entering designs usually have a lot of solids in the seal area.

Please refer to the following drawingfor the bearing arrangement of a typical mixer. You will note that
the motor turns the shaft through some gearing that is well supported by bearings. The problem starts
when the mixer shaft passes through the stuffing box area.

As the impeller turns in the liquid it can cause excessive shaft whip and radial movement. As shown in
figure "A" the packing helps to stabilize the shaft and is acting as another support bearing. Packing never
was designed to act as a bearing so the result is major shaft wear and excessive leakage problems. The
shaft movement is aggravated by several factors:

● If the liquid level in the tank is too low it can cause "vortexing". To prevent this vortexing you
should measure the diameter of the mixer blade and then insure that the fluid level is at least one
and one half times this distance above the turning blade.
● In many instances we are mixing a combination of liquid and a solid. Since it is customary to add
the solids first they can cause "skidding" of the blade as it rides on these solids.
● The length of the shaft is too long for the diameter. In pumping we call this the L3/D4 ratio and
recommend that the number never go over 60 (2 in the metric scale). In most mixer applications
the number runs into the hundreds.
If you attempt to convert mixer packing to a mechanical seal you usually run into trouble with the
excessive shaft motion. Some consumers have attempted to solve the motion problem by installing
another anti- friction bearing closer to the mechanical seal. Unless the equipment is "line bored" (and it
never is) it is not wise to put three anti- friction bearings on any rotating shaft.

Picture "B" is one method of solving the problem. The mixer shaft is placed inside a "Quill Shaft" that is
well supported by bearings and this quill shaft is then coupled to the mixer shaft. This design will allow
the manufacture to place the second shaft bearing closer to the stuffing box area where it should have
been in the first place. Unfortunately this new design adds several thousand dollars to the mixer cost.
The manufacture typically packages a double seal and bearing into a spool piece that can be inserted into
the two piece shaft.

This original equipment seal is a poor choice because most mixer manufacturers choose an inferior
unbalanced "back to back" double seal that will damage the expensive stub shaft and clog easily if there
are solids in the mixing liquid. The following illustration describes this " back to back" double seal:

As the seal faces wear and the inner seal attempts to move forward it will hang up on the solids collected
in front of the inside rotating face. Centrifugal force will throw the solids into the inside faces causing
excessive wear in a short period of time.

The best, and lowest cost solution is to install a motion seal in the stuffing box and solve the problem
once and for all. I do not have an illustration for a motion seal, but you can check with your seal supplier
for a catalog that will explain the seal in great detail.

Motion seals are different than pump seals:

● Because of the misalignment potential they are almost always a stationary design. (The springs
do not rotate with the shaft)
● The inner seal should be balanced in both directions because many of these applications can
fluctuate between pressure and vacuum. This feature will also prevent the inner seal from
blowing open and allowing the barrier fluid to contaminate the product if you loose barrier fluid
pressure between the seals.
● The rotating hard faces must be wider than normal to accommodate the excessive radial motion.
A design movement of plus or minus 0.125 inches (3 mm) would be typical.
● The internal clearances must be greater than pump seals to prevent contact during excessive
radial movement.
● The stationary faces must be spring loaded in some manner to prevent loading one seal and
 unloading the other during periods of axial movement. The easiest way to do this is to spring load
the faces together.
● Cartridge designs are necessary for correct and easy installation and to allow you to change seals
without emptying the mixer in "Side Entering" and "Bottom Entering" applications. Be sure the
seal has some sort of self aligning feature to compensate for misalignment caused by the set
screws in the cartridge.

Single split seals, mounted on a split sleeve have become very popular for mixer type applications (see
the following illustration). The shaft movement can be partially stabilized by installing a split sleeve
bearing in the stuffing box. A wide variety of materials are available for this split bearing. Check with
your local distributor.

The split seal is also a good choice for those mixers that have a moveable shaft that seals a Teflon ring
against the tank wall and allows you to change the seal without emptying the mixer. This is a major
improvement over the original equipment design because you do not have to remove the shaft spool
piece.

It should be obvious that when the spool piece is removed there is usually no force to hold the Teflon®
ring against the mixer wall.

Bottom entering shafts create a different set of problems. Look at the following illustration:
Dirt and solids fall into the stuffing box and cannot be centrifuged out. Flushing liquid tends to channel
through the solids and does a poor job of removing them from the stuffing box.

There are a couple of possible solutions.

● Cut off the stuffing box and move the seal into the vessel so that centrifugal force will throw the
solids away from the flexible seal components
● Use a higher specific gravity fluid in the stuffing box to prevent gravity from pulling the solids
into the seal area. A high density grease could be a good solution.
❍ If you cannot tolerate grease you should be able to find some type of a compatible fluid

that will work.

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SUBJECT: The sealing of non lubricants 4-8

When we are discussing mechanical seals, a lubricant is defined as a fluid that has a film thickness of at
least one micron (0.000039 inches) at its operating temperature and load. If the product we are sealing is
not a lubricant we are forced to use the self lubricating characteristics of the carbon/ graphite mixture
used in the manufacture of the seal face.

The key to this self lubrication is that carbon can form strong chemical bonds with gases such as water
vapor. The adsorbed gas then weaken the interlacing bonding forces, which in turn reduce the rubbing
friction. Many other types of vapors and gases can be readily adsorbed by carbon/ graphite and in some
instances inorganic compounds can be added to the carbon/ graphite if adsorbable gases are not present
or in short supply. Graphitizing of the carbon (heating it to 5000 degrees Fahrenheit or 2750 degree
Centigrade) is another approach to self lubrication.

In the seal business we are faced with the challenge of sealing three types of non lubricants. I will
address the problems in order of their difficulty :

THE NON LUBRICATING LIQUID

Hot water and many solvents fit into this category. The lack of lubrication at the seal faces causes more
rapid wear of the carbon face.

This carbon face is really a combination of carbon and graphite with the graphite being a good dry
lubricant. As the seal face wears, the graphite is deposited on the hard face (you can see the black ring)
leaving the carbon behind. The function of the hard face is to give the graphite a place to deposit.
Testing has shown that when we seal a lubricating fluid the lubricant becomes trapped between these
asperities (the peaks the graphite leaves when it deposits on the hard face) and in many cases becomes a
vapor, separating the two running surfaces.

A lack of lubrication between the seal faces can also cause a destructive form of vibration called
"slipstick". Without proper lubrication the lapped seal faces try to stick together, but "slip" when the seal
drive mechanism engages the drive lugs and inertia accelerates the faces off of these lugs. The faces then
slow down as a result of the poor lubrication. This alternating "slipping" and "sticking" causes severe
vibration with a resultant "chipping" at the out side diameter of the carbon face, along with drive lug and
slot wear.

The amount of wear experienced by the carbon /graphite mixture is affected by:

● The surface speed of the seal faces. (a combination of shaft rpm. and seal face diameter). PV
numbers are not really valid because the carbon is sensitive to "P" but not to "V"
● The spring load on the seal faces and the area of the seal faces.
● The stuffing box pressure. Keep in mind that this number can vary during pump operation.
● The quality and grade of the carbon/ graphite face.
● The surface finish and hardness of the hard face.
● The cleanliness of the sealing fluid.
 ● The accuracy of the initial installation dimension.
● The hydraulic balance designed into the face.
● The hardness of the carbon.
● The thickness of the lubricating film.
● The affect of centrifugal and hydrodynamic forces on the face loading.

There is little chance of excessive heat developing between the seal faces and in the stuffing box area
because the generated heat can be carried away by the conductivity of the non lubricating liquid
surrounding the seal.

All of the above means that the elastomer (O-ring) will probably not be affected by the extra heat
generated between the seal faces, as a result of the poor or no lubricating properties of the fluid you are
sealing.

THE NON LUBRICATING GAS

This application has all of the problems associated with the sealing of non lubricating liquids, but now
you have the additional problem of heat because gases are for the most part good insulators and do not
let the heat generated between the faces dissipate to the surrounding product and metal stuffing box.
Heat can affect a seal several ways:

● Filled carbon faces can be damaged depending on the filler or binder that was selected. There are
special filled carbons manufactured if the gas can not be adsorbed into the carbon/ graphite
releasing the graphite to provide dry lubrication.
● The elastomer (rubber part) is probably the most sensitive to an increase in heat. Its proximity to
the seal faces is very important in dry running applications. Heat can cause an initial compression
set off the elastomer and eventual complete destruction. Each elastomer compound has a
temperature limit as well as sensitivity to certain chemicals and compounds.
● Most fluids are affected by an increase in heat. They can: crystallize, solidify, lose their viscosity,
vaporize, or build a film. In each of these cases, seal life will be affected.
● The corrosion rate of most corrosive fluids will double with an 18° Fahrenheit (10°C) increase in
temperature.
● Seal flatness, face load, carbon squeeze, elastomer interference and many other tolerances can be
affected by a change in stuffing box temperature.

SEALING A DRY SOLID

You now have all of the problems associated with the sealing of a gas with the additional problem of a
bunch of solids thrown into the mix. This application is seldom associated with pumps but is commonly
found in mixer applications. The application is very similar to sealing a slurry so you should try to select
those seal designs that have non clogging features. These features would include:

● Springs out of the fluid.

● You might consider rotating the seal in the powder to take advantage of centrifugal force, to
throw the solids away from the sliding components.
● The elastomer must move to a clean surface as the seal face wears.
 ● Select non fretting designs. They are especially important in dry solids applications.
● Teflon coating of the rotating parts helps to prevent the solids from sticking to the moving
components.

The majority of mixers designed with bottom entering stuffing boxes are especially sensitive to this
problem. Try to locate the seal inside of the mixer and out of the narrow stuffing box or you will have
trouble with the solids packing around the outside diameter of the mechanical seal. A clean flush with
air or a suitable gas seldom works in this application because the air channels through the dry solids, or
the vessel pressure will equalize with the incoming air pressure stopping the flow.

Most of these applications are slow speed (less than 500 rpm.) so a non clogging type seal works well. A
non metallic, outside seal can be used if you are prepared to clean it out with air or some other gas
between batches.

A split seal with air introduced into the bottom of the gland is getting good results in many applications.
If the seal does clog up, it is easy to disassemble the seal for cleaning between batches.

In some applications it is acceptable to use a compatible grease in the stuffing box to prevent the ingress
of solids. A balanced O-ring type seal, running at lower motor speeds should not generate enough heat to
affect the lubricating qualities of the grease.

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SUBJECT: Sealing products sensitive to a change in temperature or pressure. 8-9

Liquids and gases are both called fluids and a fluid can shorten the life of a seal in two ways;

● It can cause the seal faces to open allowing solids to penetrate.

● It can damage one of the seal materials. Elastomers are very sensitive to both temperature and
pressure.

In this paper we will be considering how small changes in either temperature or pressure will cause one
or both of these failures to occur, and learn how to prevent these changes especially when the pump is
stopped and often subject to both temperature and pressure fluctuations. In another paper in this series
we learned that a change in temperature could:

● Cause a fluid to crystallize, sticking the seal to the shaft and making the faces open as the shaft
moves. Caustic and sugar solutions are examples of this.
● Cause a liquid to vaporize, blowing the lapped seal faces apart, letting solids penetrate between
the faces or causing damage as the faces bounce open and shut. This happens any time water
flashes to steam.
● Cause some liquids to become viscous, preventing the seal faces from staying in contact. Bunker
fuel oil becomes very thick when it gets cold.
● Cause some liquids to solidify, either sticking the seal to the shaft, preventing the flexible seal
parts from moving or causing the seal faces to stick together. Sugar syrups do this when they get
hot, some fluids do it when they get cold.
● Cause a film to build on the seal sliding components or between the faces. Oil varnish or
"coking" is as typical example of this problem. Hard water will build a film on the seal sliding
components as the water temperature increases. If the system is new and has not been passivated
(protective oxide film on the metal surface) Ferric oxide or a similar oxide can build up on the
sealing components. This build up will accelerate with temperature.
● Cause a liquid to become a non-lubricant. Water becomes less of a lubricant as its temperature
increases. This lack of lubrication can cause "slip stick" problems between the lapped faces.
● The corrosion rate of most corrosives increase with a rise in temperature. A general rule of thumb
says that the corrosion rate of an acid will double with a 18°F (10°C) rise in temperature. This is
the reason we avoid the use of packing in acid pumps. You will recall the packing generates
almost six times the heat of a balanced mechanical seal

If you are not using a dual seal with a pressurized barrier fluid, then you will get some sort of a pressure
drop across the seal face. A pressure drop could:

● Cause the fluid to vaporize and blow open the lapped faces. If this happens several problems
might occur:
● Allow sub micron size solids to penetrate between the faces, imbed themselves into the softer
carbon and destroy the lapped hard face.
● As the product passes across the faces a cooling occurs, causing the faces to close. When the
faces close, the cycle repeats its self and the alternating closing and opening will probably crack
the carbon as it bangs against the drive lugs or chip the carbon face on the outside diameter.
 ● If the product freezes when it evaporates it could freeze any oil or grease that was put on the seal
face, causing damage to the carbon. This will also freeze the moisture on the outboard side of the
seal causing ice that can restrict the movement of the seal (you can see the ice on the shaft).
● Cause the liquid to solidify.
● Paint is a mixture of a solid and a solvent. If the solvent evaporates, the paint will solidify
between the faces. This can also occur if the suction of the pump is under a vacuum (negative
suction head) because the pump is trying to lift the fluid.
● Some liquids will form a film at the faces if the pressure drops

If the temperature or pressure of the pumping fluid never changed we would seldom have any
application problems. But since pumpage pressure and temperature changes are normal (especially at
shut down) we are going to have to become skillful in controlling the temperature and pressure in the
stuffing box area to prevent a premature seal failure.

THE HEATING AND COOLING JACKET

If you use this technique be sure to check:

● A carbon thermal bushing is installed in the end of the stuffing box to reduce the heat transfer
between the product you are pumping and the fluid in the stuffing box.
● The cooling jacket must be free from scale and calcium build up. There are many cleaning
products on the market you can flush through the jacket to insure that it is clean with out having
to disassemble the pump.
● Dead end the fluid; no recirculation lines either into or out of the stuffing box. Check carefully
because some of these lines can be hidden by insulation. We are trying to trap a small amount of
liquid in the stuffing box that will be easy to either heat or cool.
● The best fluids to circulate through this jacket are steam and condensate. Shop or city water is
generally too hard and will form a calcium film on the inside of the jacket.
● Remember that steam will act as a coolant with hot oil applications.
● The steam temperature can be controlled by the use of a regulator on the outboard side of the
jacket. The temperature of steam is directly related to its pressure.
● You can use a mixer valve that will blend the steam and condensate to give you a very precise
control over the stuffing box temperature.
● The main advantage of this control is that it lets you regulate the stuffing box temperature when
the pump is shut down. That far out weighs the disadvantage of having to provide circulation to
the jacket.
● Be sure to bring the coolant into the bottom of the jacket and out the top. This will insure that
 there are no bubbles trapped to restrict heat transfer.
● Because you are "dead ending" the fluid, centrifugal force will throw the solids away from the
seal components and very soon the seal will be in a clean environment at exactly the right
temperature.
● If your pump is not equipped with a jacket, one is probably available from the pump
manufacturer or an after market supplier.

THE QUENCH AND DRAIN CONNECTION is used to heat or cool the outboard side of a single seal
and wash away any product the might leak across the faces or build up outboard of the seal.

● Use only low pressure steam or water at connection "D". You do not want these products to
penetrate through the disaster bushing and get into the bearings. This is another reason to replace
those bearing grease or lip seals with either a labyrinth or a positive face seal.
● The non sparking disaster bushing has two functions:
❍ To direct most of the seal leakage to a drain where it can be collected, or a flare where it

can be burned.
❍ To prevent the shaft from hitting the seal if you have a bearing failure. If the product

burns this could cause a fire or an explosion. In any case the damage would be severe
without this non sparking disaster bushing.
❍ A steam line hooked up to this connection can be used to put out a fire in the stuffing box

area. All you need is a solenoid valve and a melt switch that will open the solenoid when
it senses high temperature (same as a fire sprinkler system).

A DISCHARGE RECIRCULATION CONNECTION connected between the pump discharge and the
stuffing box can be used to pressurize the stuffing box area with the discharge pressure available at the
pump.

● Do not aim this connection at the seal faces or sliding components. The abrasive action of
entrained solids can injure the lapped faces or destroy a seal component. Thin wall metal bellows
seals are very sensitive to this abrasive action.
● The high velocity fluid can also interfere with the seal movement so be very careful how you
make the connection.

THE DUAL SEAL is another way to control either temperature, pressure at the seal faces, or both at the
same time. Take a look at the following diagram:
You can:

● Circulate a fluid at the correct temperature between the seals. You can cool the area, heat the area
or hold the temperature at precise limits if that is desirable.
● Bring the fluid in the bottom and out the top to avoid air pockets
● You can pressurize between the dual seals to prevent a pressure drop across the seal faces.
● If you use the two way balanced version of a dual seal you can choose either a higher barrier or
lower pressure buffer fluid between the seals.
● Fill the system and convection tank with anti-freeze and you will prevent ice from forming out
board the inner seal. This can happen any time you seal a product that can freeze the moisture in
the atmosphere.

HERE ARE A FEW MORE CONSIDERATIONS ABOUT CONTROLLING PRESSURE AND

TEMPERATURE IN THE SEAL AREA:

● A cooler in the line between the pump discharge and the stuffing box is not a good method of
controlling stuffing box temperature because it functions only when the pump is running, and
many problems with crystallization, solidifying, becoming viscous, etc. occur when the pump is
shut down.
● Flushing the system between batches seldom cleans the stuffing box area and the mechanical seal.
● Flushing the stuffing box with an outside fluid is the universal environmental control. You can
always replace the fluid that is giving you trouble by flushing in a clean liquid at the right
temperature and pressure. It will cause product dilution, but maybe you can flush in finished
product or a fluid that is compatible with the fluid you are trying to seal.
● Heat tracer lines are often used in piping systems, but are seldom placed on the stuffing box.
Maybe you will find it practical to trace and insulate the stuffing box for your application.
● There is little need to lower the pressure in the stuffing box area. If you find that the stuffing box
pressure is to high for your mechanical seal, you are better off purchasing a high pressure
mechanical seal that will satisfy your application.
Link to Mc Nally home page
SUBJECT: Sealing products that are sensitive to agitation. 6-12

This category of sealing is the one that is the least understood by most of the people that are involved in
the process industry. It is easy to understand how temperature can change an "easy to seal liquid" into a
difficult to seal crystallized product, a solid, or a gas, but it is hard to see how agitation alone can have
much of an affect, because pumped liquids are continually being agitated.

Whether or not you are going to have a problem often depends upon how long the fluid is going to be
agitated, and how fast the agitation takes place. We all know that cream becomes butter with agitation
and if you beat it fast enough, and long enough, an egg white (a fluid) will become a solid.

The fluid we find in a pump stuffing box seldom gets the proper circulation. The stuffing box lantern
ring connection is commonly used for this purpose and if you will look at the area closely you will see
that the fluid is trapped in the seal face area where it is exposed to long periods of high speed agitation.

If the fluid is not affected by agitation or mixing, we say it is a Newtonian fluid (you remember, the
apple fell on his head and he discovered gravity). These fluids are not considered a sealing problem for
us unless they are sensitive to temperature or pressure changes, or contain lots of solids. The fluids we
are concerned about are the non Newtonian fluids, and the problem ones fall into three neat categories:

Dilatants. The more you agitate them, the more viscous they become and in many cases they can
solidify. Any time a fluid becomes viscous it can interfere with the ability of the mechanical seal to
follow shaft "run out" or vibration. This hysteresis or delay will allow solids to penetrate between the
lapped faces or allow fugitive emissions to escape to the atmosphere.

● Dilatants are commonly used in industries that manufacture cleaners. You need this increased
viscosity to hold the cleaner on a vertical surface. Many sugar syrups and clay slurries fall into
the same category. In the paper industry the product "Kaoline" is a common example.
● To insure proper sealing, you must insure that the product circulates through the stuffing box
only one time as would be the case if you used a suction recirculation line connected from the
face of the seal, at the bottom of the stuffing box, to the suction side of the pump, or some other
low pressure point in the system. In this application it is important to use either seals that have no
spring or springs in the fluid, or you can use metal bellows seals.

Thixothrophic fluids are the opposite of dilatants. Their viscosity decreases with agitation.

● Non drip paint is a good example of this type of application as would be automobile wax or most
of the very viscous hand cleaners you find available on store shelves.
● The decreased viscosity can cause the product to become a non lubricant as the film thickness
diminishes to less than one micron between the lapped seal faces. This will cause an increase in
face wear and in the case of carbon/graphite seal faces, create a potential color contamination
problem with some color sensitive products.

Plastic materials release their viscosity suddenly and present the very same problems as thixotrophic
fluids.
 ● Ketchup or the tomato sauce product you find in restaurant bottles is a good example of a plastic
fluid.

When dealing with any of these problems be sure to keep the agitation in the stuffing box to a minimum.
In some isolated cases the seal hydraulic balance diameter could be lowered and/or the spring face load
reduced to lower the amount of shear. If you are running at higher than conventional motor speeds this
can be a real problem.

The use of two seals with a pressurized lubricant as a barrier fluid can keep a lubricant between the faces
and diminish the color contamination problem. If color contamination is a real problem, the use of two
hard faces is recommended.

As is the case with just about any fluid sealing problem the use of a reliable, clean, compatible, liquid
flush is the universal solution. It is often the only solution if you find that none of the above suggestions
are practical in your application.

In another paper we will discuss the affect of this changing viscosity on the performance of the pump.
As is the case with the mechanical seal the change is significant.

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SUBJECT: Sealing to the Osha 1910.119 process safety management standard and the clean air
act of 1990. 8-10

The Process Safety Management Standard was created to prevent the unwanted releases of hazardous
chemicals. The standard identifies more than 130 specific toxic and reactive chemicals covered in
specific quantities and processes that involve flammable liquids and gases in quantities of 10,000 pounds
or more. Hydrocarbon fuels may be excluded if used solely as a fuel.

A process is covered if it involves the toxic or reactive highly hazardous chemicals at or above the
specified threshold quantity of the standard. The threshold quantity is the amount of the chemical
present at any given point in time, not aggregated over a period of time. If you look in the last pages of
this paper you will find a list of these highly hazardous chemicals, toxins and reactives, along with their
threshold quantities.

The clean air act was created in 1990 to address the escape to atmosphere of Volatile Organic
Compounds (VOC). The proposed amendments for chemical plants apply to any component in contact
with a substance that is at least ten percent applicable VOC, and is in gaseous or light liquid VOC
service more than 300 hour annually.

To determine the amount of VOC in a gaseous leak, the VOC is measured at a distance no more than
one centimeter (less than a half inch) from the source.

PUMP STANDARDS

Phase 1 at the onset greater than 10000 ppm.

Phase 2 one year later . greater than 5000 ppm.

Phase 3 two and one half years later greater than 1000 ppm

Polymerizing polymer greater than 5000 ppm.

Food/ Medical greater than 2000 ppm.

All other pumps greater than 1000 ppm.

For components with moving parts (pumps) the first attempt to repair a leak must be made within two
days after the leak is detected. The standard also require the monthly visual inspection of all single
mechanical seals.
Pumps with dual mechanical seals can be exempted from the monthly inspection if the barrier fluid
pressure between the seals is at a higher pressure than the pump stuffing box pressure at all times and the
barrier fluid is not a light liquid VHAP (Volatile hazardous air pollutant), or is equipped with one of the
following three features designed to prevent VOC emissions from the outboard seal:

● A barrier degassing reservoir that transports the gas or vapor to a VOC control apparatus. That
system prevents applicable VOC from accumulating where it can be emitted from the outboard
seal.
● A closed-loop system that purges the barrier fluid into a process stream and returns process fluid
to the process without venting to the atmosphere.
● A sensor that detects failure of the seal system, the barrier fluid system or both.

If a leak is detected between the seals the first attempt at repair must be no later than five days and the
repair or replacement no later than 15 days.

Single seals are available that can satisfy current standards. They must be monitored monthly (EPA
Method 21) and visually inspected weekly. If they are detected leaking:

● The first attempt at repair must take place within five days.
● Repair or replacement within fifteen days.
● Phase three pumps, when the leak is greater than 2000 ppm.

The only sensible approach to the sealing of fluids and gases identified in these acts is the use of dual
seals designed with a two way hydraulic balance and the barrier fluid pressurized at least one
atmosphere above maximum stuffing box pressure. The tandem configuration would be a logical choice
for both rotating and stationary versions of a dual seal.

In the following diagram I am showing a simple, unbalanced version of a dual tandem seal for
demonstration purposes. The preferred configuration would be:

● Hydraulically balanced seals with the inner seal balanced in two directions (two way balance.)
● The stationary version of the tandem configuration is the most desirable.
● A pressurized convection tank connected between the seals.
● A remote indication of the pressure in the convection tank.
● A pumping ring built into the seal. to increase the circulation between the seals.
● A cartridge version of the seal, with some sort of "self aligning" feature to prevent excessive face
movement of the stationary seals.
The preferred configuration should not only satisfy the regulations, but also will provide additional
safety features:

● The seal will not blow open if the barrier fluid pressure is lost. The two way balance will insure
that the inner seal faces will stay closed when the pressure reverses.
● The seal will be less sensitive to solids in the fluid. Centrifugal force will work for you throwing
the heavier solids away from the lapped faces.
● The higher barrier fluid pressure will help to lubricate the seal faces in some gas applications.
● You can easily detect if either of the seals fails prematurely. The convection tank pressure will
either drop to system or atmospheric pressure depending upon which seal wears out or fails first.
● The higher barrier fluid pressure will prevent some fluids such as ethylene oxide from penetrating
into and destroying the dynamic elastomer in the inboard seal.
● The barrier fluid can prevent the formation of ice outboard the seal in some low specific gravity
applications.

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SUBJECT : How the Carbon/ Graphite seal face is manufactured and where carbon/graphite
cannot be used. 4-7

Seal companies purchase carbon/ graphite molded faces from one of several carbon manufacturers. The
seal companies pay for the necessary molds and then retain the exclusive use of them. A good seal face
would be a mixture of carbon, graphite and nothing else. The carbon is purchased as a by product of a
manufacturing process while the graphite is mined with the main sources being in Canada and
Madagascar. The cost of these elements is determined by two things:

● How finely is the product milled? A fine talc is desirable.

● How pure is the product?

A good mixture would be 80% carbon and 20% graphite. Graphite is a good conductor of heat, a natural
lubricant, and has a laminar grain structure similar to a deck of cards allowing the individual grains to
slide over one another. It is this laminar structure that allows the graphite to release from the carbon/
graphite face and deposit on the hard face in the same manner a graphite pencil will write on a sheet of
paper.

To manufacture the finished product we place this mixture in an oversized mold using a hydrocarbon as
the glue to hold the powder together. Years ago "pitch" from a tree, was used for the same purpose. The
mixture is then compressed and placed in an oven at 2000° Fahrenheit (1000° C) for a period of thirty to
sixty days. The hydrocarbon will convert to carbon at this temperature. The piece must be heated slowly
or otherwise the carbon will combine with oxygen to form carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide which
will, in either case, ruin it.

At the end of this time the piece has shrunk a small amount, but still resembles a real carbon face. The
problem is :

● It has poor tensile strength

● It has low heat conductivity because the mixture is very porous.
● It has low density which would be a problem in vacuum applications.

At this point any inorganic (it never lived) material can be imbedded into the carbon/graphite shape. If
you should use such an impregnation you would have to be concerned about the chemical compatibility
of the filler material with the product you are trying to seal.

If you want a serious carbon you must place the component into an autoclave, where a vacuum will
remove impurities that may have imbedded into the porous face. The autoclave will then be filled with a
hydrocarbon and pressurized to force the hydrocarbon into the porous face under high pressure.

This first impregnation will penetrate approximately 25 mm. (one inch) meaning that 50 mm (2 inches)
will be impregnated if the hydrocarbon can penetrate from all sides of the shape. The face is then placed
back into the oven and fired at 2000° Fahrenheit (1000 C.) for an additional 30 to 60 days.
You now have a more dense carbon/graphite, but you are a long way from a good one. Two more
impregnations at 3,0 mm. (0.125 inches) and 0,5 mm (0.020 inches) will complete the impregnations,
each taking 30 to 60 days in the oven.

About this time you hit a point of diminishing returns, so the fourth impregnation is pushed into the
carbon/graphite, but not fired in the furnace. This type of seal face is referred to as an "unfilled carbon
and is available from several manufacturers both in the United States and abroad.

If a seal manufacturer needs a only a few seal faces for test purposes he can machine them out of an
unfilled carbon and then send them to the carbon manufacturer for the final impregnations. Small batch
applications are handled like this also.

This is the type of face that should be the standard in all of your mechanical seals. It can be used in any
chemical or combination of chemicals except an oxidizing agent. As mentioned, the oxidizing agents
will combine with the carbon to form carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. Here is a list of some of the
common oxidizers:

● Aqua Regia (a combination of nitric and hydrochloric acid) used for dissolving metals.
● Oleum, used in the manufacture of detergents and explosives.
● Perchloric acid, used in the manufacture of medicine, explosives, and esters .
● Sulfur trioxide, used to manufacture sulphuric acid.
● Nitric acid, used in fertilizer, dyeing, explosives, drugs, etching and medicine.
● Hot sulphuric acid, the most widely used industrial chemical.
● Chloric acid, ignites organic material on contact.
● Chlorous acid, over 200 degrees Fahrenheit (100 C).
● Ferric chloride, used in sewage treatment photography, medicine and feed additives.
● Hydrofluoric acid, used for etching, cleaning castings and fermentation.
● Sodium hypochlorite, used in bleaching paper pulp, textiles, and tanning textiles.
● Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK) a common solvent.
● Perchloric Acid - 2N

Additionally look for any chemical whose name contains the word:

● Peroxide
● Chlorate
● Perchlorate
● Nitrate
● Permanganate

The Halogens are another group of chemicals that will attack carbon:

● Chlorine
● Fluorine
● Bromine
● Astintine
● Iodine
The degree of attack will be affected by the oxidizer's chemical concentration and temperature. If you
are handling any of these chemicals it would pay to test an unfilled carbon for compatibility prior to
installing a mechanical seal.

Recent experience shows that all grades of carbon are no longer being recommended in the following
applications:

● If there is a possibility of color contamination of the product. Some paper and paint applications
have this problem.
● If you are sealing hot oil and have to meet fugitive emission standards.
● Some de-ionized water applications can attack carbon

Original equipment manufacturers (O.E.M.) use filled carbon in their seals and as a result you end up
with a spare parts problem. It is not unusual to find five different seals, with five different part numbers
and the only difference between them is the grades of carbon/ graphite.

Cryogenic service uses a special carbon that has some inorganic compounds added to compensate for the
fact that adsorbable gases are not present to weaken the interlacing bonding forces between the carbon
and the graphite. It is these adsorbable gases and/ or vapors that allow the graphite to release from the
compound and coat the hard surface with a low friction lubricating layer.

Most sealing applications can be satisfied with an unfilled carbon running against one of several hard
faces. The only exceptions being an oxidizing agent, those applications where carbon is not acceptable
because of color contamination and hot petroleum . You should contact the carbon manufacturers for
their catalog giving you the grades they have available and the "physicals " (specifications) of their
unfilled carbon. You can then check with your seal supplier to be sure he is using the proper unfilled
grade in your mechanical seals.

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SUBJECT : The super compounds 10-6

When you are selecting an O-ring, or any other elastomer shape for your mechanical seal application
remember that with the exception of solvents, most chemicals and chemical compounds can be
successfully sealed with either ethylene propylene or a good grade of Viton® as the dynamic elastomer.

Most mechanical seal designs incorporate both dynamic and static elastomers. Dynamic O-rings are
required to flex and roll with the shaft movement. This means that a very low shaft squeeze is important
to prevent seal "hang up" or hysteresis. They must also be free to flex and roll to compensate for
mechanical seal face wear. Static O-rings do not have to move. They are used as a gasket and are a lot
more forgiving than dynamic O-rings because a small amount of swell can be tolerated that might even
improve their sealing.

There are many elastomer shapes available to you. Individual seal companies use wedges, V-rings, U-
cups, Quad rings etc, but O-rings have a lot of advantages over these other elastomer shapes in
mechanical seal design. As an example:

● They can seal both pressure and vacuum.

● They can flex 0.003 to 0.005 inches (0.08 to 0 0.13 mm). before they roll, and then they can roll
up to half of their diameter making it a lot easier for the seal faces to follow shaft run out and end
play.
● O-rings reduce shaft fretting dramatically because of this ability to flex and roll.
● They are available in a variety of compounds.
● They are the first shape available when a new compound is introduced.
● Most of the O-ring compounds are available in a wide range of durometer or hardness. The
average mechanical seal uses a durometer of 75 to 80 (as measured on the shore A scale), but
harder durometers are available for high pressure applications similar to those we find in pipe
line sealing.
● The O-ring configuration is usually the first shape available when a new compound becomes
available from the manufacturer.
● They are the most precision rubber part that you can purchase. O-rings are manufactured to a
tolerance of ± 0.003 inches (0.08 mm)
● You can buy them anywhere. There are plenty of distributors.
● Unlike other shapes, most designers have settled on only a few O-ring cross sections, making
spare parts and inventory a lot easier.
● Their cost is low compared to other shapes.
● Because they are self energizing there is no need to spring load them to the shaft or sleeve. This
means that the seal spring or springs can be designed for face loading only.
● You cannot put them in backwards.

In recent years the elastomer industry has produced a variety of newer compounds that appear to be
getting closer to the universal rubber that we are all seeking. Unfortunately we are not there yet, so this
paper is an attempt to put these "super compounds" into a proper perspective. There are several of these
compounds that you should know about.
KALREZ®, a Dupont product that is not a true elastomer so you will experience some "compression
set" depending upon the compound you select. You have a few choices:

● Compound 4079, A "low compression set" compound (about 25% compression at 400°F) (205°
C). Can be used to 600°F (316°C) Not recommended for hot water or steam applications, or in
contact with certain hot aliphatic amines, ethylene oxide and propylene oxide.
● Compound 1050. Slightly harder than 4079. Can be used to 500°F (260°C) in non oxidizing
environments. Not recommended for pure water or steam at higher temperatures. This compound
is scheduled to be phased out of production.
● Compound 2035, To 425°F (218°C) It is the compound recommended for Ethylene Oxide and
Propylene Oxide service. It also exhibits low swell in organic and inorganic acids, esters,
ketones, and aldehydes.
● Compound 1018, To 550°F (288°C). It has better hot water/ steam resistance than all other
compounds except 3018. Not recommended for use in organic or inorganic acids at high
temperature or for rapid temperature cycling applications.
● Compound 3018, To 600°F (315°C). It has the best hot water/steam resistance and the best high
pressure extrusion resistance. It is too hard for most mechanical seal applications at temperatures
below 400°F (205°C) .

The following compounds are also exhibited on the Special Elastomers chart .

● CHEMRAZ is distributed by Greene, Tweed & Company. Telephone (714) 875 3301. It is
similar to KALREZ® and can be used to 400°F (205°C). It is available in both black and white O-
rings.
● FLUORAZ - is another product distributed by Greene Tweed & Company. Telephone (714) 875
3301. It can be used to 400°F (205°C). Field experience indicates that in operation it appears t o
be very similar to AFLAS.
● AFLAS is distributed through the 3M company. Telephone (612) 733 5353. It can be used to 400°
F (205°C)

To be classified as a true elastomer you should be able to compress the O-ring and have it return to 90%
of its original shape in less than five seconds after the compression force is removed. It is this elasticity
that gives the compound its memory and eliminates the need for spring loading the elastomer to the seal
shaft or sleeve. If the compound does not return to 90% of its original shape in five seconds or less it is
called a "plastic" and becomes less desirable as a dynamic seal in mechanical seal design. Many of these
"super compounds" are plastics and present sealing problems in some seal configurations. You are going
to have to depend upon your experience to select individual seal designs that work well with these
materials.

Some distributors of these compounds recommend the use of mechanical seals with spring loaded
dynamic O-rings. They do this to booster their sales of the compound. They forget to mention that when
you spring load one of these compounds you will experience shaft fretting under the O-ring. This shaft
fretting increases the probability of seal failure, and dictates the use of shaft sleeves that raise the L3/D4
rating of the shaft, contributing to excessive shaft deflection.

There are many selection charts available to help you pick the correct elastomer compound for your
application. Unfortunately your fluid may not be shown on some of these charts and the temptation is to
go to one of the super compounds for the solution. At other times you will tempted to standardize on a
super compound to avoid the selection process altogether. The attached chart will help you to avoid a
mistake in both of these instances.

The Special Elastomers chart link at the bottom of this page is unique in that it shows you where these
"super compounds" cannot be used. This does not imply that if the chemical is not listed, or if no
notation is made, that the compound is suitable for your service. It means nothing more than what it
says. These are the chemicals that each manufacturer has designated as not suitable for a dynamic O-ring
application.

● n = According to the manufacturer this compound is not suitable for either dynamic or static
mechanical seal O-ring service. In some cases a compound was given an "n" rating when field
experience proved that the published compatibility information was incorrect.
● c = Caution. May be suitable for static service, but probably not for a dynamic application. The
higher the fluid operating temperature the less acceptable. You may want to check for experience
in your plant or test the O-ring in your fluid to be sure.

If there is any question about the use of one of these compounds in a given service you can test the
compound by immersing the O-ring in the fluid to be tested for about ten days to two weeks. If the fluid
is going to attack the compound, the O-ring it will change weight, shape, or appearance. If the
application is going to be at a hot temperature, you might want to put the test container in an oven to
duplicate the seal operating conditions.

You can look to see if your chemical is listed in the charts. Just click on the appropriate box:

A-C D-I J-Q R-Z

®DuPont Dow elastomer

Link to Mc Nally home page

SUBJECT : Selecting the correct elastomer (O- ring) for your mechanical seal application 4-9

This paper is to be used with the O-ring selection guide you will find in the chart and data section of this
web site. The guide is an attempt to select the fewest number of elastomers that will give you
satisfactory sealing of most of the chemicals we find in the process industry. As you can see from the
selection, most of the chemicals can be handled by either fluorocarbon (Viton/ Fluorel) or Ethylene
Propylene.

The following paragraphs describe the codes used in the chart.

● V - Fluorocarbon. The compound specified is the specific one that has some water immersion
capability. Dupont E60 Viton ®, 3M Fluorel 2174, Parker 747-75 and Parker V884-85 are typical
examples .
● E - Ethylene propylene
● C - Perfluoroelastomers. Chemraz (a registered trademark of Greene, Tweed & Co.) or Kalrez ®
are typical examples. These are very expensive compounds.
● N - Neoprene
● B - Buna N
● Bu- Butyl
● U - Unknown, or unreliable test data. Immersion testing or plant experience is your best bet. If no
elastomer proves to be acceptable a non-elastomer seal may be your only answer.

Keep in mind that this O-ring selection chart is only a guide to help you in selecting the correct
elastomer for your mechanical seal application. It was created from published information, various
industry guide lines and many years of practical experience by field sales and engineering people. Most
mechanical seals use at least one dynamic elastomer, so even small amounts of swelling or chemical
attack is almost always un-acceptable. When using this chart please keep the following in mind:

● Chemical attack will usually double with a 10°C (18°F) increase in temperature. If the elastomer
is located close to the seal face it will see the additional heat that is being generated by rubbing
friction. Elastomers are poor conductors of heat. Cooling one side of the O-ring does not always
allow the coolant to conduct to the hot side.
● If the chemical name is followed by (*), the chemical is called an oxidizer. Oxidizers
spontaneously emit oxygen at either room temperature or under slight heating. The oxygen can
then combine with the carbon in mechanical seal faces or the carbon black used to color O-rings,
causing chemical attack. The largest group of oxidizing materials is comprised of peroxides.
Hydrogen peroxide and benzoyl peroxide are typical. Permanganates, chlorates and some nitrates
are also strong oxidizing agents. These materials additionally constitute a dangerous fire hazard
so two seals may be required.

The degree of carbon and elastomer attack is determined by the chemical concentration and temperature.
The higher the concentration and the higher the temperature the more likely the attack.

Plant experience is your best protection, but if you have no experience in handling these chemicals it
would be wise to immersion test both the black O-ring and carbon face prior to installing a mechanical
seal. You could duplicate the temperature by placing the test vessel in an oven or on a hot plate when
practical.

● The product you are sealing is often a mixture of several chemicals and/ or may have a trade
name. This chart normally shows only individual chemicals so you may have to rely upon plant
experience or immersion test to determine compatibility. Most plants have prior experience in
handling their chemicals so look for elastomers in other mechanical seals, valves, gages, filters,
strainers, hoses, lined pipe, etc.
● In most cases Chemraz or Kalrez ® will handle the job if there is no plant experience or if
immersion testing is not practical. It is always worth a try.
● Remember that each of these elastomers has an upper and lower temperature limit. Although the
elastomer may be chemically compatible with the sealing fluid it could still fail if the temperature
limit is exceeded.
● Excessive temperature is usually indicated by a change in weight, shape or appearance of the O-
ring. Compression set is often the first indication of high heat followed by a shrinking and
hardening of the elastomer. If the stuffing box temperature is too high it is necessary to cool
down the seal area. Using an installed pump jacket is the obvious solution. Keep in mind that
quenching or the use of two seals with a cool barrier fluid between them, cools only one side of
the O-ring. If cooling is not possible you will have to use a non-elastomer seal.

Elastomer Temperature range F. Temperature range C.

Flurocarbon (Viton ®) -15 to 400 -25 to 205

Ethyle propylene -70 to 300 -55 to 150

Chemraz -20 to 450 -30 to 230

Kalrez ® 0 to 500 -20 to 260

Neoprene -45 to 300 -45 to 150

Buna N -65 to 225 -55 to 105

Buna S -75 to 250 -60 to 120

● Solvents, cleaners and steam are often used to flush lines and systems. Be sure the elastomer you
choose is chemically and temperature compatible with these solvents, cleaners and steam.
● Some processes will not allow any thing "black" in the system. White colored O-rings are
available for many compounds.
● Ethylene propylene rubber (EPR) is a very common elastomer mentioned in this chart. Be aware
that EPR. is easily attacked by any petroleum product so be careful with the type of lubricant you
 use to lubricate this elastomer. For all practical purposes silicone grease is probably your safest
lubricant but to be sure check for compatibility. There is a high temperature version of this
compound available (500°F or 260°C), but it cannot be used if air or oxygen is present on one
side of the O-ring. In other words, the application is limited to the dynamic elastomer on the
inboard side of a double seal application.
● Many of the chemicals listed are dangerous. Be sure to use an A.P.I. gland or better still, two
mechanical seals in these applications.
● Nuclear, food products, and pharmaceutical often specify specific grades of elastomers and
require cure date information for certain products. If you are working in any of these areas check
for a list of approved materials.
● The term water does not describe a single product. For instance:
❍ De-ionized and demineralized water has had various ions and minerals removed and as a

result is constantly trying to replace them as the water moves through the pipes and
around other hardware. The result is that sometimes the water can attack stainless steel
and some seal face materials including carbon. You may have to do some immersion
testing to be sure if your choices are satisfactory.
❍ Water treatment varies with each application. These treatment chemicals and additives can

attack some elastomers

❍ Condensate often contains dissolved amines that could attack the elastomer.

❍ Water hardness varies with geographic locations.

❍ Waste water is liable to be any thing.

Ethylene Propylene Rubber (EPR) is the first choice in most water and water based applications, but the
variance noted above can cause premature O-ring failure. If you have any doubt about your water,
conduct an O-ring immersion test prior to installing the mechanical seal.

The four step procedure for selecting the correct elastomer is:

● Look up the chemical in the O-ring compatibility guide in the CHARTS AND GRAPHS section
of my home page. If your product is not on the list, or is a combination of several chemical on the
list, go to step "2".
● Look around the plant for present or past experience. Look for elastomers in valves, other seals,
gages, filters, strainers, etc. If you have no experience with elastomers in this fluid, go to step "3".
● Test is the next step. If possible, start with two elastomers of the same compound and immerse
only one of them in the fluid and leave it there for one to two weeks. You can then compare that
O-ring to the one that was not immersed. If the elastomer is not compatible with the fluid it will
change weight, shape, or appearance. If the elastomer does not pass this test go to step "4".
● Chemraz or Kalrez ® is usually the end of the line. If neither is satisfactory you will have to use a
non elastomer seal. If a reliable flush is available the elastomer may be compatible with the flush,
but remember that if you lose the flushing fluid the product will attack the elastomer.

® Registered trademark of DuPont Dow Elastomers

Link to Chemical listing guide

Link to Mc Nally home page

SUBJECT: Selecting the correct hard face seal material 5-2

A good mechanical seal should run leak free until the carbon/graphite seal face wears away. This is the
same way we decide if we are getting good life with our automobile tires. The tires should not go flat or
the sidewalls "blow-out". The tire tread should wear at a rate that is consistent with our driving habits.

An inspection of your used seals will show that 85% or more of mechanical seals fail long before the
faces wear out. The seal starts to leak and an inspection shows that there is plenty of wearable face
visible. Some of these failures are caused by the wrong choice of seal face materials so we have to be
knowledgeable about those materials that are available to us. The ideal hard face material would
incorporate many features including the following:

● Excellent corrosion resistance.

● Self lubricating.
● High strength in compression, shear and tension.
● High modulus of elasticity to prevent face distortion.
● Good heat conductivity.
● Good wearing characteristics (hardness).
● Low friction.
● High temperature capability.
● Temperature cycling capability.
● Easy insertion into a metal holder
● Low coefficient of friction.
● The ability to be molded in thin cross sections.
● And of course, low cost

Needless to say all of these characteristics are not available in the same face material. The idea is to get
as many of them as you can in a properly chosen face combination.

With just a few exceptions, seal companies purchase hard face materials from outside vendors. Be sure
the face component you chose is identified by material, type and grade so that you can check out the
"physicals". Some companies change the generic name of the material to confuse you. Make sure you
know exactly what you are purchasing, or you will never be able to trouble shoot a seal failure caused by
a wrong material selection.

Here is some information about the common hard face materials we use in the seal business:

Reaction bonded silicon carbide

● Reaction bonded silicon carbide is produced by adding molten silicon to a mixture of silicon
carbide and carbon. A reaction between the silicon and carbon bonds the structure while the
excess silicon metal fills the majority of the pits left in the resultant material. There is almost no
shrinkage during the process.
● The silicon content is about 8% to 15%. High pH chemicals such as caustic can attack this grade
of silicon carbide .
 ● As of this writing, carbon/ graphite vs. reaction bonded Silicon Carbide has been demonstrated to
have the best wear characteristics of all the possible face combinations.
● Reaction bonded silicon carbide is difficult to insert into a metal holder so it is usually supplied
in a solid rather than a composite configuration.

There are many manufacturers of reaction bonded Silicon Carbide. They include:

COMPANY DESIGNATION
BNFL REFEL

COORS SC-2

NORTON DD-630

PURE CARBON PS 9242

Shunk and Hoechst of West Germany are also manufacturers of reaction bonded silicon carbide .

● Reaction bonded silicon carbide has proven to be more chip resistant than the sintered version
● Avoid the following chemicals when using reaction bonded silicon carbide :
❍ Sodium Hydroxide

❍ Potassium Hydroxide

❍ Nitric Acid *

❍ Green Sulfate Liquor *

❍ Calcium Hydroxide *

❍ Hydrofluoric Acid

❍ Caustics and strong acids

❍ Most high pH chemicals

* Results vary with temperature and concentration. These chemical can leach out the silicon leaving a
weakened structure that can act like a grinding wheel against the softer carbon face.

Self sintered silicon carbide (sometimes called direct sintered or pressure less sintered)

● This material begins as a mixture of silicon carbide grains and a sintering aid which is pressed
and subsequently sintered as its name implies. Unlike Reaction bonded SiC, there is no free
silicon present . These direct sintered materials have no metal phase and are therefore more
resistant to chemical attack.
● There are two grain shapes available to the manufacturer. Alpha (Hexagonal Structure), and Beta
(Cubic Structure). There does not appear to be any difference in the chemical resistance, wear or
friction of these two grain shapes.
● These self sintered materials will not be attacked by most process chemicals.
 ● Here are a few of the bigger manufacturers:

COMPANY DESIGNATION
Carborundum SA-80

Kyocera SC-201

ESK EKasicD (the standard)

ESK Tribo 2000 (Controlled porosity)

ESK Tribo 2000-1 (Controlled porosity + graphite)

● Sintered silicon carbide is impossible to shrink into a metal holder.

● Self sintered silicon carbide carries a slight price premium compared to the reaction bonded
version.
● Although the preferred seal face material, it is sometimes too brittle for some designs.

Siliconized graphite

● The manufacturing process uses a permeable form of carbon graphite that is reaction sintered in
silicon at elevated temperature. This forms an outer layer of silicon carbide on the graphite base.
● A resin impregnate is added to increase the density.

Tungsten Carbide

● Cobalt and nickel are the common binders. Each is susceptible to selective chemical attack of this
metallic binder that will leave a skeletal surface structure of tungsten carbide particles.
● Galvanic corrosion can take place between a passivated stainless steel shaft or seal face holder
and the active nickel in the nickel base tungsten carbide seal face. This can be a real problem in
caustic and other high PH fluids. The temperature at the seal face is higher than the temperature
of the sealing fluid so the attack takes place quicker.
● The metallic binders in tungsten carbide are also subject to galvanic attack near copper, brass or
bronze.
● Tungsten carbide is easy to insert into a metal holder so it is the most common material used in
metal bellows and other hard face&endash;metal composite designs.

Here are some additional thoughts about hard seal faces:

● Many sales people promote two hard faces as the ideal face combination for slurry and similar
services. Keep in mind that solids cannot penetrate between seal faces unless they open. Seal
faces are lapped to a flatness of less than one micron (three helium light bands), and as long as
 they stay in contact solids are filtered out. Here are some of the main disadvantages of using two
hard faces in a seal application:
❍ Higher cost compared to using carbon as a seal face.

❍ If either face is "out of flat" it is almost impossible for the faces to lap them selves back

together again.
❍ Carbon graphite provides an additional lubricating film if you are sealing a poor or non

lubricating fluid. It should be noted that many fluids fall into that category. It takes a film
thickness of at least one micron at operating temperature and face load to be classified as a
lubricating fluid.
❍ Carbon graphite can easily be inserted into a metal holder.

❍ In the event the equipment is run dry, carbon/ graphite is self lubricating.

❍ Use two hard faces in the following applications. or any place carbon is not acceptable:

■ If you are sealing hot oil or almost any hot hydrocarbon. Most oils coke between

the seal faces and can pull out pieces of carbon , causing fugitive emissions
problems.
■ If the product tends to stick the faces together.

■ Some DI water applications can attack any form of carbon.

■ Halogens can attack all forms of carbon. These chemicals include:

■ chlorine

■ fluorine

■ bromine

■ astintine

■ iodine

■ If the product you are sealing is an oxidizer that will attack all forms of carbon,

including black O-rings.

■ If you are pumping a slurry and you cannot keep the two lapped faces together by

flushing, suction recirculation, a large diameter stuffing box or some other method
usually employed to seal a large percentage of solids.
■ If nothing black is allowed in the system because of a possible color contamination

of the product you are pumping.

● Plated or coated faces can "heat check" and crack due to the differential expansion of the coating
and the base material.
● PV factors as a design tool are unreliable because carbon is sensitive to "P" but not to "V".
● Water can cause cracking problems with both 85% and 99.5% ceramic. The cause is not fully
understood, but hydrogen embrittlement is suspected as the main cause. Cracks have been
observed after seven to eight temperature cycles.

Unfilled carbon should be your first choice for a material to run against the above mentioned hard faces.
Use an unfilled carbon in all applications except an oxidizing agent, halogen, cryogenic fluid, or if color
contamination is a potential problem. See another paper in this site for details about how carbon/graphite
seal faces are manufactured.

Link to Mc Nally home page

SUBJECT : Selecting the correct metal for the mechanical seal components 5-9

Selecting the best metal for the seal components is usually a simple task. If the pumps' wetted (they get
wet from the pumpage) parts are manufactured from a non-metallic material such as Teflon, Kynar,
Polyethylene, etc. we choose non-metallic seal components, but if the wetted parts are manufactured
from iron, steel, stainless steel or bronze, and they are not showing signs of corrosion, the seal
components (with the exception of the springs) can usually be manufactured from grade 316 Stainless
Steel.

The springs must be manufactured from Hastelloy C or a similar corrosion resistant material to avoid the
problems associated with "Chloride Stress Corrosion" and the 300 series of stainless steel

There are exceptions to all general rules, however, and it turns out that there are a number of places we
cannot use grade 316 stainless steel seal components successfully and yet iron, steel, other grades of
stainless steel or bronze are usually satisfactory. The following list describes some of those chemicals
and identifies the metal normally selected by the equipment manufacturer for chemical resistance. Keep
in mind that the chemical resistance of any material is affected by temperature, concentration, stress etc.,
so check with some one knowledgeable before you specify any material:

CHEMICAL METAL
Arocolor Bronze

Barium Casrbonate Bronze

Benzene Carbon steel or Beronze

Benzene, hot Bronze

Bromine gas Bronze

Calcium carbonate 303/304 stainless steel

Phenol (carbolic acid) 303/304 stainless steel

Butyl phthalaate Bronze

Dichlorodifluoromethane (F-12) 303/304 stainless steel

Diethyl ether 430 stainless

Ethanol Bronze

Ethanolamine 303/304 stainless steel

Fluorine gas, dry 430 stainless steel

Hydrogen chloride gas, wet Carbon steel

Magnesium sulfate 303/304 stainless steel

Monoethanolamine 303/304 stainless steel

Mixed acids Bronze

Nickel chloride 303/304 stainless steel

Nuclear primary water systems 304 stainless

Potassium bicarbonate 303/304 stainless steel

Potassium chlorate 303/304 stainless steel

Potassium hydrate 303/304 stainless steel

Potassium Oxalate Bronze

Potassium permanganate Bronze

Pyrogallic acid Bronze

Sodium benzoate Bronze

Sodium bichromate Bronze

Sodium bromide Bronze

Sodium chlorate Bronze

Sodium citrate Bronze

Sodium dichromate Bronze

Sodium ferricyanide Bronze

Sodium fluoride Bronze

Sulfuric acid Carbon steel, 430 stainless steel or Alloy 20

Titanium tetrachloride Carbon steel

Uricacid Bronze

If you have any doubt about the compatibility of 316 Stainless Steel with your pump you can check your
facility for any experience you might have with 316 stainless parts in a similar service. If no such
experience exists and you are uncomfortable making the selection, contact a qualified metallurgist.

As an additional matter of interest the material we refer to as grade 316 stainless steel is made from the
following ingredients:

MATERIAL PERCENTAGE
Chrome 18-20

Nickel 8-12

Carbon .08

Iron 64-70

Silicone 1

Manganese 2
Sulphur .030

Phosphorous .045

The designation 316 stainless steel is not used in all countries, The following list shows the designations
used by some other nations for a similar product :

COUNTRY DESIGNATION
Germany 1.4571 or V4A

England EN58J

Sweden 2343

Hungary K035

Czechoslovakia 17246

Link to Mc Nally home page

Troubleshooting pump failures

● A different method of troubleshooting pumps and seals 5-6

● A little bit more about centrifugal pump cavitation 9-10
● A.P.I, and C.P.I. specifications merger 12-5
● Analizing the rub marks in a centrifugal pump failure 5-05
● Centrifugal pump shaft displacement 9-2
● Maintenance practices that cause seal & bearing problems 6-8
● Operating practices that cause maintenance problems 6-7
● Positive displacement pump troubleshooting 12-4
● Pump bearings, why do they fail? 4-12
● Pump selection practices that cause maintenance problems 6-9
● Shaft fretting. What causes the problem? 10-3
● The different types of cavitation 1-3
● The centrifugal pump is not producing enough head 10-9
● The centrifugal pump is not producing enough capacity 10-10
● The centrifugal pump is drawing too much amperage. 10-11
● The centrifugal pump looses suction, the pump is cavitating 10-12
● The reasons for premature bearing failure 5-3
● Troubles with no apparent cause 4-5
● Troubleshooting common centrifugal pump problems 1-02

Troubleshooting mechanical seal failure

● Causes of overheating in cartridge seal designs 7-4

● Corrosion problems associated with stainless steel 4-1
● Design, operation, and maintenance problems associated with mechanical seals 8-11
● Troubleshooting mechanical seal failure, a quick refrence guide 4-11
● Troubleshooting mechanical seals, an overview of the subject. 3-1
● Troubleshooting mechanical seals at equipment disassembly 3-9
● Troubleshooting mechanical seals at the pump site 4-2
● Why do most mechanical seals fail? 2-2
● Why do not good seals wear out? 9-9

Link to the Mc Nally home page

SUBJECT : A little bit more about troubleshooting centrifugal pumps and mechanical seals. 5-6

One of the U. S. based Japanese automobile manufacturers has a unique method of troubleshooting any
type of mechanical failure. The system is called the "Five Whys". It is a simple but powerful concept,
nothing has been solved until the question "why ?" has been asked at least five times and a sensible
answer has been given for each of the "why" questions. As an example:

1. Why did the seal fail?

● The lapped faces opened and solids penetrated between them. (solids can't get in until the faces
open)

2. Why did the faces open?

● The set screws holding the rotary unit slipped due to a combination of vibration and system
pressure.

3. Set screws are not supposed to slip. Why did the set screws slip?

● The seal was installed on a hardened sleeve.

4. Why was the seal installed on a hardened sleeve?

● This was a packing conversion and a stock sleeve was used.

5. Why couldn't the mechanic tell the difference between a hardened sleeve and a soft one?

● They were both stored in the same bin.

6 Why were they stored in the same bin?

● Because they had the same part number.

7. Why did they have the same part number?

● They should have had different part numbers. Once that problem is corrected, the failures will
stop.

Now you get the idea! Needless to say you may have to go further than just five "whys". Let's try
another example:

1. Why did the seal fail?

 ● The pump was cavitating and the vibration caused the carbon face to crack.

2. Why was the pump cavitating?

● It did not have enough suction head.

3. Why didn't it have enough suction head?

● The level in the tank got too low.

4. Why did the level in the tank get too low?

● I don't know.

You have not finished five "whys" so you better go find out why the level in the tank go too low or the
problem is going to repeat its self. In the above example the float got stuck on a corroded rod, giving an
incorrect level indication.

One more example should do it:

1. Why did the seal start to leak?

● The elastomer got hard and cracked.

2. Why did the elastomer get hard and crack?

● It got too hot.

3. Why did it get too hot?

● The pump stuffing box ran dry.

4. Why did the stuffing box run dry?

● It was running under a vacuum and it was not supposed to.

5. Why was it running under a vacuum?

● A Goulds pump impeller was adjusted backwards to the back plate and the impeller pump-out
rings emptied the stuffing box.

6. Why was it adjusted backwards?

● Most of the pumps in the facility are of the Duriron brand and they normally adjust to the back
 plate. The mechanic confused the impeller adjustment method. He has since been retrained

This is a powerful trouble shooting technique. I hope you make good use of it.

Link to the Mc Nally home page

SUBJECT: A little bit more about Cavitation 9-10

Cavitation means different things to different people. It has been described as:

● A reduction in pump capacity.

● A reduction in the head of the pump.
● The formation of bubbles in a low pressure area of the pump volute.
● A noise that can be heard when the pump is running.
● Damaged that can be seen on the pump impeller and volute.

Just what then is this thing called cavitation? Actually it is all of the above. In another section of this
series I described the several types of cavitation, so in this paper I want to talk about another side of
cavitation and try to explain why the above happens.

Cavitation implies cavities or holes in the fluid we are pumping. These holes can also be described as
bubbles, so cavitation is really about the formation of bubbles and their collapse. Bubbles form when
ever liquid boils. Be careful not to associate boiling with hot to the touch. Liquid oxygen will boil and
no one would ever call that hot.

Fluids boil when the temperature of the fluid gets too hot or the pressure on the fluid gets too low. At an
ambient sea level pressure of 14.7 psia (one bar) water will boil at 212°F. (100°C) If you lower the
pressure on the water it will boil at a much lower temperature and conversely if you raise the pressure
the water will not boil until it gets to a higher temperature. There are charts available to give you the
exact vapor pressure for any temperature of water. If you fall below this vapor pressure the water will
boil. As an example:

Fahrenheit Centigrade Vapor pressure lb/in2 A Vapor pressure (Bar) A

40 4.4 0.1217 0.00839

100 37.8 0.9492 0.06546

180 82.2 7.510 0.5179

212 100 14.696 1.0135

300 148.9 67.01 4.62

Please note that I am using absolute not gauge pressure. It is common when discussing the suction side
of a pump to keep everything in absolute numbers to avoid the use of minus signs. So instead of calling
atmospheric pressure zero, we say one atmosphere is 14.7 psia at seal level and in the metric system the
term commonly used is one bar, or 100 kPa if you are more comfortable with those units.
Now we will go back to the first paragraph and see if we can clear up some of the confusion:

The capacity of the pump is reduced

● This happens because bubbles take up space and you cannot have bubbles and liquid in the same
place at the same time.
● If the bubble gets big enough at the eye of the impeller, the pump will lose its suction and will
require priming.

The head is often reduced

● Bubbles unlike liquid are compressible. It is this compression that can change the head.

The bubbles form in a lower pressure area because they cannot form in a high pressure area.

● You should keep in mind that as the velocity of a fluid increase, the pressure of the fluid
decreases. This means that high velocity liquid is by definition a lower pressure area. This can be
a problem any time a liquid flows through a restriction in the piping, volute, or changes direction
suddenly. The fluid will accelerate as it changes direction. The same acceleration takes place as
the fluid flows in the small area between the tip of the impeller and the volute cut water.

A noise is heard

● Any time a fluid moves faster than the speed of sound, in the medium you are pumping, a sonic
boom will be heard. The speed of sound in water is 4800 feet per second (1480 meters/sec) or
3,273 miles per hour (5,267 kilometers per hour).

Pump parts show damage

● The bubble tries to collapse on its self. This is called imploding, the opposite of exploding. The
bubble is trying to collapse from all sides, but if the bubble is laying against a piece of metal such
as the impeller or volute it cannot collapse from that side, so the fluid comes in from the opposite
side at this high velocity proceeded by a shock wave that can cause all kinds of damage. There is
a very characteristic round shape to the liquid as it bangs against the metal creating the
impression that the metal was hit with a "ball peen hammer".
● This damage would normally occur at right angles to the metal, but experience shows that the
high velocity liquid seems to come at the metal from a variety of angles. This can be explained
by the fact that dirt particles get stuck on the surface of the bubble and are held there by the
surface tension of the fluid. Since the dirt particle has weakened the surface tension of the bubble
it becomes the weakest part and the section where the collapse will probably take place.

The higher the capacity of the pump the more likely cavitation will occur. Some plants inject air into the
suction of the pump to reduce this capacity and lower the possibility of cavitation. They choose this
solution because they fear that throttling the discharge of a high temperature application will heat the
fluid in the pump and almost guarantee the cavitation. In this case air injection is the better choice of two
evils.

High specific speed pumps have a different impeller shape that allows them to run at high capacity with
less power and less chance of cavitating. You normally find this impeller in a pipe shaped casing rather
than the volute type of casing that you commonly see.

Link to Mc Nally home page

Subject : A.P.I. (American Petroleum Institute) and C.P.I. (Chemical Process Industry) merger 12-
06

Any prediction about the future of the pump and seal business would have to include the high
probability that the CPI will adopt the API seal standard. The adoption of this standard will be
enthusiastically supported by the CPI insurance companies and will dramatically increase the price of
mechanical seals to the consumer as well as bring seals into a commodity status which has been the goal
of some of the largest pump and seal manufacturers all along.

Recent pump/seal mergers, buy outs, and alliances hint that the adoption of these new standards will also
dramatically increase the profits of these highly competitive manufacturers.

The API (American Petroleum Institute) standard is the one universal standard being used by oil
refineries throughout the world. There is on going talk about combining this standard with the chemical
industry ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standard for a single unified pump standard.

The problem with all standards of this type is that they have produced a failure rate in mechanical seals
that exceeds 85%. The only part of a mechanical seal that is sacrificial is the carbon face and in better
than 85% of the cases there is plenty of carbon face left when the seal begins to leak. The A.P.I.
specification addresses just about everything about mechanical seals. The subjects include:

● Seal design
● Materials
● Accessories
● Instrumentation
● Inspection, testing and preparation for shipment.
● Manufacturing.

In this section we will be looking at just a few of those parts of the A.P.I. standard 682 that when
combined with the C.P.I. standard, will be affecting your seal purchases in the near future. Most of this
information was taken from A.P.I. Standard 682, First Edition, dated October 1994. I recommend you
get hold of a copy of this and any future updates to learn the full particulars.

2.1.1

● All standard mechanical seals, regardless of type or arrangement, shall be of the cartridge design.

2.1.2

● The standard single arrangement pusher seal shall be an inside-mounted balanced cartridge seal.

2.1.5

● The standard, un-pressurized dual mechanical seal shall be an inside, balanced, cartridge
 mounted mechanical seal (with two rotating flexible elements and two mating rings in series).
● Outer seals shall be designed to the same operating pressure as the inner seal, but do not have to
be balanced.
● Cooling for the inboard seal is achieved by a seal flush. Cooling for the outside seal is
accomplished by a circulating device moving a buffer fluid through an external seal flush system.

2.1.6

● The standard pressurized dual mechanical seal shall be an inside, balanced, cartridge mounted
mechanical seal (with two rotating flexible elements and two mating rings in series). The inner
seal shall have an internal (reverse) balance feature designed and constructed to withstand reverse
pressure differentials without opening.

2.1.7

● The standard configuration for API single pusher and all dual mechanical seals is for the flexible
elements to rotate. For seals having a seal face surface speed greater than 25 meters per second
(5000 feet per minute), the standard alternative of stationary flexible elements shall be provided.

2.2.6

● O-ring grooves shall be sized to accommodate perfluoroelastomer O-rings.

2.27

● For vacuum services, all seal components shall be designed with a positive means of retaining the
sealing components to prevent them from being dislodged.

2.3.3.1

● Seal chambers shall conform to the minimum dimensions shown in Table 1 or Table 2. With
these dimensions the minimum radial clearance between the rotating member of the seal and the
stationary surfaces of the seal chamber and gland shall be 3 mm (1/8 inch).

2.3.5.1

● For horizontally split pumps, slotted glands shall be provided to make disassembly easier.

2.3.5.2

● Provisions shall be made for centering the seal gland and/or chamber with either an inside-or
outside diameter register fit. The register fit surface shall be concentric to the shaft and shall have
a total indicated run out of not more than 125 micrometers (0.005 inch). Shaft centering of
mechanical seal components or the use of seal gland bolts is not acceptable.
2.3.10

● Seal chamber pressure for single seals, and for the inner un-pressurized dual seal, shall be a
minimum of 3.5 bar (50 psi.) or 10 percent above the maximum fluid vapor pressure at seal
chamber fluid temperature. This margin shall be achieved by raising the seal chamber pressure
and/or lowering the seal chamber temperature. Lowering the temperature is always preferable.
Pumps which develop less than 3.5 bar (50 psi) differential pressure may not meet this
requirement and alternate requirements shall be agreed upon by the purchaser and the seal
manufacturer

2.3.18.1

● On vertical pumps the seal chamber or gland plates shall have a port no less than 3 mm, (1/8")
above the seal faces to allow the removal of trapped gas. The port must be orificed and valved.

2.3.20

● For single seals and when specified for dual seals, a non-sparking, floating-throttle bushing shall
be installed in the seal gland or chamber and positively retained against blowout to minimize
leakage if the seal fails.

2.4

● Shaft sleeves shall be supplied by the seal manufacturer.

2.4.1

● Unless otherwise specified a shaft sleeve of wear, corrosion, and erosion resistant material shall
be provided to protect the shaft. The sleeve shall be sealed at one end. The shaft sleeve assembly
shall extend beyond the outer face of the seal gland plate.

2.4.3

● Shaft sleeves shall have a shoulder or shoulders for positively locating the rotating element or
elements.

2.4.4.4

● Shaft to sleeve sealing devices shall be elastomeric O-rings or flexible graphite rings.

2.4.5

● Standard seal sizes shall be in even increments of ten millimeters. It is preferred that alternate
seals be sized in increments of 0.635 mm (0,25 inches) starting with 38.0 mm (1.5 inches).
2.4.6

● Sleeves shall have a minimum radial thickness of 2.5 mm (0.100 inches).

2.4.8

● Sleeves shall be relieved along their bore leaving a locating fit at or near each end.

2.4.9

● Shaft to sleeve diametral clearance shall be 25 micrometers to 75 micrometers (0.001 inch to

0.003 inch

2.4.10.2

● Drive collar set screws shall be of sufficient hardness to securely embed in the shaft.

2.4.9

● Shaft to sleeve diametrical clearance shall be 25 micrometers to 75 micrometers (0.001 inch to

0.003 inches)

2.5.1

● Seal and mating rings shall be of one homogeneous material. Overlays and coatings shall not be
used as the sole source of wear resistant material. Materials such as silicone or tungsten carbide
may be enhanced by applying additional coating.

2.6.1

● The type A standard pusher seal shall incorporate multiple springs with O-rings as the secondary
sealing elements. When specified on the date sheet option, a single spring shall be furnished.

3.2.2

● One of the seal face rings shall be premium grade, blister resistant carbon graphite with suitable
binders and impregnates to reduce wear and provide chemical resistance. Several grades are
available; therefore, the manufacturer shall state the type of carbon offered for each service.

3.2.3

● The mating ring should be reaction bonded silicone carbide (RBSiC). When specified, self
 sintered silicone carbide (SSSiC) shall be furnished.

3.2.4

● Abrasive service may require two hard materials. Unless otherwise specified for this service, the
seal ring shall be reaction bonded silicone carbide and tungsten carbide (WC) with nickel binder

3.6

● Unless otherwise specified, metal bellows for the type B seal shall be Hastelloy C. For the type C
seal, Inconel 718.

3.7.2

● Unless otherwise specified, gland plate to seal chamber seal shall be fluoroelastomer O-ring for
services below 150°C (300°F). For temperatures over 150°C (300°F) or when specified, graphite-
filled type 304 stainless steel spiral wound gaskets shall be used.

4.2.1

● If you are using dual mechanical seals, only mechanically forced seal flush and barrier/buffer
fluid systems shall be provided. Systems that rely upon a thermo-syphon to maintain circulation
during normal operation are not allowed.

4.2.3

● Seal systems that utilize internal circulating devices, such as a pumping ring, that rely upon the
rotation of the mechanical seal to maintain circulation shall be designed to thermo-syphon when
the seal is not running.

4.5.4.1.1

● If a dual seal buffer/barrier fluid reservoir is specified, a separate barrier/buffer fluid reservoir
shall be furnished for each mechanical seal

Section 4.4.4 contains numerous references to dual seal system reservoirs.

4.5.5.1

● The purchaser will specify on the date sheets the characteristics of the buffer/barrier fluid.

Section 4.6 addresses the circulation of the buffer/barrier fluid.

There will be some benefits to the user when the API specification is adopted in to the CPI industry

● The decision to standardize on balanced seals is a wise one. It will reduce the seal inventory of
most consumers and prevent a lot of premature seal failures.
● Allowing slotted glands for horizontally split pumps is a good idea. It should also extend to end
suction centrifugal pumps.
● Requiring seal chamber vents on vertical pump installations makes sense.
● Banning coated or plated seal faces makes sense.
● Requiring the manufacturer to specify the carbon he is supplying is an excellent idea.

What is the problem with this API specification as a standard for the Chemical Process Industry? There
are a lot of things I do not like about it in its present form. If combining with the CPI means a complete
re-writing of the API specification that will be fine depending upon the final result.

● 2.1.1 Some seal designs do not lend themselves to a cartridge design. Split seals as an example.
You could mount a split seal on a split cartridge, but that would be "over kill" in most cases.
● 2.1.2 I do not like the definition of pusher seal in this standard. The term "pusher seal" is
emotionally charged and misleading. It is used to describe a reliable O-ring seal in the same
category as spring loaded Teflon® wedges, or chevrons, and non-elastomer "U" cup designs. The
implication is that the "non-pusher" metal bellows seal is a better choice. The fact is that O-ring
seals are usually a better choice because of their ability to flex and roll and the O-ring provides a
built in vibration damper that eliminates the need for letting a bellows metal face holder bounce
off the shaft or sleeve.
● 2.1.5 The dual seal specification recognizes only tandem or series mounted rotating seals. It
ignores concentric and "face to face" designs that make sense in some applications where space is
not available for tandem configurations. Over the years the API has failed to recognize that there
are four ways to install dual seals in a pump. They have played with the terminology over the
years but have never got it simplified. It should be:
● Face to face
● Tandem or series
● Back to back
● Concentric, or one inside of the other.
● 2.1.6 The specification calls for the inner seal of a dual seal to be either balanced or reverse
balanced depending upon whether high pressure barrier fluid or lower pressure buffer fluid is
circulated between the dual seals. It totally ignores two way balance of the inner seal that would
allow the consumer his choice between barrier or buffer fluid.
● 2.1.6 The specification call for the dual seals to be mounted in series (tandem), but almost all gas
dual seals supplied to refineries to date have been supplied in the "back to back" configuration
which is the worst possible installation method for slurry and abrasive service.
● 2.1.7 The specification approves rotating seals only and recommends stationary seals for speeds
above 5000 fpm (25 m/sec). The fact is that stationary seals are almost always a better choice for
leak free and the more severe fugitive emission sealing.
● 2.1.7 Stationary seals (the spring or springs do not rotate with the shaft) can be cartridge mounted
if you take precautions to insure that the rotating face stays square to the shaft when the cartridge
sleeve is set screwed or tightened to the shaft. It is not an easy problem to solve, but there are
several solutions to the problem. Please see "stationary cartridge seals".
● 2.2.6 The specification calls for O-ring grooves with a larger groove dimension than normally
used to accommodate perfluoroelastomer O-rings.
● 2.3.5.2 The specification assumes all pump manufacturers have provided a machined diameter
concentric to the pump shaft so that the seal gland can be machined to register on an inside or
outside diameter. The fact is that most pumps were manufactured for packing and do not have
these concentric machined surfaces available to the seal manufacturer. In the CPI industry, shaft
centering makes the most sense.
● 2.3.10 Maintaining a seal chamber 50 psi (3.5) bar above vapor pressure does not make any sense
in the majority of balanced seal applications.
● 2.4.1 The specification calls for a shaft sleeve and allows the manufacturer to reduce the diameter
of the solid shaft to accommodate the sleeve. This increasing of the pump shaft L3/D4 adversely
affects the pump and seal performance.
● 2.4.1 The specification calls for sealing the sleeve on one end, but fails to specify the impeller
end except in the case of O-ring seals. If the seal is on the outboard end, the space between the
sleeve and shaft can fill with solids and hamper the removal of the sleeve. This can be a major
concern in hot oil type applications where "coking" is always a problem.
● 2.4.9 A shaft to sleeve diametral clearance of 0.001 inch to 0.003 inch is not practical. You will
never be able to remove the sleeve once some solids get between the sleeve and shaft, and they
will get there!
● 2.6.1 The standard seal is equipped with multiple springs, but the standard does not specify the
springs must be located outside the fluid. If located in the fluid they can easily clog with solids.
● 3.2.3 Reaction bonded silicone carbide is specified as the standard hard face even though it is
sensitive to caustic and other high pH chemicals frequently used to clean lines and systems. In
most cases alpha sintered would be a much better choice.
● 4.2.1 The term "flush" is misleading. Over the years the API has failed to recognize the
differences in bringing liquid to the pump stuffing box area and lumped them all under the
common term "Flush". There is better terminology:
❍ Discharge recirculation connects the discharge of the pump to the stuffing box to raise

stuffing box pressure.

❍ Suction recirculation connects the bottom of the stuffing box to the suction side of the

pump usually allowing clean fluid to circulate from behind the impeller into the stuffing
box.
❍ Barrier fluid describes a higher-pressure fluid that is circulated between dual seals.

❍ Buffer fluid describes a low-pressure fluid circulating between dual seals.

❍ Quenching fluid is introduced into the seal gland outboard the seal to wash away leakage

and control the environment outboard the seal.

❍ Jacketing fluid circulates around the outside the stuffing box to control stuffing box

temperature.
❍ Flushing fluid is fluid from an outside source introduced into the stuffing box that dilutes

the pumpage. It is seldom desirable, but sometimes necessary.

● The specification allows spring-loaded elastomers (O-rings) that do not have the ability to flex
and roll.
● The specification allows a single spring seal design even if it is sensitive to the direction of
rotation.
● The specification does not prohibit the use of mechanical seals that frett (damage) shafts and
sleeves.
● The specification should call for the seal's dynamic O-ring to move towards a clean surface to
 prevent "hang up".

Link to Mc Nally home page

SUBJECT : Troubleshooting rub marks in a centrifugal pump 5-05

When a centrifugal pump is disassembled there are a couple of things visible to the trained trouble
shooter. He can see either corrosion or evidence of rubbing, damage or wear. When ever a rotating piece
of hardware hits a stationary piece it leaves a mark that is clearly visible and capable of being analyzed
for cause.

This type of rub mark should never be confused with the dull appearance we see on a piece of metal that
has been rotating in an abrasive slurry. In strong corrosive applications the rub mark may not be visible.
The contact will cause an increase in the metal temperature causing rapid chemical attack. This
condition is easy to identify because the corrosion is localized at the rubbing location.

Shaft fretting is another common rub mark that should not be confused with the rub marks we will be
discussing in the following paragraphs. Fretting is visible between the dynamic elastomer in the
mechanical seal and the sleeve or shaft that the elastomer is sealing against. You will also observe this
type of damage immediately under the grease or lip seals that we find being used to seal most bearing
applications.

There are five possible rubbing combinations that can be seen:

1. All around the rotary and one spot on the stationary.

2. All around the stationary and one spot on the rotary.
3. All around both the rotary and stationary.
4. One spot on both the rotary and stationary.
5. One spot on the rotating component.

You should look for the rub marks on those pieces that normally come in close contact. Common sense
will dictate that the further the hardware is located from the bearings, the more likely the contact will
occur. Here are some likely candidates for rubbing when the pump experiences shaft deflection, or any
other type of radial displacement. Look for contact between :

● The stationary and rotary parts of the wear rings that are installed in most closed impeller pump
designs.
● The shaft&endash;sleeve and the mechanical seal stationary face inside diameter.
● The shaft&endash;sleeve and the bottom of the pump stuffing box, or stuffing box restrictive
bushing.
● The shaft&endash;sleeve and the A.P.I. gland disaster bushing.
● The outside diameter of the mechanical seal rotating element and the inside diameter of the
stuffing box. You will need a mirror and flashlight to see the stuffing box inside diameter.
● The impeller and the volute casing or the pump back plate.
● The outside diameter of the rotating seal, and a protruding gasket or fitting.

In the following paragraphs I will list the observations, explain the causes and where practical list some
of the conditions that can initiate the problem with centrifugal pumps. If you would like to learn more
about how to trouble shoot the rubbing marks we normally find in ball bearings, please refer to another
paper in this series

Observation - All around the rotary, one spot on the stationary. The shaft is being deflected from its true
position or the hardware surrounding the rotating piece is being forced into the rotary unit.

● The pump is operating off of its B.E.P. The stationary mark will be visible at either 240° or 60°
from the discharge "cut-water" as measured in the direction of shaft rotation.
❍ Some one has throttled the pump discharge valve.

❍ The capacity has increased.

❍ The discharge lines have a solids build up on the I.D. or there is a restriction in the

discharge piping.
❍ The tank is being filled from the bottom. The head is increasing as the tank fills.

❍ The discharge by-pass line is not functioning.

❍ You have the wrong size pump.

❍ Two pumps are piped in parallel. The larger pump is shutting the discharge check valve of

the smaller pump.

❍ The pump speed has changed.

❍ The system has been altered. Piping and fittings have been added or removed.

❍ The pump was started with the discharge valve fully open or shut.

❍ The viscosity of the liquid has changed.

❍ The impeller has been trimmed.

❍ The discharge piping or a fitting on the discharge has been damaged.

❍ The motor is running at the wrong speed. This could be caused by a change in the specific

gravity of the pumped fluid.

❍ The suction head has changed & the discharge head changed to compensate.

❍ An in-line filter is clogged.

● The shaft is pulley driven. The off-set driver is causing the deflection.
● Misalignment between the pump and the driver.
❍ They never were aligned.

❍ Thermal growth.

❍ Vibration has loosened the hold down bolts.

❍ The seal was changed and the pump was not realigned.

❍ A universal joint has been installed between the pump and the driver.

● Pipe strain
❍ Thermal growth - no expansion joints.

❍ During the installation process the piping was forced to the pump suction&emdash;

instead of piping from the suction to the pipe rack.

❍ A center line design pump was not specified for elevated temperatures.

● A protruding piece of stationary hardware is contacting the rotating part.

❍ A fitting is protruding into the stuffing box through the lantern ring connection.

❍ A gasket on the gland face is extruding into the stuffing box.

● A recirculation line aimed at the seal will give the appearance of rubbing marks if there is a lot of
abrasives in the re-circulating fluid.
● The mechanical seal gland has slipped and is now contacting the rotating shaft.
● A bad foot bearing on a mixer.
● The stationary seal face was not centered on the shaft and now the inside diameter of the seal face
is rubbing on the shaft. A severe cocking of the seal face can cause the same problem.
Observation - All around the stationary, one spot on the rotary.

● The shaft is bent.

❍ It never was straight.

❍ The shaft was damaged when it was dropped.

❍ The shaft was overheated and warped when the sleeve was removed.

● The rotary unit is out of balance. You must balance everything that rotates with the shaft such as
the impeller, sleeve, sleeve gasket, drive key, seal, bearings, coupling, motor etc.
❍ It never was balanced.

❍ Cavitation damage.

❍ Some of the product has attached it self to the rotating assembly.

❍ The impeller is the most logical place to look for un balance problems, especially in the

balancing holes.
❍ Erosion can remove metal from the rotating parts.

❍ Corrosion can do the same.

❍ Temperature distortion.

❍ A non concentric sleeve, seal, impeller, coupling, etc.

❍ The impeller was trimmed and not re&endash;balanced.

❍ A piece was damaged during the installation process.

● The rotary unit is dragging something around with it.

❍ A piece left over from the last seal change. No one notices that one of the springs has

fallen out and is resting in the bottom of the stuffing box, getting ready to be picked up by
the new seal.
❍ A piece of the seal has come loose. Look for set screws, springs, drive lugs and all of the

obvious seal parts.

● The pump is running at a critical speed, or it has passed through a critical speed.
● The seal or sleeve is not concentric with the shaft.

Observation - The mark is all around both units.

● Look for a combination of the first two discussed. This is a very common condition.
● Thermal expansion.
❍ The shaft usually expands faster than restriction bushings placed in the bottom of the

stuffing box.
❍ Hot oil applications use a thermal bushing in the bottom of the stuffing box to gain more

efficiency from the cooling jacket.

❍ Steam is often used as a quench with an A.P.I. gland. This gland has a close fitting

disaster bushing that can be overheated by the quench temperature.

● Excessive vibration.
❍ Bad bearings or a loose bearing fit.

❍ Cavitation - there are five types&emdash; see Volume 1 Number 3

❍ Harmonic, from nearby equipment.

❍ Seal "slip stick".

Observation - One spot on both the stationary and rotary units.

 ● This is caused by a momentary deflection of the rotary unit. Just about the only time it happens is
when some one drops the pump while it is being transported.

Observation &endash; One spot on the rotating unit.

● Someone has hit the piece with a hammer.

Link to Mc Nally home page

SUBJECT: Shaft displacement cheat sheet 9-2

This paper is the first in a series of "Cheat Sheets" that will summarize the information you have been
learning through out this series. These sheets will not substitute for your learning of the subject. They
are intended to outline the subject in a logical way so that you will be able to make an effective
presentation on any of the subject material.

We know that seals fail for only two reasons:

● One of the seal components becomes damaged.

● The lapped faces open.

Common sense dictates that the more the shaft deflects from the center of the stuffing box, the more
likely the lapped faces are to separate. Rotating seals (the spring loaded face rotates with the shaft) are
very sensitive to this type of shaft displacement or any other form of misalignment between the
stationary and rotating faces.

THE PUMP IS OPERATING OFF THE BEST EFFICIENCY POINT (BEP)

● The wrong size pump was selected because safety factors were added to the computations.
● A discharge valve is throttled to decrease the excessive capacity .
● An orifice has been installed in the discharge piping to limit flow.
● Two pumps are being operated in a parallel mode with different diameter impellers.
● Two pumps are being operated in series with different width impellers.
● The suction tank level is increasing or decreasing dramatically.
● The centrifugal pump is discharging into the bottom of the tank instead of the top. The head is
changing.
● The system pressure is being maintained by a head tank. The centrifugal pump is acting like an
accumulator because it stars when the head tank pressure falls and stops when the pressure tank
pressure is reached.
● You are using a variable speed motor, trying to maintain a flat system curve.
● The impeller diameter has been changed.
● The specific speed of the impeller is too high or too low for the application.
● The piping system has changed:
● There have been piping additions and deletions since the pump was originally sized.
● Extra pumps have been installed into the system.
● The piping inside diameter is reduced because of product build up.
● A globe valve has been substituted for a gate valve in the system.
● An oversized impeller was installed to satisfy a system requirement.
● The pipe was damaged when a truck ran over it.

THE PUMP IS CAVITATING

● Suction vaporization. The suction temperature is too high or the suction pressure is too low.
● Vane passing syndrome. There is not enough clearance between the tip of the impeller and the
 pump cut water.
● The suction specific speed number is in excess of 8500 (5000 in the metric system)
● Air ingestion. The fluid is vortexing at the pump suction or air is entering the system through
packing, valves above the water line, flange gaskets, etc...
● Turbulence&emdash;there is an elbow too close to the suction.
● A discharge bypass line is recirculating to the pump suction.

THE PUMP IS VIBRATING

● Dynamic unbalance of the rotating assembly caused by erosion, corrosion, or damage.

● Harmonic vibration. The shaft is vibrating in harmony with something close by.
● Slip stick. The seal faces are slipping and sticking due to poor lubrication.
● Water hammer.
● The pump is hitting a critical speed.
● Bent shaft
● Bad bearings
● Poor lubrication.
● Contamination of the lubricant.
● Poor quality.
● Bad installation.
● Over lubrication.
● The bearing is being retained by a snap ring..

OTHER CAUSES OF SHAFT DISPLACEMENT

● Pipe strain caused by either mechanical or thermal expansion.

● Misalignment between the pump and driver.
● Pulley driven designs.
● Start up thrust.
● Water hammer
● High L3/D4 number
● Thermal growth, both axial and radial.
● Impeller adjustment.
● The pump pedestal is not five times the mass of the hardware sitting on it.

THE STUFFING BOX IS CAUSING THE MISALIGNMENT PROBLEM

● The face is not machined square to the shaft.

● The stuffing box is not concentric with the shaft.
● Some bolted on stuffing boxes can slip with vibration.

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SUBJECT: Maintenance practices that cause high seal and bearing maintenance problems 6-8

Maintenance departments seldom return savings to the company management. They fear that if they do
not spend this year's budget, next year's will be reduced. Management views maintenance savings as
bottom line money and works at reducing maintenance man power and inventory costs. Here are some
of the maintenance practices that increase the pump failure rate:

Problems with pump maintenance that can cause excessive shaft movement and deflection. This shaft
displacement is a major cause of premature seal and bearing failure.

● Failure to align the pump and driver. Misalignment will cause the mechanical seal to move
excessively, increasing the chance for the seal faces to open and fail the seal.
● Pipe strain is another cause of misalignment between the seal's stationary and rotating faces.
Wear ring damage is common if pipe strain is present.
● Failure to dynamically balance the rotating assembly can result in "whip, wobble, and run-out
problems."
● Damage to the shaft and bearings during the sleeve removal process. Banging on the sleeve with
a large hammer or heating the shaft with a torch are common methods used to remove sleeves.
Needless to say the seal and bearings stand a good chance of being destroyed in the process,
along with the shaft that will be bent or warped.
● Using the coupling to compensate for misalignment. A coupling is used to transmit torque and
compensate for axial growth of the shaft, nothing else! It cannot compensate for misalignment
between the pump and its' driver.
● Trimming the impeller without dynamically re-balancing it. The impeller casting is not
homogeneous, it must be re-balanced after any machining operation has taken place.
● Throttling the pump discharge to stop a cavitation problem. The more you pump the more N.P.S.
H. you need, so throttling does work, but you may be now operating off the pumps' B.E.P.
resulting in shaft deflection.
● Failure to machine the stuffing box square to the shaft will result in excessive seal movement.
● Repairing the cutwater to the wrong length can cause a cavitation problem known as the "Vane
Passing Syndrome" that will damage the tips of the impeller blades and damage the volute just
beyond the discharge nozzle.
● Failure to properly adjust the open impeller clearance or letting the closed impeller wear ring
clearance become excessive can make the pump run inefficiently and vibrate.
● Turning down a shaft and repairing it with a polymer material will weaken the shaft making it
more sensitive to deflection forces. That practice was common with packed pumps, but should be
avoided when mechanical seals are being used.
● Substituting a globe valve for a gate valve will throw the pump off of its B.E.P. causing shaft
deflection.
● Any alteration in the piping system or failure to prevent solids "build up" in the lines will have
the same affect.
● Mounting the pump and motor on too light a foundation. The foundation should be at least five
times the mass of the equipment sitting on it or vibration will become a problem. Proper grouting
is also necessary to mate the base of the pump to the foundation.
Seal handling practices can also lead to premature seal failure.

● Installation problems:
❍ The seal is installed at the wrong length. There are a lot of ways to do this from reading

the print wrong to the sleeve moving after the seal was attached to the sleeve.
❍ The wrong lubricant was used on the dynamic rubber part causing it to be chemically

attacked. Petroleum grease on Ethylene Propylene O-rings is a good example of this

problem. In salt water applications zinc oxide should be used on all rubber parts and metal
components that clamp together.
❍ The seal was installed before the impeller setting was made or an impeller adjustment was

made without resetting the mechanical seal. In most cases this will cause the seal faces to
open prematurely.
❍ The shaft or sleeve is out of tolerance. This can cause serious problems with those seal

designs that have a dynamic elastomer sliding on the shaft (most original equipment seals
fit into this category).
❍ The sleeve was hardened to resist packing wear causing the seal set screws to slip and the

faces to open.
❍ The elastomer (rubber part) exceeded its' shelf life. This is a real problem with the Buna

"N" material found in most rubber bellows seals.

❍ Installing a stationary seal on a cartridge will cause the rotating face to "cock" when the

set screws are attached to the shaft.

● An environmental control was lost while the seal was installed in the pump. Typical
environmental controls include:
❍ Clean flushing liquid to keep solids away from the moving seal parts.

❍ Controlling stuffing box temperature with a cooling or heating jacket. If the circulating

water is "hard" condensate may have to be substituted to prevent the cooling jacket from
becoming coated with calcium and other solids that will interfere with the heat transfer.
❍ Barrier fluid is used to circulate between two mechanical seals. Sometimes the circulation

is done by simple convection, but pumping rings and forced circulation are common also.
Check to see if your convection tank has to be pressurized. This is a common problem
with many original equipment seals. Feel the convection lines to make sure the convection
is taking place in the right direction.
❍ A steam quench is often used to remove dangerous vapors and to keep the seal area warm

when the pump is shut down. Metal bellows applications use the steam quench to cool
down hot oil to prevent unwanted "coking".
❍ A stuffing box vent should be connected from the area of the seal faces to the suction side

of the pump, or some other low pressure area to prevent air from being trapped at the seal
faces.
❍ A discharge recirculation line, and a bushing in the bottom of the stuffing box are often

used to pressurize the stuffing box to prevent the product from vaporizing at or between
the lapped seal faces.
● Is there enough clearance between the seal outside diameter and the inside of the stuffing box?
Solids build up in the stuffing box can interfere with the free movement of the seal.
● The seal was installed with unidentified materials, making troubleshooting almost impossible.
● Which carbon is being used? There are a hundred available and they are not all alike.
● Which elastomer? Do you know both the material and the grade?
● What material are the metal components manufactured from? Not all stainless steel grades are
 alike, and stainless steel springs or metal bellows should never be used because of potential
problems with chloride stress corrosion.
● There are many hard seal faces in use. All ceramics, silicone carbides and tungsten carbides are
not alike.
● The outside springs were painted on a double seal when the pump area was refurbished.
● The pump discharge recirculation line is handling abrasive solids. They are being directed at the
lapped seal faces or at the thin metal bellows.
● If the open impeller is adjusted backwards (this is a common problem if a facility has both
Duriron and Goulds pumps), it can create a vacuum in the stuffing box as the "pump out vanes"
are running too close to the back plate.
● Do not shut off the stuffing box cooling jacket when a metal bellows seal is installed. The
stuffing box is cooling down the shaft as well a the seal area. Shaft cooling is necessary to
prevent heat conduction to the bearings.

Poor bearing maintenance practices are a major cause of premature bearing failure.

● If the oil level is too high or the bearings are over greased, the low specific heat of the lubrication
and its poor conductivity will cause the bearing area to over heat.
● The inside of the bearing case must be protected against rust when it is stored as a spare. The
bearings should be coated with an appropriate grease because they can rust also.
● During storage, or while in a standby condition, nearby equipment that is vibrating can induce
vibration into the static bearings causing "false brinneling" or hardening of the bearing balls and
races.
● If the oil becomes contaminated with water you will experience a very rapid bearing failure. The
water can enter through the grease or lip seals from several sources:
❍ leakage through the packing or mechanical seal.

❍ From the water hose that is used to wash down the base plates and pump area.

❍ From moisture in the air as the moisture enters the bearing casing through "aspiration".

❍ From the quench gland on a mechanical seal.

● The bearing was installed improperly:

❍ The shaft outside diameter was the wrong tolerance. Remember that the tolerance is given

in tenths of thousands of an inch or thousands of a millimeter.

❍ Too much pressure was put on the arbor press during the assembly sequence.

❍ The bearing was heated in contaminated oil that has deposited the contaminates in the

races
❍ The oil was over heated and varnish particles are now in the race ways.

❍ The bearing was pushed too far up a tapered shaft.

● The thrust bearing is being retained by a simple snap ring. During operation the shaft thrust is
usually toward the volute and this thin ring.

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SUBJECT: Operation practices that cause frequent seal and bearing maintenance problems 6-7

Wouldn't it be wonderful if the plant operation and maintenance departments could work independently?
The fact of the matter is that there are three types of problems we encounter with centrifugal pumps and
poor operation is one of them. If you are curious, the other two are design problems and poor
maintenance practices.

Seals and bearings account for over eighty five percent (85%) of premature centrifugal pump failure. In
the following paragraphs we will be looking at only those operation practices that can, and will cause
premature seal and bearing failure. Design and maintenance practices will be discussed in other papers
in this series.

When pumps were supplied with jam packing, the soft packing stabilized the shaft to prevent too much
deflection. In an effort to save flushing water and to conserve power, many of these same pumps have
since been converted to a mechanical seal and the radial stabilization the packing provided has been lost.

The bad operating practices include:

Running the pump dry will cause over-heating and excessive vibration problems that will shorten seal
life. Here are some of the common reasons why a pump is run dry:

● Failing to vent the pump prior to start-up.

● Running the tank dry at the end of the operation cycle.
● Emptying the tank for steaming or introduction of the next product.
● Running on the steam that is being used to flush the tank.
● Starting the standby pump without venting it. Venting a hazardous product can cause a lot of
problems with the liquid disposal. Many operators have stopped venting for that reason.
● Tank vents sometimes freeze during cold weather. This will cause a vacuum in the suction tank,
and in some cases could collapse the tank.
● Sump fluids are often dirty, corrosive or both. The control rods for the float switch will often
"gum up" or corrode and give a false reading to the operator. He may think that there is an
adequate level, when in fact, the tank is empty.

Dead heading the pump can cause severe shaft deflection as the pump moves off of its best efficiency
point (B.E.P.). This translates to excessive heat that will affect both the seal and the bearings as well as
causing the seal faces to open, and the possibility of the impeller contacting the volute when the shaft
deflects.

● Starting the centrifugal pump with a shut discharge valve is standard practice with many
operation departments. The concern is to save power without realizing the damage that is being
done to the mechanical seal, impeller, wear rings and bearings.
● Some pumps are equipped with a recirculation valve that must be opened to lessen the problem,
but many times the valve is not opened, or the bypass line is clogged or not of the correct
diameter to prevent the excessive head. Another point to remember is that if the bypass line is
discharged to the suction side of the pump the increased temperature can cause cavitation.
 ● After a system has been blocked out the pump is started with one or more valves not opened.
● Discharge valves are shut before the pump has been stopped.

Operating off of the best efficiency point (B.E.P.). Changing the flow rate of the liquid causes shaft
deflection that can fail the mechanical seal and over-load the bearings.

● Starting the pump with the discharge valve closed to save power.
● The level in the suction tank is changing. Remember that the pump pumps the difference between
the discharge and suction heads. If the suction head varies, the pump moves to a different point
on its curve.
● Any upset in the system such as closing, throttling or opening a valve will cause the pump to
move to a new point on the curve as the tank fills.
● Pumping to the bottom of a tank will cause the pump to move to a different point on the curve as
the tank fills. Some systems were designed for a low capacity positive displacement pump and
have since been converted to a centrifugal design because of a need for higher capacity.
Centrifugal pumps must discharge to the top of the tank to prevent this problem.
● If the discharge piping is restricted because of product build up on the inside walls, the pump will
run throttled. This is one of the reasons that it is important to take periodic flow and amperage
readings.
● Increasing the flow will often cause cavitation problems.

Seal environmental controls are necessary to insure long mechanical seal life. It is important that
operations understand their function and need because many times we find the controls installed, but not
functioning.

● Cooling-heating jackets should show a differential temperature between the inlet and outlet lines.
If the jacket clogs up, this differential will be lost and seal failure will shortly follow.
● Barrier fluid is circulated between two mechanical seals. There may or may not be a differential
temperature depending upon the flow rate. If a convection tank is installed, there should be a
temperature differential between the inlet and outlet lines. The line coming out of the top of the
seal to the side of the tank should be warmer than the line from the bottom of the tank to the
bottom of the seals, otherwise the system is running backwards and may fail completely. The
level in the tank is also critical. It should be above the tank inlet line or no convection will occur.
Some convection tanks are pressurized with a gas of some type. Many original equipment (O.E.
M.) seal designs will fail if this differential pressure is lost.
● Some seal glands (A.P.I. type) are equipped with a quench connection that looks like the seal is
leaking water or steam. If there is too much steam pressure on this quench connection, the
excessive leakage will get into the bearings causing premature failure. The steam is often used to
keep the product warm to prevent it from solidifying, crystallizing, getting too viscous, building a
film on the faces etc. Operating people frequently shut off the quench to stop the condensate from
leaking.
● Flushing fluids are used for a variety of purposes, but most of the time they are used to get rid of
unwanted solids. The flush can be closely controlled with a flow meter or throttling valve. The
amount of flush is determined by the seal design. As an example, those designs that have springs
in the product require more flush.
● It is important to check that the stuffing box has been vented in vertical pumps. The vent should
 be coming out of the seal gland and not the stuffing box lantern ring connection.

There are some additional things that all operators should know to insure longer rotating equipment life.
As an example :

● Mechanical seals have an 85% or more failure rate that is normally correctable. This is causing
unnecessary down time and excessive operating expense. Seals should run until the sacrificial
carbon face is worn away, but in more that 85% of the cases the seal fails before this happens.
● There are five different causes of cavitation.
● You should know where the best efficiency point (B.E.P.) is on a particular pump, and how far it
is safe to operate off the B.E.P. with a mechanical seal installed.
● You should be aware that washing down the pump area with a water hose will cause premature
bearing failure when the water penetrates the bearing case.
● Learn about the affect of shaft L3/D4 on pump operation.
● Know how the pumped product affects the life of the mechanical seal and why environmental
controls are necessary.
● If you are not using cartridge seals, adjusting the open impeller for efficiency will shorten the
seal life. In most cases the seal will open as the impeller is being adjusted to the volute. Durco
pumps are the best example of the exception to this rule. The popular Durco pumps adjust to the
back plate causing a compression of the seal faces that can create mechanical seal "over heating"
problems.
● Cycling pumps for test will often cause a mechanical seal failure unless an environmental control
has been installed to prevent the failure.
● Mechanical seals should be positioned after the impeller has been adjusted for thermal growth.
This is important on any pump that is operated above 200°F (100°C) or you will experience
premature seal failure.
● Some elastomers will be affected by steaming the system. A great deal of caution must be
exercised if a flushing fluid such as caustic is going to be circulated through the lines or used to
clean a tank. Both the elastomer and some seal faces (reaction bonded silicone carbide is a good
example) can be damaged. If the elastomer is attacked, the failure usually occurs within one week
of the cleaning procedure.
● The stuffing box must be vented on all vertical centrifugal pumps or otherwise air will be trapped
at the seal faces that can cause premature failure of many seal designs.
● Most original equipment seal designs cause shaft damage (fretting) necessitating the use of shaft
sleeves that weaken the shaft and restrict pump operation to a narrow range at the B.E.P..

Here are a few common misconceptions that cause friction between maintenance and operation
departments

● Shutting the pump discharge valve suddenly, will blow the seal open.
● All ceramics cold shock.
● High head, low capacity consumes a lot of power.
● The pump must come into the shop to change a mechanical seal.
● If you use two hard faces or dual mechanical seals in slurry applications, you will not need
flushing water with its corresponding product dilution.
● If you use metal bellows seals for hot oil applications, you will not need the stuffing box cooling
 jacket operating.
● It is O.K. to use an oversized impeller because throttling back will save power.

A few more thoughts on the subject

● Operators should receive proper schooling on the trouble shooting and maintenance of pumps. In
the military and many modern plants, the operator and the maintenance mechanic are often the
same person. If the operator knows how the pump works he will have no trouble figuring out the
solution to his problem. Too often he is told to keep the flow gage at a certain point, or between
two values without understanding what is actually happening with the equipment. If the operator
recognizes cavitation he can tell the maintenance department and help them with their trouble
shooting.
● As you wander around the plant look out for painters that paint the springs of outside and double
mechanical seals. There is a trend to putting two seals in a pump for environmental reasons and
the painting of springs is becoming a common problem.
● If someone is adjusting the impeller make sure he is resetting the seal spring tension at the same
time.
● If the pump is getting hot or making excessive noises, report it immediately. After the failure, it
does no good to tell maintenance that it was making noise for two weeks.
● If you are the floor operator it is common knowledge that taking temperature and pressure
readings is very boring, especially on those gages that are located in hot or awkward locations.
Avoid the temptation to "radio" these readings. From hot to failure is a very short trip.
● Maintenance's favorite expression is "there is never time to do it right, but there is always time to
fix it." Try to keep this in mind when the pressure is on to get the equipment running again.
● Do not let cleaning people direct their "wash down" hoses directly at the pump. Water entering
the bearings through the lip or grease seals is a major cause of premature bearing failure. Most
water wash downs are used to dilute and wash away seal leakage. Stop the leak and you have
eliminated the reason for the hose.
● A great many motor and electrical problems are caused by these same wash down hoses.
● Cooling a bearing outside diameter will cause it to shrink and the bearing will get hotter as the
radial load increases. Keep the water hose and all other forms of cooling off of the bearing casing.

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Subject: Troubleshooting the positive displacement rotary pump. 12-04

No liquid discharge.

● The pump is not primed. Prime it from the outlet side by keeping the outlet air vent open until
liquid comes out the vent.
● The rotating unit is turning in the wrong direction.
● Valves are closed or there is an obstruction in the inlet or outlet line. Check that the flange
gaskets have their center cut out.
● The end of the inlet pipe is not submerged. You can either increase the length of the inlet pipe
into the liquid level or raise the level in the tank.
● The foot valve is stuck.
● A strainer or filter is clogged.
● The net inlet pressure is too low.
● A bypass valve is open.
● There is an air leak some where in the inlet line. Air can come in through gaskets or valves above
the fluid line.
● The stuffing box is under negative pressure. Packing is allowing air to get into the system. You
should convert the packing to a mechanical seal
● The pump is worn. The critical clearances have increased.
● Something is broken. Check the shaft, coupling, internal parts, etc.
● There is no power to the pump.

The pump is putting out a low capacity.

● The pump's internal clearances have increased. It is time to change some parts.
● The net inlet pressure is too low; the pump is cavitating.
● A strainer or filter is partially clogged.
● The speed is too low. Check the voltage.
● The tank vent is partially frozen shut.
● A bypass line is partially open.
● A relief valve is stuck partially open.
● The inlet piping is damaged. Something ran over it
● A corrosion resistant liner has collapsed in the inlet piping.
● Air is leaking through the packing. You should go to a mechanical seal.

The pump looses its prime after it has been running for a while.

● The liquid supply is exhausted. Check the tank level; sometimes the float is stuck, giving an
incorrect level reading.
● The liquid velocity has increased dramatically.
● The liquid is vaporizing at the pump inlet.
● A bypass line is heating the incoming fluid.
● An air leak has developed in the suction piping.
The pump is using too much power

● The speed is too high.

● The liquid viscosity is higher than expected.
● The discharge pressure is higher than calculated
● The packing has been over tightened. You should convert to a mechanical seal.
● A rotating element is binding. Misalignment could be the problem or something is stuck in a
close clearance and binding the rotating element.

Excessive noise and vibration.

● Relief valve chatter.

● Foundation or anchor bolts have come loose.
● The pump and driver are misaligned.
● The piping is not supported properly.
● The liquid viscosity is too high. The pump is starving. Check the temperature of the incoming
liquid. Check to see if the supply tank heater has failed.

Excessive noise or a loss of capacity is frequently caused by cavitation. Here is how the NPSH required
was determined initially:

With the pump initially operating with a 0 psig. inlet pressure and constant differential pressure,
temperature, speed and viscosity; a valve in the inlet line is gradually closed until cavitation noise is
clearly audible, there is a sudden drop off in capacity or there is a 5% overall reduction in output flow.
Cavitation occurs with:

● A loss of suction pressure.

● An increase in fluid velocity.
● An increase in inlet temperature.

Here are some common causes of cavitation problems:

● A foot valve or any valve in the suction piping is sticking.

● Something is occasionally plugging up the suction piping. If the pump suction is coming from a
river, pond or the ocean, grass is a strong possibility.
● A loose rag is another common cause.
● A collapsed pipe liner.
● A filter or strainer is gradually clogging up.
● The tank vent partially freezes in cold weather.
● The sun is heating the suction piping, raising the product temperature close to its vapor point.
● The level in the open suction tank decreases causing vortex problems that allow air into the pump
suction.
● Several pumps in the same sump are running, decreasing the level too much.
● The suction tank float is stuck. It will sometimes show a higher level than you really have.
● A discharge recirculation line, piped to the pump suction, opens and heats the incoming liquid.
● Sometimes the suction lift is too high. The increase in pipe friction will reduce the suction head.
 ● The vapor pressure of the product is very close to atmospheric pressure. The pump cavitates
every time it rains because of a drop in atmospheric pressure.
● The tank is being heated to de-aerate the fluid. Sometimes it is being heated too much.
● The process fluid specific gravity is changing. This can happen with a change in product
operating temperature or if a cleaner or solvent is being flushed through the lines.
● The source tank is changing from a positive pressure to a vacuum due to the process.
● A packed valve in the suction piping is at a negative pressure and air is leaking in through the
packing.
● The tank is being pumped dry.
● The inlet piping has been moved or altered in some way. Has a foot valve, strainer, elbow, or
some other type of hardware been installed in the suction piping?
● Has a layer of hard water calcium or some other type of solid formed on the inside of the suction
piping reducing its inside diameter over some period of time?

You are experiencing rapid pump wear.

● There are abrasives in the liquid you are pumping causing erosion problems. You may have to go
to a larger pump running at a slower speed.
● There is some corrosion in one or more of the pump elements.
● There is a lack of lubrication.
● You have a severe pipe strain problem. It could have been caused by thermal growth of the
hardware.
● Too much misalignment.
● The pump is running dry.
● When all else fails the best way to reduce NPSH required is to select a larger pump and run it at a
slower speed.

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SUBJECT : Why do pump bearings fail? 4-12

What do we mean by good bearing life? Most of us change the bearings every time we disassemble the
equipment to replace the mechanical seal or the packing sleeve. Is this really a sensible thing to do? If
you think about it for a minute there is nothing in a bearing to wear out, there are no sacrificial parts.

Bearing life is determined by the number of hours it will take for the metal to "fatigue" and that is a
function of the load on the bearing, the number of rotations, and the amount of lubrication that the
bearing receives. Pump companies predict bearing life measured in years. As an example, the Duriron
pump company anticipates a three hundred year life for the radial bearing on their 3 x 2 x 10 pump ( 75
mm. x 50 mm. x 250 mm.) when pumping a liquid with a specific gravity of "one" (fresh water).

To understand the term "fatigue" we will conduct an experiment:

● Straighten out a standard paper clip.

● Flex it a little and then let it go. You will notice that it returns to the straightened position. You
could repeat this cycle many times (many years actually) without breaking (fatiguing) the metal
because you are cycling the metal in its "elastic range" ( it has a memory similar to piece of
rubber).
● Now we will bend (stress) the paper clip a lot further and you will note that it did not return to the
straightened position. This time you stressed the metal in its' "plastic range" where it did not have
a memory.
● If you bend the metal back and forth in this plastic range it will crack and break in less than
twenty cycles. The metal fatigued more quickly because it "work hardened" and became brittle.
The more you stress the metal by flexing it the quicker it will work harden and break.
● You have just demonstrated that fatigue is a function of stress and cycles.
● When the bearing is pressed on a rotating shaft the load passes from the inner race( inside ring)
through the balls to the bearing outer race (the outside ring).
● Each ball carries a portion of the stress as the balls roll under the load. It is this stress that will
eventually fatigue the metal parts.

When a pump is operating at its best efficiency point (B.E.P.) the only load the bearing has to carry is:

● The weight of the rotating assembly.

● The stress caused by the interference fit on the shaft.
● Any bearing preload specified by the manufacturer.

The fact is that most bearings become overloaded because of:

● The wrong interference fit between the bearing and the shaft ( the shaft was out of tolerance).
● Misalignment between the pump and its' driver.
● Bent shafts.
● An unbalanced rotating element.
● Pushing the bearing too far up a tapered sleeve.
● Operating the pump off of its best efficiency point (B.E.P.).
 ● Shaft radial thermal expansion.
● A futile attempt to cool the bearings by cooling the bearing housing with a water hose or some
other similar system. Cooling the outside diameter of a bearing causes it to shrink, increasing the
interference and causing additional stress.
● Cavitation.
● Water hammer.
● Axial thrust.
● The bearing housing is sometimes out of round.
● Pulley driven designs.
● Vibration of almost any form.
● The impeller is located too far away from the bearing. This is a common problem in many mixer/
agitator applications.
● A bad bearing was supplied. This is becoming more of a problem with the increase in counterfeit
parts we are finding in industry.

This overloading will cause heat to be generated, and heat is another common cause of premature
bearing failure.

Heat will cause the lubricant to:

● Decrease in viscosity, causing more heat as it loses its ability to support the load.
● Form a "varnish" residue and then "coke" at the elevated temperature. This "coking" will destroy
the ability of the grease or oil to lubricate the bearing. It will also introduce solid particles into
the lubricant.

In addition to the heat generated by overloading we get additional heat from:

● The oil level is too high or too low. Too often pumps are aligned but not leveled.
● The bearing was over greased.
● The shaft material is conducting heat from the pumpage back to the bearing housing. This is a
common problem in heat transfer oil pumps, or any time a metal bellows seal is used in an
application and the stuffing box cooling jacket is shut off or inoperative.
● A loss of barrier fluid between double seals causing a temperature rise that conducts heat back to
the bearings.
● A failed cooling jacket in the bearing housing around the stuffing box or built into the seal gland.
● Grease or lip seal contact on the shaft, right next to the bearings.
● A failed cooling "quench" in an A.P.I. type seal gland.

A leading bearing manufacturer states that the life of bearing oil is directly related to heat. Non
contaminated oil cannot wear out and has a useful life of about thirty years at thirty degrees centigrade
(86 F.). They further state that the life of the bearing oil is cut in half for each ten degree centigrade rise
(18 F.) in temperature of the oil.

This means that oil temperature regulation is critical in any attempt to increase the useful life of anti
friction bearings.
Probably the major cause of premature bearing failure is the contamination of the bearing lubrication by
moisture and solids. As little as 0.002% water in the lubricant can reduce bearing life by 48%. Six
percent water can reduce bearing life by 83% percent.

There are several methods used by pump companies to keep this water and moisture out of the bearing
housing:

● A flinger ring to deflect packing or seal leakage away from the bearings. A silly arrangement at
best.
● Keeping the bearing oil hot to prevent the forming of condensation inside the bearing case. A
ridiculous system when you consider that bearing life is directly related to heat.
● The use of "so called" sealed bearings. You can call them any thing you want, but the seals will
not seal anything, especially moisture or water.
● Grease or lip seals that have a useful life of about two thousand hours (84 days at 24 hours per
day) and will cut the expensive shaft directly under the seal lip. Double lip seals will cut the shaft
in two places.
● Labyrinth seals that are superior to lip seals but not totally effective because you are still trying to
seal with non contacting surfaces that are useless Statically.

The moisture comes from multiple sources:

● Packing leakage flows back to the bearing area.

● Because of packing leakage a water hose is used to wash down the area. This washing splashes
on to the pump bearing case also.
● Aspiration, moist air enters through the lip or labyrinth seals when the bearing case cools down.
● A seal quench gland that often has steam, condensate or cooling water leaking out and directed at
the radial bearing.

The moisture causes several problems:

● Pitting and corrosion of the bearing races and rolling elements that will increase the fatigue of the
metal components.
● Free atomic hydrogen, in the water, appears to cause hydrogen embrittlement of the bearing
metal accelerating the fatigue.
● A water and oil emulsion does not provide a good lubricating film.

We get solids into the lubricant from several sources:

● Metal seal cage wear. This is the part the separates the balls that are held between the bearing
races. It is often manufactured from brass or a non metallic material.
● Abrasive particles leach out of the bearing housing casting.
● Often solid particles were already contaminating the grease or oil we are using for the lubricant.
● Solids were introduced into the system during the assembly process because of a lack of
cleanliness.
● Airborne particles penetrate the bearing seals.
● Particles worn off of the grease or lip seals penetrate into the bearings.
How to keep solids and moisture out of the bearing housing.

● Seal the inside of the bearing housing with epoxy or some other suitable material to stop rusting
and to prevent solids from leaching out of the metal case. If you do this be careful about using
some of the new high detergent lubricants. They might be powerful enough to remove this
protective coating.
● Replace the grease or labyrinth seals with positive face seals. In the future, you are going to need
these seals to prevent hydrocarbon fugitive emissions.
● Install an expansion chamber outside of the bearing casing to accept the air (approximately 16 oz.
or 475 ml. in a typical process pump) that expands as the bearing casing increases in temperature.
Without this expansion chamber approximately one atmosphere of pressure will build up in the
bearing housing. This is not a problem for a mechanical seal, but during long periods of shut
down the pressure could be lost.
● Clean the oil in the bearing casing by installing a simple oil circulating and filtering system or
change the oil frequently.

When do you go from anti-friction ball and roller bearings to hydrodynamic (sleeve) bearings in a
centrifugal pump?

● Any time the DN number exceeds 300,000 (Bearing bore times rpm)
● If the standard bearings fail to meet an L10 life of 25.000 hours in continuous operation or
16,000 hours at maximum axial and radial load and rated speed.
● If the product of the pump horsepower and speed in rpm is 2.7 million or greater.

The past several years have seen a decrease in the quality of the bearings available for rotating
equipment. We find prepacked bearing being shipped with too much, or no grease at all. Stabilization
temperatures have changed and overall quality has diminished. If you adopt the above suggestions you
should not have to be changing your bearings as frequently as you are now.

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SUBJECT : Pump selection practices that cause high seal and bearing maintenance problems. 6-9

Purchasing well designed hardware does not bring automatic trouble free performance with it. The very
best equipment will cause problems if it was not designed for your particular application. Here are a few
of the more common selection problems we find with centrifugal pumps:

● Buying the same size pump as the one that came out of the application. That's O.K. If the old
pump was the correct size, but the odds are that it was too big because of the safety factors that
were added at the time of purchase. This will cause the pump to run off of its best efficiency
point (B.E.P.) and you will spend a lot of production money for the additional power that is
needed to run against a throttled discharge valve or orifice installed in the discharge piping.
● Buying to a standard, or making a decision based on efficiency, and believing that these two
some how relate to quality. Standards were written for packed pumps. When a mechanical seal is
being used the shaft L3/D4 number is almost always too large. Efficiency is always gained at the
expense of maintenance. Efficiency means tight tolerances and smooth passages that will
eliminate reliable double volute designs and keep the maintenance department busy adjusting
tight tolerances to maintain the efficiency you paid for.
● Series and parallel installation problems. We often find pumps installed in parallel, but no one
knows it because the second pump was installed at a much later date and no one has bothered to
trace the piping. Pumps in parallel require that they have the same diameter impeller and that
they run at the same speed, or the larger pump will throttle the smaller one causing it to run off
the best efficiency point, deflecting the shaft. The capacity should be looked at if the higher
capacity pump might exceed the N.P.S.H. available.
● When pumps are installed in series the impellers must be the same width and they must run at the
same speed or the higher capacity pump will either cavitate because the smaller capacity pump
can not feed liquid at the proper capacity, or it will run throttled if it is feeding the smaller pump.
In either case the larger of the two pumps will be adversely affected.
● Purchasing a larger pump because it will be needed in the future. Will raise the operating cost to
unacceptable levels (Power = head x capacity) as the pump is run against a throttled discharge
valve. This inefficient use of power will translate to a higher heat environment for the seal along
with all of the problems associated with shaft deflection.
● Using a variable speed motor to compensate for a pump curve that is not flat enough. Many
boiler feed pumps require a flat curve so that the pump can put out varying capacities at a
constant boiler pressure (head). We see this same need if we are pumping a varying amount of
liquid to a very high constant height.
● Varying the speed of a pump is similar to changing the diameter of the impeller. If you look at a
typical pump curve you will observe that the best efficiency point (B.E.P.) comes down with
impeller size to form an angle with the base line (capacity line) of the graph. This means that if
you vary the speed of the impeller, the pump always runs off the B.E.P. except in the case where
the system curve intersects the pump curve, or in the case of an exponential system curve such as
we find in a typical hot or cold water circulating system.
● Double ended pumps installed in a vertical position to save floor space. Makes seal replacement a
nightmare unless you are using split or cartridge designs.
● Specifying a desired capacity without knowing the true system head. You can't guess with this
one. Some one has to make the calculations and "walk the system". The present pump is not a
 reliable guide because we seldom know where it is pumping on its' curve. Chart recorders
installed on both the suction and discharge side of the pump will give a more accurate reading of
the present head if they are left on long enough to record the differences in flow. The trouble with
this method is that it will also record a false head caused by a throttled valve, an orifice, or any
other restriction that might be present in the piping.
● Requesting too low a required N.P.S.H. will cause you to end up with a different kind of
cavitation problem. See another paper in this series for information about "Internal recirculation".
● Failure to request a "center line design" when pumping temperature exceeds 200°F (100°C) it
will cause pipe strain that will translate to wear ring damage and excessive mechanical seal
movement.
● The use of "inline" pumps to save floor space. Many of these designs are "close coupled" with
the motor bearings carrying the radial and thrust loads. Because of typical L3/D4 numbers being
very high, the wear rings act as "steady bearings" after the pump is converted to a mechanical
seal. The pump should have been designed with a separate bearing case and a "C" or "D" frame
adapter installed to connect a motor to the bearing case.
● Thrust bearings being retained by a simple snap ring. Beyond 65% of its rated efficiency most
centrifugal pumps thrust towards the pump volute. The thin snap ring has to absorb all of this
axial thrust and most of them can not do it very well .
● The mechanical seal has been installed in a packing stuffing box that is too narrow to allow free
seal movement. If a mechanical seal was specified, the pump back plate should have been
manufactured with a large diameter seal chamber. In most cases the stuffing box recirculation
line should be installed from the bottom of this large seal chamber to the suction side of the pump
or a low pressure point in the system. There are some exceptions to this, however:
❍ If you are pumping at or close to vapor point.

❍ If the entrained solids have a low specific gravity.

❍ If you are using a Duriron pump that adjusts to the back plate.

❍ If you are using a double suction pump where the stuffing boxes are at suction pressure.

● High temperature applications have several special needs:

❍ A jacketed stuffing box that isolates the pumpage from the stuffing box contents by a

carbon bushing to retard heat transfer.

❍ A centerline design to compensate for thermal expansion.

❍ A cartridge seal design that allows open impeller adjustment after the pump has come up

to operating temperature.
❍ A stainless steel shaft to retard heat transfer to the bearings.

❍ A method of cooling the bearing oil, but never the bearings.

❍ A coupling that will compensate for axial expansion.

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SUBJECT: Shaft fretting 10-3

The next time you remove a grease or lip seal (the rubber seal located next to the bearing) you will note
that the shaft is grooved and damaged under the rubber lip. You will see this same damage in a few other
locations also:

● On the sleeve under the stuffing box packing, if you are still using packing in your pumps.
● On the sleeve under the Teflon® wedge, "U' cup, or "V" rings if you are using original
equipment type mechanical seals.
● Underneath the spring loaded o-ring found on many popular single and double mechanical seals.
● Underneath the rubber bellows of the type #1 seal if the rubber bellows did not vulcanize to the
shaft.

This shaft or sleeve damage is called fretting and it will cause you several problems:

● Sleeve replacement is costly.

● The pump bearings are often destroyed in the process of removing the damaged shaft sleeve.
● The shaft diameter was reduced to accommodate the wear sleeve. This reduction weakened the
shaft, raised the L3/D4 number, and increased shaft deflection problems.
● The seal can "hang up" in the fretted groove, opening the lapped seal faces.
● The fretted grove becomes an additional leak path for the fluid. This is a major cause of seal
failure

What causes this fretting problem? How can a soft piece of rubber or a slick wedge of Teflon cut a hard
shaft? It doesn't seem to make any sense.

Surprisingly it has nothing to do with dirt in the air or abrasives in the fluid. The problem will occur
even if you are pumping a filtered, clean lubricant in a sterile atmosphere.

To understand fretting you must first understand the term "corrosion resistant". Some materials resistant
corrosion others do not. What is the difference? We say that iron rusts, but aluminum oxidizes. A look at
any dictionary will verify that these terms mean the same thing. So why do we use different terms to
describe the same problem?

The answer lies in the way a metal rusts or oxidizes. If the oxide layer is protective we say that the
material is corrosion resistant. Take aluminum as an example:

● Aluminum protects its self by forming a layer of aluminum oxide on the surface when it is
exposed to oxygen. It is very visible and looks almost white in color.
● A more common name for aluminum oxide is ceramic,a dense, hard, corrosion resistant material.

After this dense layer is formed on the surface of the aluminum the oxidation or rusting rate is slowed
down to less than 0.002 inches (0,05 mm) per year, and this is the definition of corrosion resistant.
If this protective oxide layer is rubbed or polished off by the packing, lip seal or Teflon wedge the oxide
will immediately reform to protect the base material. It is this constant oxide removal and reforming that
causing the shaft grooving that is so visible. We get the same reaction when we polish silver. The
"tarnish" replaces its self to protect the silver.

Shaft vibration and end play causes a constant axial movement of the shaft through the mechanical seal
dynamic rubber or Teflon® part. Bearing grease seals and stuffing box packing are stationary, so the
rotating shaft is constantly being polished by these materials when the pump is running

There is a second problem associated with fretting. The ceramic oxide that is removed imbeds its self
into the rubber part causing a wear or grinding action on the base metal.

Stainless steel protects its self by forming a protective oxide called chrome oxide, one of the hardest
ceramics. When this oxide forms we say that the active stainless steel is now "passivated". It is this
chrome oxide imbedded into the packing, Teflon®, or rubber lip that does so much damage to the shaft
sleeve.

So now we have two causes of fretting:

● The removal of the passivated layer by the rubbing action of the rubber or Teflon®.
● The hard ceramic that we removed sticking into the rubber or Teflon causing a grinding action.

Now that we know the causes of fretting what is the solution?

● Replace bearing lip or grease seals with labyrinth or the newer positive face seals. Face seals are
the better choice.
● Stop putting packing into pumps. You don't need that kind of leakage any more.
● Do not use mechanical seals that are designed with a dynamic elastomer positioned on the pump
shaft or sleeve. Most original equipment seals are designed this way. Stationary cartridge seals,
most balanced O-ring seals and all bellows seals eliminate the shaft dynamic elastomer and the
fretting associated with it.

® DuPont Dow elastomer

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SUBJECT : Cavitation 1-3

Cavitation means that cavities are forming in the liquid that we are pumping. When these cavities form
at the suction of the pump several things happen all at once.

● We experience a loss in capacity.

● We can no longer build the same head (pressure)
● The efficiency drops.
● The cavities or bubbles will collapse when they pass into the higher regions of pressure causing
noise, vibration, and damage to many of the components.

The cavities form for five basic reasons and it is common practice to lump all of them into the general
classification of cavitation. This is an error because we will learn that to correct each of these conditions
we must understand why they occur and how to fix them. Here they are in no particular order :

● Vaporization
● Air ingestion
● Internal recirculation
● Flow turbulence
● The Vane Passing Syndrome

Vaporization .

A fluid vaporizes when its pressure gets too low, or its temperature too high. All centrifugal pumps have
a required head (pressure) at the suction side of the pump to prevent this vaporization. This head
requirement is supplied to us by the pump manufacturer and is calculated with the assumption that fresh
water at 68 degrees Fahrenheit (20 degrees Centigrade) is the fluid being pumped.

Since there are losses in the piping leading from the source to the suction of the pump we must
determine the head after these losses are calculated. Another way to say this is that a Net Positive
Suction Head is Required (N.P.S.H.R.) to prevent the fluid from vaporizing.

We take the Net Positive Suction Head Available (N.P.S.H.A.) subtract the Vapor Pressure of the
product we are pumping, and this number must be equal to or greater than the Net Positive Suction Head
Required.

To cure vaporization problems you must either increase the suction head, lower the fluid temperature, or
decrease the N.P.S.H. Required. We shall look at each possibility:

Increase the suction head

● Raise the liquid level in the tank

● Raise the tank
● Put the pump in a pit
 ● Reduce the piping losses. These losses occur for a variety of reasons that include :
❍ The system was designed incorrectly. There are too many fittings and/or the piping is too

small in diameter.
❍ A pipe liner has collapsed.

❍ Solids have built up on the inside of the pipe.

❍ The suction pipe collapsed when it was run over by a heavy vehicle.

❍ A suction strainer is clogged.

❍ Be sure the tank vent is open and not obstructed. Vents can freeze in cold weather

❍ Something is stuck in the pipe, It either grew there or was left during the last time the

system was opened . Maybe a check valve is broken and the seat is stuck in the pipe.
❍ The inside of the pipe, or a fitting has corroded.

❍ A bigger pump has been installed and the existing system has too much loss for the

increased capacity.
❍ A globe valve was used to replace a gate valve.

❍ A heating jacket has frozen and collapsed the pipe.

❍ A gasket is protruding into the piping.

❍ The pump speed has increased.

● Install a booster pump

● Pressurize the tank

Lower the fluid temperature

● Injecting a small amount of cooler fluid at the suction is often practical.

● Insulate the piping from the sun's rays.
● Be careful of discharge recirculation lines, they can heat up the suction fluid.

Reduce the N.P.S.H. Required

● Use a double suction pump. This can reduce the N.P.S.H.R. by as much as 27% or in some cases
it will allow you to raise the pump speed by 41%
● Use a lower speed pump
● Use a pump with a larger impeller eye opening.
● If possible install an Inducer. These inducers can cut N.P.S.H.R. by almost 50%.
● Use several smaller pumps. Three half capacity pumps can be cheaper than one large pump plus a
spare. This will also conserve energy at lighter loads.

It is a general rule of thumb that hot water and gas free hydrocarbons can use up to 50% of normal cold
water N.P.S.H. requirements, or 10 feet (3 meters), whichever is smaller. I would suggest you use this as
a safety margin rather than design for it.

Air ingestion

A centrifugal pump can handle 0.5% air by volume. At 6% air the results can be disastrous. Air gets into
as system in several ways that include :

● Through the stuffing box. This occurs in any packed pump that lifts liquid, pumps from a
 condenser, evaporator or any piece of equipment that runs in vacuum.
● Valves above the water line.
● Through leaking flanges
● Vortexing fluid.
● A bypass line has been installed too close to the suction.
● The suction inlet pipe is out of fluid. This can occur when the level gets too low or there is a false
reading on the gauge because the float is stuck on a corroded rod.

Both vaporization and air ingestion have an affect on the pump. The bubbles collapse as they pass from
the eye of the pump to the higher pressure side of the impeller. Air ingestion seldom causes damage to
the impeller or casing. The main effect of air ingestion is loss of capacity.

Although air ingestion and vaporization both occur they have separate solutions. Air ingestion is not as
severe as vaporization and seldom causes damage, but it does lower the capacity of the pump.

Internal Recirculation

This condition is visible on the leading edge of the impeller, and will usually be found at the discharge
tip working its way back to the suction. It can also be found at the suction eye of the pump.

As the name implies the fluid recirculates increasing its velocity until it vaporizes and then collapses in
the surrounding higher pressure. This has always been a problem with low NPSH pumps and the term
SPECIFIC SUCTION SPEED was coined to give you a guide in determining how close you have to
operate to the B.E.P. of a pump to prevent the problem.

The higher the number the smaller the window in which you have to operate. The numbers range
between 3,000 and 20,000. Water pumps should stay between 3,000 and 12,000. Here is the formula to
determine the suction specific speed number of your pump:

rpm = Pump speed

gpm = Gallons per minute or liters per second of the largest impeller at its
BEP
Head= Net positive suction head required at that rpm

● For a double suction pump the flow is divided by 2 since there are 2 impeller eyes
● Try to buy pumps lower than 8500.(5200 metric ) forget those over 12000 (8000 metric) except
for extreme circumstances.
● Mixed hydrocarbons and hot water at 9000 to 12000 (5500 to 7300 metric) or higher, can
probably operate satisfactorily.
● High specific speed indicates the impeller eye is larger than normal, and efficiency may be
compromised to obtain a low NPSH required.
● Higher values of specific speed may require special designs, and operate with some cavitation.
 ● Normally a pump operating 50% below its best efficiency point (B.E.P.) is less reliable.

With an open impeller pump you can usually correct the problem by adjusting the impeller clearance to
the manufacturers specifications. Closed impeller pumps present a bigger problem and the most practical
solution seems to be to contact the manufacturer for an evaluation of the impeller design and a possible
change in the design of the impeller or the wear ring clearances.

Turbulence

We would prefer to have liquid flowing through the piping at a constant velocity. Corrosion or
obstructions can change the velocity of the liquid and any time you change the velocity of a liquid you
change its pressure. Good piping layouts would include :

● Ten diameters of pipe between the pump suction and the first elbow.
● In multiple pump arrangements we would prefer to have the suction bells in separate bays so that
one pump suction will not interfere with another. If this is not practical a number of units can be
installed in a single large sump provided that :
● The pumps are located in a line perpendicular to the approaching flow.
● There must be a minimum spacing of at least two suction diameters between pump center lines.
● All pumps are running.
● The upstream conditions should have a minimum straight run of ten pipe diameters to provide
uniform flow to the suction bells.
● Each pump capacity must be less than 15,000 gpm..
● Back wall clearance distance to the centerline of the pump must be at least 0.75 of the suction
diameter.
● Bottom clearance should be approximately 0.30 (30%) of the suction diameter
● The minimum submergence should be as follows:

FLOW MINIMUM SUBMERGENCE

20,000 GPM 4 FEET

100,000 GPM 8 FEET

180,000 GPM 10 FEET

200,000 GPM 11 FEET

250,000 GPM 12 FEET

The metric numbers are :

 FLOW MINIMUM SUBMERGENCE
4,500 M3/HR 1.2 METERS

22,500 M3/HR 2.5 METERS

40,000 M3/HR 3.0 METERS

45,000 M3/HR 3.4 METERS

55,000 M3/HR 3.7 METERS

The Vane Passing Syndrome

You will notice damage to the tip of the impeller caused by its passing too close to the pump cutwater.
The velocity of the liquid increases if the clearance is too small lowering the pressure and causing local
vaporization. The bubbles collapse just beyond the cutwater and there is where you should look for
volute damage. You will need a flashlight and mirror to see the damage unless it has penetrated to the
outside of the volute.

The damage is limited to the center of the impeller and does not extend into the shrouds. You can
prevent this problem if you keep a minimum impeller tip to cutwater clearance of 4 % of the impeller
diameter in the smaller impeller sizes (less than 14' or 355 mm.) and 6% in the larger impeller sizes
(greater than 14" or 355 mm.).

To prevent excessive shaft movement bulkhead rings can be installed in the suction eye. At the
discharge rings can be manufactured to extend from the walls to the impeller shrouds.

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SUBJECT: The pump is not producing enough head to satisfy the application 10-9

This is the first paper in a four part series about pump troubleshooting. Let me begin by pointing out that
there are a couple of things you must keep in mind when troubleshooting centrifugal pump problems:

● The centrifugal pump always pumps the difference between the suction and discharge heads. If
the suction head increases, the pump head will decrease to meet the system requirements. If the
suction head decreases the pump head will increase to meet the system requirements.
● A centrifugal pump always pumps a combination of head and capacity. These two numbers
multiplied together must remain a constant. In other words, if the head increases the capacity
must decrease. Likewise if the head decreases, the capacity must increase.
● The pump will pump where the pump curve intersects the system curve.
● If the pump is not meeting the system curve requirements the problem could be in the pump, the
suction side including the piping and source tank, or somewhere in the discharge system.
● Most pumps are oversized because of safety factors that were added at the time the pump was
sized. This means that throttling is a normal condition in most plants, causing the pump to run on
the left hand side of its curve.

THE PROBLEM COULD BE IN THE PUMP ITS SELF

● The impeller diameter is too small.

❍ The impeller is running at too slow a speed

❍ You are running an induction motor. Their speed is different than synchronous motors. It's

always slower. The pump curve was created using a variable frequency motor that ran at a
constant speed. Put a tachometer on your motor to see its actual speed.
❍ Your pulley driven pump is running on the wrong pulley diameter.

❍ A variable frequency motor is running at the wrong speed.

❍ Check the speed of the driver if the pump is driven by something other than an electric

motor.
● There is something physically wrong with the motor. Check the bearings etc.
● Check the voltage of the electric motor. It may be too low.
● The impeller is damaged. The damage could be caused by excessive wear, erosion, corrosion or
some type of physical damage.
❍ Physical damage often occurs during the assembly process when the impeller is driven on

or off the shaft with a wooden block and a mallet. Many impeller designs do not have a
nut cast into the impeller hub to ease removal.
❍ Erosion occurs when solids enter the eye of the impeller. The solids can chip off pieces of

the ceramic that are passivating the impeller, causing localized corrosion.
❍ Damage can occur if the impeller to volute, or back plate clearance is too small and the

shaft experiences some type of deflection. The original clearance could have diminished
with thermal growth of the shaft. Keep in mind that some open impellers adjust to the
volute (Goulds) while other designs adjust to the back plate (Duriron).
● In an ANSI and similar design centrifugal pumps, the normal thrust towards the volute has bent
the snap ring designed for bearing retention. This can allow the rotating impeller to hit the
stationary volute.
● Here are some examples of shaft displacement:
❍ Operating the pump too far off the BEP.

❍ Pulley driven applications.

❍ Pipe strain.

❍ Misalignment between the pump and driver.

❍ The shaft could be bent.

❍ The rotating assembly was probably not dynamically balanced.

● The impeller is clogged. This is a major problem with closed impellers. With the exception of
finished product, most of what you will be pumping contains entrained solids. Remember also
that some products can solidify, or they can crystallize with a change in fluid temperature or
pressure.
● Impeller balance holes have been drilled between the eye and the wear rings of a closed impeller.
The reverse flow is interfering with the product entering the impeller eye. A discharge
recirculation line should have been used in place of the balance holes to reduce the axial thrust.
● The double volute casting is clogged with solids or solids have built up on the surface of the
casting.
● The open impeller to volute clearance is too large. 0.017" (0,5 mm) is typical. This excessive
clearance will cause internal recirculation problems. A bad installation, thermal growth, or
normal impeller wear could be the cause.
❍ A large impeller to cutwater clearance can cause a problem called discharge recirculation.

Wear is a common symptom of this condition.

● If the impeller is positioned too close to the cutwater you could have cavitation problems that will
interfere with the head.
● The impeller specific speed number is too high. Lower specific speed numbered impellers are
used to build higher heads.
● An impeller inducer was left off at the time of assembly. Inducers are almost always needed with
high specific speed impellers. Leaving off the inducer can cause cavitation problems that will
interfere with the head.
● The impeller is loose on the shaft.
● The impeller is running backwards
● The shaft is running backwards because of a wiring problem.
● The pump is running backwards because the discharge check valve is not holding and system
pressure is causing the reverse rotation. This is a common problem with pumps installed in a
parallel configuration. Check valves are notoriously unreliable.
● The impeller has been installed backwards. This can happen with closed impellers on double
ended pumps
● The second stage of a two stage pump is wired backwards. The pump reverses when the second
stage kicks in. You should have heard a loud noise when this happened.
● The wear ring clearance is too large.
❍ This is a common problem if the shaft L3/D4 number is greater than 60 (2 in the metric

system).
❍ You should replace the rings when the original clearance doubles. Needless to say this can

only be determined by inspection.

● If you are pumping a product at 200°F (100°C) or more you should use a centerline design volute
to prevent excessive wear ring wear as the volute grows from the base straight up, engaging the
wear rings.
● A wear ring is missing. It was probably left off during the installation process.
 ● A high suction tank level is reducing the differential pressure across the pump increasing its
capacity. The pump pumps the difference between the suction and discharge heads.
● A bubble is trapped in the eye of the impeller. The eye is the lowest pressure area. When this
bubble forms it shuts off all liquid coming into the pump suction. This could cause the pump to
lose its prime.
● You cannot vent a running pump because centrifugal force will throw the liquid out the vent
leaving the air trapped inside.
● Air is coming directly into the pump. This happens with a negative pressure at the suction side.
Negative suction happens when the pump is lifting liquid, pumping from a condenser hot well
etc.
❍ Air is coming into the stuffing box through the pump packing.

❍ Air is coming into the stuffing box through an unbalanced mechanical seal. As the carbon

face wears the spring load holding the faces together diminishes.
❍ If you are using mechanical seals in vacuum service, they should be of the O-ring design.

Unlike other designs, O-rings are the only shape that seals both pressure and vacuum.
❍ The pump was not primed prior to start up. With the exception of the self priming version,

centrifugal pumps must be full of liquid at start up.

❍ Air can enter the stuffing box if the gasket between the two halves of a double ended

pump is defective or does not extend to the stuffing box face. Any small gaps between the
face of the stuffing box and the split at the side of the stuffing box will allow either air in,
or product out.
❍ Air is coming into the suction side of the pump through a pin hole in the casing.

❍ Air is entering the stuffing box between the sleeve and the shaft. This happens if you

convert a double ended pump from packing to a mechanical seal and fail to install a gasket
or o-ring between the impeller hub and the sleeve.
● The open impeller was adjusted backwards and now the close fitting "pump out vanes" are
creating a vacuum in the stuffing box.
● You need a volute casing instead of a concentric casing. Volute casings are much better for
producing head.
● You have the wrong size pump. It cannot meet the system curve requirements:
● The pump was not selected to meet the system curve requirements because no system curve was
given to the pump supplier.
● At replacement time the same size pump was purchased because no one had calculated losses in
the system.
● The pump was sized from a piping diagram that was thirty five years old. There have been
numerous piping changes and additions since the original layout. In many instances additional
pumps have been installed and this pump is running in parallel with them, but nobody knows it.

THE PROBLEM IS ON THE SUCTION SIDE OF THE PUMP. THE PUMP COULD BE
CAVITATING.

● Air is entering the suction piping at some point.

❍ Air is being pumped into the suction piping to reduce cavitation problems

❍ Fluid returning to the sump is being aerated by too far a free fall. The return line should

terminate below the liquid level.

❍ The fluid is vortexing at the pump inlet because the sump level is too low and the pump

capacity is too high.

 ❍ Air is coming into the system through valves above the water line or gaskets in the piping
flanges.
❍ The liquid source is being pumped dry. If this is a problem in your application you might

want to consider a self priming pump in the future.

● The vapor pressure of the fluid is too close to atmospheric pressure. When it rains the drop in
atmospheric pressure causes the inlet fluid to vaporize.
● There is a problem with the piping layout. It is reducing the head on the suction side of the pump.
❍ There is too much piping between the pump suction and the source tank. You may need a

booster pump or an inducer. The higher the pump speed the bigger the problem.
❍ There is an elbow too close to the pump suction. There should be at least ten diameters of

pipe between the elbow and the pump suction. Suction piping should never run parallel
with the pump shaft in a double ended pump installation. This can cause unnecessary shaft
thrusting.
❍ A piece of pipe of reduced diameter has been installed in the suction piping.

❍ Piping was added on the inlet side of the pump to by-pass a piece of equipment that was

installed on the floor.

❍ A piping to pump reducer has been installed upside down causing an air pocket.

Concentric reducers can cause the same problem..

❍ Multiple pump inlets are too close together.

● The pump inlet is too close to the tank floor.

● The suction lift is too high.
● A gasket with too small an inside diameter has been installed in the suction piping restricting the
liquid flow.
● A gasket in the suction piping is not centered and is protruding into the product stream.
● A globe valve has been substituted for a gate valve in the suction piping. The loss of head in a
globe valve is many times that of a gate valve.
● Two pumps are connected in series. The first pump is not sending enough capacity to the second
pump.
● The piping inlet is clogged.
● A filter or strainer is clogged or covered with something.
● Intermittent plugging of the suction inlet.
❍ Loose rags can do this.

❍ If the suction is from a pond, river, or the sea, grass can be pulled into the suction inlet.

● A foot valve is stuck.

● A check valve is stuck partially closed
● The foot valve is too small.
● A small clam or marine animal cleared the suction screen, but has now grown large on the pump
side of the screen.
● The suction piping diameter has been reduced.
❍ The suction piping collapsed when a heavy object either hit or ran over the piping.

❍ Solids have built up on the piping walls. Hard water is a good example of this problem

❍ A liner has broken away from the piping wall and has collapsed in the piping. Look for

corrosion in the piping caused by a hole in the liner.

❍ A foreign object is stuck in the piping It was left there when the piping was repaired.

❍ The suction is being throttled to prevent the heating of the process fluid. This is a common

operating procedure with fuel pumps where discharge throttling could cause a fire or
explosion.
 ● The pump inlet temperature is too high.
❍ The tank is being heated to deaerate the fluid, but it is heating the fluid up too much. Look

for this problem in boiler feed pump applications.

❍ The sun is heating the inlet piping. The piping should be insulated to prevent this problem.

❍ The operating temperature of the pumped fluid has been increased to accommodate the

process requirements.
❍ A discharge recirculation line is heating the incoming fluid. You should direct this line to

a reservoir rather than the pump suction.

❍ Steam or some other hot cleaner is being circulated through the lines.

● The problem is in the tank connected to the suction of the pump.

❍ The pump capacity is too high for the tank volume.

❍ The tank float is stuck, showing a higher tank level that does not exist.

❍ The tank vent is partially shut or frozen, lowering the suction pressure.

❍ There is not enough NPSH available for the fluid you are pumping. Maybe you can use an

inducer or booster pump to increase the suction pressure.

❍ A high suction tank level is reducing the differential pressure across the pump, increasing

its capacity and lowering the head.

PROBLEMS ON THE DISCHARGE SIDE OF THE PUMP INCLUDING THE PIPING

● Two pumps are in connected in series. The first pump does not have enough capacity for the
second pump. They should be running at the same speed with the same width impeller.
● The pump discharge is connected to the bottom of the tank. The head is low until the level in the
tank increases.
● Units in the discharge piping should not normally be shut off, they should be by-passed to
prevent too much of a change in the pump's capacity.
● If too many units are being by-passed in the discharge system the head will decrease as the
capacity increases. This can happen if an extra storage tank farm is being by-passed because the
storage capacity is no longer needed.
● A bypass line has been installed in the pump discharge increasing the capacity and lowering the
head.
● Piping or fittings have been removed from the discharge side of the pump reducing piping
resistance.
● Connections have been installed in the discharge piping that have increased the demand that
increases capacity.
● The pump is acting as an accumulator, coming on when the tank level drops. The head will be
low until the accumulator is recharged.
● Consider the possibility of a siphon affect in the discharge piping. This will occur if the pump
discharge piping is entering into the top of a tank and discharging at a lower level The pump must
build enough head initially to take advantage of the siphoning action.
● A discharge valve (manual or automatic) is opened too much.

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SUBJECT: The pump is not producing enough capacity to satisfy the application 10-10

This is the second paper in a four part series about pump troubleshooting. Let me begin by pointing out
that there are a couple of things you must keep in mind when troubleshooting centrifugal pump
problems:

● The centrifugal pump always pumps the difference between the suction and discharge heads. If
the suction head increases, the pump head will decrease to meet the system requirements. If the
suction head decreases the pump head will increase to meet the system requirements.
● A centrifugal pump always pumps a combination of head and capacity. These two numbers
multiplied together must remain a constant. In other words, if the head increases the capacity
must decrease. Likewise if the head decreases, the capacity must increase.
● The pump will pump where the pump curve intersects the system curve.
● If the pump is not meeting the system curve requirements the problem could be in the pump, the
suction side including the piping and source tank, or somewhere in the discharge system.
● Most pumps are oversized because of safety factors that were added at the time the pump was
sized. This means that throttling is a normal condition in most plants, causing the pump to run on
the left hand side of its curve.

THE PROBLEM IS IN THE PUMP ITS SELF:

● The impeller diameter is too small

● The impeller width is too narrow
● The impeller speed is too slow. Check the voltage and frequency
● The impeller is damaged.
● The impeller is clogged.
● The open impeller clearance is too large.
● The impeller to cutwater clearance is too large.
● The impeller specific speed number is too low.
● The impeller has been installed backwards
● The shaft is running backwards.
● The wear ring clearance is too large.
● A wear ring is missing.
● The second stage of a two stage pump is wired backwards.
● A bubble is trapped in the eye of the impeller.
● A low suction tank level is increasing the differential pressure across the pump decreasing its
capacity.
● Air is coming into the pump suction through the packing.
● Air is coming into the pump suction through an unbalanced mechanical seal.
● The pump was not primed prior to star up.
● You may need a concentric casing rather than the volute design.
● You are using a variable speed motor trying to produce a flat curve. Remember that both the head
and capacity change with speed.
● The pump is the wrong size. Someone gave the pump distributor a wrong system curve
THE PROBLEM IS ON THE SUCTION SIDE OF THE PUMP

● There is too much piping between the pump suction and the source tank.
● There is an elbow too close to the pump suction.
● A filter or strainer is clogged.
● Intermittent plugging of the suction inlet. Loose rags can do this.
● A foot valve is stuck
● The tank float is stuck. Showing a higher tank level that does not exist.
● The tank vent is partially shut or frozen.
● A globe valve has been substituted for a gate valve.
● A check valve is stuck partially closed
● Solids have built up on the piping walls.
● A liner has broken away from the piping wall and has collapsed in the piping.
● The piping was collapsed by a heavy object that hit the outside of the piping.
● A foreign object is stuck in the piping It was left there when the piping was repaired.
● A small clam cleared the suction screen, but has now grown large on the pump side of the screen.
● The sun is heating the inlet piping. It should be insulated to prevent this problem.
● Piping was added on the inlet side of the pump to compensate for a piece of equipment that was
installed in the shop.
● A reducer has been installed upside down.
● A discharge recirculation line is heating the incoming fluid.
● The pump capacity is too high for the tank volume.
● Multiple pump inlets are too close together.
● The suction lift is too high.
● There is not enough NPSH available for the fluid you are pumping. Maybe you can use an
inducer to increase the suction pressure.
● Air is coming into the system through valves above the water line or gaskets in the piping.
● Air is being pumped into the suction piping to reduce cavitation problems
● Fluid returning to the sump is being aerated by too far a free fall.
● The fluid is vortexing at the pump inlet because the sump level is too low.
● The tank is being heated to deaerate the fluid, but it is heating the fluid up too much.
● Two pumps are connected in series. The first pump is not sending enough capacity to the second
pump.
● The operating temperature of the pumped fluid has increased.
● The vapor pressure of the fluid is too close to atmospheric pressure. When it rains the drop in
atmospheric pressure causes the inlet fluid to vaporize.
● The suction is being throttled to prevent the heating of the process fluid.

PROBLEMS ON THE DISCHARGE SIDE OF THE PUMP INCLUDING THE PIPING

● Extra piping has been added to the system to accommodate extra storage capacity.
● A bypass line has been installed in the pump discharge.
● Piping or fittings have been added to the discharge side of the pump.
● An orifice has been installed in the discharge piping to reduce the capacity or produce a false
head.
● A gate valve has been substituted for a globe valve in the discharge piping.
 ● A check valve is stuck partially closed.
● An orifice has been installed into the piping to restrict flow.
● The piping was collapsed by a heavy object that hit the outside of the piping.
● The discharge valve is throttled too much.
● There is a restriction in the discharge piping.
● Extra pumps have been installed into the existing piping They are connected in parallel, but are
not producing the same head.
● Two pumps are in parallel. The larger one is shutting the check valve of the smaller pump.
● Two pumps are in connected in series. The first pump does not have enough capacity for the
second pump. They should be running at the same speed with the same width impeller
● The pump discharge is connected to the bottom of the tank. The head is increasing and the
capacity is decreasing as the tank fills.
● The pump is acting as an accumulator&emdash;coming on when the tank level drops. The head is
too high when the tank fills.

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SUBJECT: The centrifugal pump is drawing too much amperage. 10-11

This is the third paper in a four part series about pump troubleshooting. As mentioned in paper number
ten, volume number ten, there are a couple of things you must keep in mind when troubleshooting
centrifugal pump problems:

● The centrifugal pump always pumps the difference between the suction and discharge heads. If
the suction head increases, the pump head will decrease to meet the system requirements. If the
suction head decreases the pump head will increase to meet the system requirements.
● A centrifugal pump always pumps a combination of head and capacity. These two numbers
multiplied together must remain a constant. In other words, if the head increases the capacity
must decrease. Likewise if the head decreases, the capacity must increase.
● The pump will pump where the pump curve intersects the system curve.
● If the pump is not meeting the system curve requirements the problem could be in the pump, the
suction side including the piping and source tank, or somewhere in the discharge system.
● Most pumps are oversized because of safety factors that were added at the time the pump was
selected. This means that throttling is a normal condition in most plants, causing the pump to run
on the left hand side of its curve.

The increased amperage can be caused by a pump that is too large for the application.

● A large pump was specified in anticipation of future needs.

● The pump was sized for the maximum operating condition, but does not run anywhere near that
point most of the time.
● The capacity requirement has been lowered and the pump is being throttled rather than cut back
the impeller diameter.
● The pump was oversized because of safety factors that were added at the time the pump was
sized.
● Increasing the speed of the pump causes a dramatic change in the amperage required. The
amperage changes by the cube of the change in speed or impeller diameter. If you double the
speed of a pump you will need eight times the amperage.

The increased amperage can be caused by a change in the product.

● The motor was sized for a low specific gravity fluid, but the lines are being flushed or tested with
water.
● The specific gravity of the fluid has increased for some reason.
● The viscosity of the liquid is increasing with a change in temperature. Some viscosities increase
with a lower temperature, some with a higher temperature.
● The viscosity of a liquid can increase with agitation. That is how cream becomes butter.

The increased amperage is caused by two part rubbing together as a result of shaft displacement. Here
are some common causes of shaft displacement:

● Pipe strain
 ● Misalignment between the pump and driver.
● A bent shaft.
● The rotating assembly is not dynamically balanced.
● Cavitation.
● Water hammer.
● Operating off the BEP.
● Thermal growth.
● Pulley driven pumps.
● Different types of vibration including harmonic, slipstick, induced, etc...

There are many parts that can come into contact when the shaft displaces.

● The impeller can contact the pump volute or back plate. This can also happen with an improper
impeller adjustment or thermal growth.
● The end of the stuffing box can be hit by the shaft or sleeve. There is often a close fitting bushing
installed in this location.
● The outside diameter of the rotating mechanical seal and the inside of the stuffing box.
● A gasket or fitting protruding into the stuffing box that rubs against the mechanical seal.
● The rotating shaft and the stationary seal face.
● The shaft and the API gland disaster bushing.
● The closed impeller wear rings are a common source of rubbing.

The increased amperage can be caused by an increase in bearing loading.

● Check the shaft and housing tolerances along with the installation method.
● Cooling a bearing outside diameter causes it to shrink and over compress.
● The wrong lubrication level. There is too much lubricant in the bearing

The starting procedure could be the problem.

● The radial flow pump is being started with the discharge valve open. Radial flow pumps use the
most horsepower at high capacity.
● The axial flow pump is being started with the discharge valve shut. Axial flow pumps use the
most horsepower at high head.

Check to see if there is too much axial thrust.

● See if the impeller balance holes are clogged.

● If there is an elbow too close to the suction of a double ended pump, and the piping is running
parallel with the shaft, The change in velocity of the incoming fluid will cause axial thrust.
● Converting packing to a mechanical seal can increase the axial loading on the bearing

Here are a few more reasons why you might be using too much amperage.

● The stuffing box packing has been tightened too much.

 ● An unbalanced mechanical seal is being used in a high pressure application. There is too much
face load
● The impeller has been installed backwards.
● The shaft is running in the wrong direction.
● The open impeller needs adjusting. You have too much clearance between the impeller and the
volute, or back plate, depending upon the pump design.

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SUBJECT: The pump works for a while and then loses suction 10-12

This is the fourth paper in a four part series about pump troubleshooting. As mentioned in paper number
eleven, volume number ten, there are a couple of things you must keep in mind when troubleshooting
centrifugal pump problems:

● The centrifugal pump always pumps the difference between the suction and discharge heads. If
the suction head increases, the pump head will decrease to meet the system requirements. If the
suction head decreases the pump head will increase to meet the system requirements.
● A centrifugal pump always pumps a combination of head and capacity. These two numbers
multiplied together must remain a constant. In other words, if the head increases the capacity
must decrease. Likewise if the head decreases, the capacity must increase.
● The pump will pump where the pump curve intersects the system curve.
● If the pump is not meeting the system curve requirements the problem could be in the pump, the
suction side including the piping and source tank, or somewhere in the discharge system.
● Most pumps are oversized because of safety factors that were added at the time the pump was
sized. This means that throttling is a normal condition in most plants, causing the pump to run on
the left hand side of its curve.

Cavitation is a main cause of losing pump suction, but remember that there are several different types of
cavitation:

● Vaporization of the liquid within the pump caused by a loss of suction head or an increase in
suction temperature.
● The "vane passing syndrome" caused by too small an impeller to cutwater clearance.
● Too high a suction specific speed number will cause internal recirculation problems resulting in
cavitation. The suction specific speed number is obtained from a formula that can be found in
paper 9-12 of this series.
● Air ingestion on the suction side of the pump allows air and bubbles into the suction of the pump.
● Turbulence of the fluid that releases entrained gases into the suction piping.

Each of these cavitations has been addressed in other papers in this Technical Series. In this paper we
will be looking at only the intermittent loss of suction fluid. You will be looking at several possibilities:

● A recurring restriction in the suction piping that may or may not be causing a cavitation problem
within the pump.
● Intermittent cavitation problems as opposed to a design or operation problem that causes a
constant cavitation condition.
● A repetitive need for an increase in the pump's capacity.

Now we will take a look at each of these possibilities in detail:

A re-occurring restriction in the suction piping that may or may not be causing a cavitation problem
within the pump.
 ● A foot valve or any valve in the suction piping is sticking.
● Something is occasionally plugging up the suction piping. If the pump suction is coming from a
river, pond or the ocean, grass is a strong possibility.
● A loose rag is another common cause.
● A collapsed pipe liner will restrict the piping at higher velocities.
● The suction is being throttled to prevent heating of the process fluid. This can happen with some
volatile fuel applications.
● A filter or strainer is gradually clogging up.
● Air is being introduced into the suction side of the pump to reduce the capacity. This is
sometimes done with low specific gravity fluids to avoid throttling the discharge that might
overheat and flash the product.

Intermittent incidents that cause cavitation problems

● The tank vent partially freezes in cold weather.

● The sun is heating the suction piping, raising the product temperature close to its vapor point.
● The level in the suction tank increases, decreasing the differential head across the pump. This
will increase the pump capacity until the level in the tank drops.
● The level in the open suction tank decreases causing vortex problems that allow air into the pump
suction.
● Several pumps in the same sump are running, decreasing the level too much.
● The suction tank float is stuck. It will sometimes show a higher level than you really have.
● A discharge recirculation line, piped to the pump suction, opens and heats the incoming liquid.
● Sometimes the suction lift is too high. The increase in pipe friction will reduce the suction head.
● The vapor pressure of the product is very close to atmospheric pressure. The pump cavitates
every time it rains because of a drop in atmospheric pressure.
● The tank is being heated to de-aerate the fluid. Sometimes it is being heated too much.
● The process fluid specific gravity is changing. This can happen with a change in product
operating temperature, or if a cleaner or solvent is being flushed through the lines.
● A booster pump is malfunctioning or leaking excessively.
● The source tank is changing from a positive pressure to a vacuum due to the process.
● A packed valve in the suction piping is at a negative pressure and air is leaking in through the
packing.
● The tank is being pumped dry.

A repetitive need for an increase in the pumps capacity.

● A bypass line, or relief valve opens, decreasing the discharge resistance, increasing the capacity.
● A break or leak in the line down stream of the pump will increase the capacity of the pump as the
head drops.
● The pump is supplying many sources and too many valves are open at one time.
● The pump discharge is being directed to several different tank farm locations. The changing
piping resistance is changing the pump's head and capacity.
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SUBJECT: Troubleshooting premature bearing failure 5-3

As discussed in a another technical paper on this web site, bearings have no wearable surfaces, they are
instead designed to fatigue after many hours of service.

In a properly operating bearing the race ways and rolling elements will become dull in appearance. This
dullness is not an indication of wear and has no affect on the life of the bearing. These dull surfaces form
the visible paths that I will be referring to in the following paragraphs, so their appearance and location
is important in analyzing any type of bearing failure.

When we install a bearing into a piece of rotating equipment the general rule is to have the interference
fit on the race that is rotating and, therefore, carrying the load. Almost all centrifugal pumps, motors,
and a high percentage of other types of rotating equipment have the bearings installed with the inner race
an interference fit and rotating with the shaft . The outer race remains stationary or in a fixed position.

In the following paragraphs I will be discussing various load conditions and the resultant appearance of
the raceways and rotating elements in this type of an installation:

The radial load is rotating with the shaft, This is caused by an unbalanced rotating assembly or a bent
shaft.

● The inner ring appearance. The load acts all of the time at the same place in the race way. Here
the path pattern is at its widest, tapering off at the ends. If the load is only radial, the pattern will
be in the center of the race way and will extend around slightly less the half the race way
circumference.
● The outer ring appearance. The path will extend around the entire race way. It will be uniform in
width and if the load is only radial, it will be in the center of the race way.

The radial load is unidirectional. This is what we would expect to find with a properly operating piece of
equipment. If the equipment is operating off of its best efficiency point, is misaligned, or if there is
excessive pipe strain the pattern will be the same, only more pronounced.

● The inner ring appearance. The path will be in the center of the race way, uniform in width and
visible around the entire circumference of the race way.
● The outer ring appearance. The pattern will be widest at the load point and tapering towards the
ends. If the fit and clearances are normal the pattern will extend around to slightly less than one
half of the raceway. It will be located in the center of the race way, if the load is only radial.

The radial load is multidirectional . Cavitation, too tight an interference fit, preloading, or cooling a
bearing outside diameter are all common causes of this problem.

● The inner ring appearance. All around the race way, widest where the load was the greatest.
● The outer ring appearance. All around the race way, widest where the load was the greatest.
The axial load is unidirectional. This is the normal condition of all end suction centrifugal pumps.

● Both the inner and outer rings. The pattern will extend around both raceways and is displaced
axially from the center. A centrifugal pump thrusts towards the thrust bearing until it reaches
65% of its efficiency and then it thrusts towards the volute or wet end during normal operation.

An oval compression of the outer ring. Caused by an out of round housing.

● The inner ring appearance. The path extends around the entire ring and is uniform in width.
● The outer ring appearance. Two wider paths where the ring was distorted to the oval shape.

The inner ring was misaligned. Normally happens during the installation process.

● The inner ring appearance. The pattern extends around the entire ring and is uniform in
appearance.
● The outer ring appearance. The ball path will be oval, extending from one side of the race way to
the other, and wider in two diametrically opposite sections.

Now that we know what some typical wear paths look like, we will inspect the only two things that are
visible to the trained trouble shooter.

● Evidence of rubbing.
● Evidence of corrosion and damage.

Look for damage caused by solid particles. These particles will be rolled into the race ways and can:

● Score, or cause small indentations in the precision races and rolling elements.
● Interfere with the transfer of heat within the tight tolerances, causing discoloration, thermal
expansion, seizing etc.… The particles come from:
❍ Varnish and "coke" that forms where the lubricant overheated.

❍ Parts of the ball cage that have broken loose due to a lack of lubrication. Brass cage parts

will turn the lubricant green.

❍ Pieces from a failed grease or lip seal.

❍ A contaminated lubricant.

❍ Lack of cleanliness during the installation process. The bearings are being installd next to

the area where the mechanic is grinding a new edge on his lawnmower blade.
❍ The bearing lubricant could have been over heated during the installation process.

❍ Rust coming off the inside of the casting.

❍ Silica leaching out of the casting

❍ Particles of material flaking off of the protective coating put on the inside of the housing

to prevent rust.
❍ Airborne - through the bearing seals or housing vent.

Look for lack of lubrication that can eventually cause the bearing to seize:
 ● You will see" mirror like" surfaces on the metal parts that look like the piece was "lapped".
● The metal will become discolored and soften as it anneals. Annealing can occur any time the
temperature exceeds 300°F (150°C):
❍ Straw yellow 600° F. 315° C.

❍ Brown 700° F. 370° C.

❍ Blue 800° F. 425° C.

❍ Black 900° F. 480° C.

● If a pre- lubricated bearing was heated by immersing it in a hot oil bath (200°F or 100°C), the hot
oil will wash out the grease and leave the bearing with little to no lubrication.
❍ Many pre-lubricated bearings actually have no lubricant at all installed. Check yours to be

sure. Bearing quality is a serious maintenance problem.

● A clogged oil level gauge can give a false reading of lubrication level.
● If the bearing case has no expansion chamber installed, a build up of internal pressure, as the
bearing case comes up to temperature, can blow out of the seals. At shut down, moisture laden air
will return to the case through the same seals.
● A poorly designed labyrinth seal can pump hot oil out of the bearing case. The lubricating oil
level should be at the middle of the lower bearing ball when the pump is at rest.
● Be sure the pump has been leveled to insure the correct lubrication height.

Look for smearing of the metal . When two non lubricated surfaces slide against each other, under load,
the material transfers from one surface to the other.

● The metal melts and then re-hardens, causing localized stress that can produce cracks in the
metal..
● The load was too light for the speed. Centrifugal force threw the balls out.
● The outer race will smear on the outside diameter if it slides during operation due to an improper
"slip fit". This slipping can also cause "fretting corrosion" as the protective oxide film is worn
away from the metal surface.

Look for evidence of static vibration. You will see indents in the raceway that could be either shiny or
rusted in the bottom. The frequency of the vibration has no affect, but greater energy causes greater
damage. Roller bearings are more susceptible to this type of damage because the balls, in a ball bearing,
can roll in many directions. Rollers, how ever, can roll in only one direction. Movement in the other
directions takes the form of "sliding".

● The pump was located too close to another piece of equipment that was vibrating. This can be a
big problem during storage.
● The shaft was not locked during shipment.
● In addition to vibration, equally spaced indents can be caused by:
❍ An induction heater was used during assembly, causing "false Duriron".

❍ The bearing was installed by pressing on the wrong race.

❍ The bearing was driven too far up a tapered shaft.

Look for electric current damage. It will show up on both the races and the rolling element. The bottom
of the depression will be dark in color.
 ● The pump was used as a ground for a welding rig.

Look for flaking or spalling of the metal race way. Since there is nothing in a bearing to wear out,
flaking or spalling is a sign of normal fatigue. Overloading however, can cause premature fatigue. Look
for the following causes of bearing overloading:

● The bearing housing is out of round.

● The shaft is over size.
● The bearing was driven up too far on a tapered shaft.
● Misalignment between the pump and its driver.
● The rotating assembly is out of balance.
● The shaft is bent.
● The pump is operating too far off of its best efficiency point (B.E.P.).
● Pipe strain.
● Water hammer in the lines.
● Cavitation.
● The bearing had a quality problem to start with.
● Shaft thermal expansion.
● The bearing housing is being cooled, causing the outer race to shrink, increasing the load.
● Excessive axial thrust.
● Pulley driven design.
● Hydrogen embrittlement of the metal caused by moisture entering the lubricant.
● Pumping a high specific gravity fluid such as sulfuric acid can almost double the radial load.

Overloading is often accompanied by a change in appearance of the lubricant. You will see varnish or
coke as the lubricant is subjected to this high heat.

In addition to overloading there are additional sources of heat that can destroy the lubricant :

● Soak temperatures through the shaft. This can be a big problem in either hot oil or hot water
applications.
● Over lubrication of the bearing.
● Plugged oil return holes.
● Constant oil cups at the wrong level.
● Insufficient clearance in labyrinth seals.
● The oil gage breather hole is blocked and showing the wrong lubrication level.
● Bent lock washer prongs can rub against the bearing race.
● Grease or lip seals are too tight on the shaft.
● The pump stuffing box cooling jacket was shut off and drained when the metal bellows seal was
installed in a high temperature oil application.
● Someone is cooling the power end case causing the bearing outer race to shrink.
● Friction with the seal cage.
● Sliding friction caused by small changes in the shaft speed. Inertia keeps the balls moving as the
shaft slows down.
● The stuffing box packing has been over tightened.
Look for cracks in the metal.

● Mishandling.
● The bearing was driven too far up a tapered shaft.
● Any type of flaking or smearing can cause a fracture notch that will lead to cracking.

Look for signs of corrosion.

● Moisture is in the lubricant. It came from:

❍ Packing or seal leakage.

❍ A water hose being used to wash down the area.

❍ Normal aspiration as the pump cooled down, and the moisture ladened atmosphere entered

the bearing case.

❍ Steam or water from a seal quench gland. This is a common problem with the A.P.I. gland

that is commonly used in oil refineries.

● Regardless of the protective coating put on the bearing races, (cadmium, chromium, zinc, etc.)
the rolling elements are almost always fabricated from 52100 bearing steel, and it rusts.

The major bearing companies do a good job of providing the literature and photographs that you need to
do effective "comparison troubleshooting". Check with your bearing supplier for the availability of this
information.

Link to Mc Nally home page

SUBJECT: Pump and seal problems with no apparent cause 4-5

These problems are the ones that drive you crazy. No matter how hard you look the solution keeps
evading you. Over the years I have collected quite a few examples. I offer some of them for your
enjoyment and maybe, in the process, they will help you solve the "un-solvable"

CAVITATION

The pump cavitated every time it rained.

● Solution: The product temperature would cause it to vaporize very close to ambient pressure, and
when it rained atmospheric pressure dropped enough to cause the problem.

The pump never cavitated in the summer months, only during the winter when everything was cooler.

● Solution: The tank vent froze during the winter months causing the pump to pull a partial vacuum
in the tank.

The cavitation started suddenly.

● Solution: A plastic pipe liner collapsed at the suction side of the pump or the gate fell off a gate
valve.

The cavitation started after the packing was converted to a mechanical seal. A careful inspection showed
that the seal was not leaking air into the suction.

● Solution: The pump had speeded up (increased the rpm) when the packing was removed. This
increase in speed and capacity caused the cavitation.

The cavitation kept getting worse with time, nothing obvious had changed in the system.

● Solution: The product had formed a coating on the inside of the suction pipe increasing the
pressure drop and resulting in a loss of suction head.

The cavitation only occurred when there was a higher head at the suction of the pump and stopped
cavitating when the level fell in the tank - just the opposite of what should have happened.

● Solution: The pump was pumping to a fixed discharge head. The capacity of the pump increased
when the suction level was higher, because the pump delivers the difference between the suction
and discharge head. When the differential went down, the capacity increased.

Two pumps were installed in parallel, one cavitated the other did not. They had separate suction lines so
that was not the problem.
 ● Solution: Some one had installed an oversized section of pipe on the discharge side of the pump
that was cavitating. The lower discharge resistance caused an increase in capacity which caused
the cavitation. When the proper sized pipe was installed the cavitation stopped.

The pump had been cavitating for some time, but after a visual check everything appeared normal.

● Solution: A globe valve had been substituted for a gate valve on the suction of the pump. A globe
valve can add the equivalent of another 100 feet (30,5 meters) of pipe to the system.

The pump started to cavitate when a flange gasket was replaced on the suction side of the pump.

● Solution: The inside diameter of the gasket was too small. It was acting as an orifice, and
restricting the flow.

The pump cavitated about one third of the time it was running.

● Solution: A close inspection of the system revealed that there was no surge tank installed
between the pump discharge and the multiple outlets that were using the product. The pump was
acting like an accumulator and started to cavitate when the demand went up and the discharge
head dropped.

The pump cavitated although here was excessive suction head available.

● Solution: There was too much velocity on the suction side of the pump. I saw this problem in
Scandanavia in an application where the pump was taking a suction on a flow of water coming
off of a mountain.

THE SEAL WAS GETTING HOT

The seal was showing evidence of running dry, but the fluid level was never lost in the pump.

● Solution: Air was trapped in the stuffing box of a vertical pump after it was converted from
packing to a mechanical seal. Most seal designs have no facility for venting the stuffing box in a
vertical application

The seal showed evidence of running dry.

● Solution: The open impeller had been adjusted backwards and the "pump out vanes" on the rear
of the impeller were pumping the stuffing box dry. This happens if you are using several brands
of pumps and the maintenance mechanics confuse the impeller adjustment method. Some pumps
adjust towards the volute (Goulds), some adjust towards the back plate (Duriron). It is easy to
mix them up.

There was little to no fluid circulating between the two seals.

 ● Solution: The pipe fitting had bottomed out in a gland inlet elbow shutting off the flow. This
sometimes happens after the seal has been repaired several times and the pipe thread shows some
wear letting it protrude further into the elbow fitting.

The mechanic had marked the seal location on the shaft sleeve before the impeller was installed. When
the impeller was tightened against the shaft shoulder the sleeve moved and over compressed the seal.

Durco pump impellers adjust to the pump back plate. When you make impeller adjustments you over
compress the mechanical seal.

A cooling jacket was being used, but the seal continued to get hot. I have seen multiple reasons for this:

● A discharge recirculation line had also been installed, but it was hidden by some insulation. The
cooling jacket could not keep up with the heat being added by the recirculation line.
● The inside of the cooling jacket had become coated with a layer of calcium because hard water
was being used as the cooling medium. Condensate should have been substituted.
● A thermal bushing had not been installed in the bottom of the stuffing box.
● The cooling jacket flow changed with fluctuations in shop water pressure.
● The inner seal of some double seal applications can get hot if the mechanic installs the cartridge
seal by pushing on the gland and fails to reset the seal compression with the installation clips.
The interference from the cartridge sleeve elastomer can cause enough resistance to compress the
inner seal and unload the outer seal.

THE SEAL WOULD LEAK FOR NO APPARENT REASON

The open impeller was being adjusted without resetting the seal. Many operators make their own
impeller adjustments.

The seal faces were opening because the equipment's sliding foot had been bolted to the floor allowing
the shaft to grow through the stuffing box when the unit came up to temperature.

The cartridge seal had been hydrostatically tested with water and then put into a hot oil application. It
leaked almost immediately.

● Solution: The trapped water vaporized when the unit was started. This could be a dangerous
condition because water trapped in a gasket and then flashed to steam could blow the equipment
apart.

The seal would start leaking about thirty minutes after the pump started.

● Solution: The carbon insert would come loose in its holder when the seal came up to temperature.
At shut down the metal holder would shrink and everything appeared normal.

The seal was tested in the shop, but leaked when it was installed in the pump that was operating at
cryogenic (cold) temperature.
 ● Solution: The faces had to be lapped at cryogenic temperature to keep them flat at the seal
operating temperature. The cryogenic temperature can also harden the O-ring and freeze any
lubricant that was put on the seal face.

The seal was found to be leaking every Monday morning.

● Solution: A utility man did not know about seals. He would loosen the gland on the weekend so
that what he thought was packing would drip a little. The leak was found by the regular
maintenance people every Monday morning.

The leakage occurred during the winter months.

● Solution: Someone circulated commercial anti freeze between two seals to act as a barrier fluid.
The brand they selected contained a chemical to plug up radiator leaks and it kept plugging up
the seal.

The seal would fail only during the winter months. The problem was traced to swelling of the dynamic
O-ring but no logical reason could be found for its failure.

● Solution: During the winter months a worker decided to oil the bed of his dump truck to make the
mined, raw product slip off easier. The petroleum oil he used attacked the Ethylene Propylene
(EPR) O-ring in the mechanical seal, installed downstream in the system.

The seal area was wet, but no visible leakage could be seen.

● Solution: It turned out that there was a flange leaking above the pump and dripping the product
next to the shaft.

The problem was traced to the fact that the mechanic was installing the seal at the wrong dimension. The
written instructions were clear and placed in the box and yet the mechanic continued to do the
installation incorrectly.

● Solution: The mechanic could not read. He had been faking it for many years and was quite good
at it. The same problem occurs with older mechanics that refuse to wear glasses and as a result
cannot see the funny little lines between the numbers on their measuring scale.

The centrifugal pump discharge was connected to the bottom of a surge tank. As the tank filled, the
pump operating point shifted from too much capacity to too much head, deflecting the shaft in two
directions.

The outside seal in a double seal application failed suddenly. Nothing had changed in the system.

● Solution: Routine maintenance included repainting the pump. The paint spray got into the outside
seal springs and stopped them from moving.
The seal ran great for several days and then started to leak. It tested all right on the test bench after it had
been removed from the pump.

● Solution: It had been set screwed to a hardened sleeve and the set screws gradually loosened.

The seal was changed several times, but the steady leak persisted.

● Solution: The leak was occurring between the pump sleeve and the shaft. This is a common
problem in double ended pumps that have been converted to a mechanical seal. You often have to
devise a method of sealing the sleeve to the shaft or the sleeve to the impeller because the
manufacture has not provided one.

The seal started to leak after many months of service. A bench vacuum test showed that the seal was all
right.

● Solution: The seal was fretting the shaft below the Teflon wedge allowing the leak to come
through this groove.

The seal ran approximately six months and then failed.

● Solution: The lines were steam cleaned and the wrong grade of Viton® was in the seal. Most
Viton® compounds will be attacked by steam, caustic or other water based solutions.

The seal was installed correctly, but it leaked immediately.

● Solution: The solid, hard face is usually lapped on only one side. The face had been installed
backwards and the rotary unit was running on a non lapped surface.

SEAL COMPONENT DAMAGE IS VISIBLE, BUT WHAT IS THE CAUSE?

It looked like a seal part had come loose in the stuffing box, but all of the parts were there.

● Solution: During a previous installation a small spring had been lost when it fell into a drain hole
in the bottom of the seal gland. It came loose after a later installation. This is a problem when
several people work on the same pump.

The bellows plates were breaking but there was no evidence of corrosion, excessive wear, or vibration.

● Solution: A discharge recirculation line was directing high velocity abrasive particles at the thin
metal section of a metal bellow seal.

The inner seal of a dual, rotating "Back to back" seal was showing excessive face wear in a short period
of time.
 ● Solution: The inner seal stationary face was not locked in the bottom of the stuffing box and
when the system pressure overcame the barrier fluid pressure, the stationary face was pushed into
the inside rotating face. When the pump was stopped the spring pushed the stationary face back
to its normal position.

The carbon showed massive damage in a cryogenic (cold) application.

● Solution: The carbon had been lubricated at assembly and the lubricating oil froze in the
cryogenic atmosphere.

The bellows plates showed massive wear.

● Solution: The seal was rotating in an abrasive slurry. Metal bellows seals should be designed to
rotate the fluid inside of the stuffing box, instead of rotating through the fluid.

OTHER PROBLEMS

The pump had been recently overhauled and at start up the pump was reading high amperage, but low
flow.

● Solution: One of the wear rings had been left off of the suction side of the impeller and the fluid
was recirculating to the pump suction.

The pump made a terrific racket during start up. It produced the proper head, but the capacity was less
than anticipated.

● Solution: It was a two speed pump and the second speed had been wired backwards.

In an acid application, a stationary seal showed localized corrosion only on the gland.

● Solution: This was an older pump with a bolted on stuffing box that would slip because the bolts
were worn. This caused the shaft to run against the gland causing it to overheat and, in an acid
application, the corrosion rate of the acid doubles with an 18° F. (10° C) rise in temperature. It
doesn't make any difference if the acid or the part gets hot, the affect is the same.

The dual seal convection tank was running backwards.

● Solution: The seal was not centered in its gland, and as the shaft turned, the close tolerance
between the seal and the gland outlet increased the velocity of the liquid enough to drop the
pressure and cause the tank to convect backwards.

The pump was converted from packing to a mechanical seal and then started to break shafts.

● Solution: The pump was operating way off of its best efficiency point, causing major shaft
deflection. The packing was acting as a bearing and supported the shaft during this deflection.
The product was solidifying in the stuffing box. Steam was being used to heat a jacket around the pump.
The header gauge showed adequate pressure.

● Solution: The gage was located too far away from the pump jacket. The line was not insulated
and this allowed the steam to experience a pressure drop between the header and the stuffing box
heating jacket. The result was that the steam cooled down below the necessary heating
temperature. The problem was only visible when the pump was stopped for a period of time.

The nickel base tungsten carbide face was being chemically attacked.

● Solution: A galvanic action occurred between the passivated stainless steel and the active nickel
contained in the tungsten carbide face.

Link to the Mc Nally home page

SUBJECT : Centrifugal Pump Troubleshooting 1-02

You have four opportunities to trouble shoot centrifugal pumps and each opportunity can offer you a
clue as to what is wrong with the pump. Let's take a look at each of these conditions:

The pump is hooked up to the piping and it is running :

● You can observe leakage from the stuffing box or some other area. This would include gaskets,
bearing seals and cracks or holes in the piping.
● You can hear an abnormal noise. You can probably "pin point" the source if you try.
● There is evidence of excessive heat in one or more of the components.
● You can detect excessive vibration either from the use of instruments or one of your senses
● You can check if stuffing box environmental controls are hooked up properly, and in many cases
tell if they are functioning correctly.
● You can check the position of control and isolation valves throughout the system. This is
especially important to check while the pump is running.
● If there are meters available you can check :
❍ Flow

❍ Pressure

❍ Power consumption

❍ Temperature

❍ Speed

● You can estimate if the foundation is too weak. It should be five times the mass of the hardware
sitting on it.

The pump is still hooked up to the piping, but it is not running. You will be present during the removal
process :

● You can check alignment between the pump and driver.

● During the removal process you can check for excessive pipe strain.
● You can check if the piping has been installed according to good engineering practices. This is a
major factor in many cavitation problems.

The pump has been taken into the workshop, but has not yet been disassembled and you will be present
at the disassembly.

● You can check the seal installation dimension.

● You can feel if there is restricted movement of any of the rotating parts.
● You can see if there is any loose hardware in the assembly

The pump has been disassembled. You were not present, but the parts are available for your inspection.

● You can see evidence of wear, rubbing or discoloration of the components.

● You can see evidence of corrosion.
● You can see if any parts are missing.
 ● You can see if any material or coating has attached its self to one of the components. As an
example, calcium can build up on the inside of pipes and restrict flow, or magnetite (Fe304) build
up on the seal components.

In this paper we will address the last condition. The pump has been disassembled. You were not present,
but the parts are available for your inspection.

When a rotating part such as a shaft seal, impeller, etc. comes in contact with a stationary part such as
the inside of the stuffing box, a wear ring, stationary bushing etc., there will be evidence of this contact
in the form of rubbing, wear, discoloration or damage to one or both of the components. There are four
possibilities that we will be able to see :

● A rubbing mark, or evidence of wear all around the rotating part and one place on the stationary
part.
● All around the stationary part and one place on the rotating part.
● Evidence of rubbing or wear all around both the rotating and stationary parts.
● One mark on both the rotating and stationary component.

The cause could be the result of a problem in design, operation or maintenance. I will attempt to isolate
these three areas as we look into the problems.

All around the rotating part, one spot on the stationary part.

● Design Problems:
❍ The pump is pulley driven and the shaft L3/D4 is too high.

● Maintenance Problems:
❍ The pump and driver are not aligned properly

❍ The shaft is not centered in the stuffing box.

❍ A gasket or fitting is protruding in, and touching the rotating part.

❍ Excessive pipe strain. This is a common problem when a Centerline Design is not

specified for applications over 200 F (100 C)

● Operation problems:
❍ A major cause of this problem is the fact that the pump is operating too far from its best

efficiency point (B.E.P.) and the shaft is not large enough to resist the bending.

All around the stationary, one spot on the rotary.

● Design Problems
❍ You have converted the pump to a mechanical seal. The unit was originally designed for

the packing to act as a bearing and stabilize the shaft. This is a very big problem with
mixers and agitators
● Maintenance Problems
❍ The rotating assembly is out of balance.

❍ Normal wear

❍ Damage

❍ Corrosion of the impeller

 ❍ Foreign material attached
❍ The impeller was trimmed and not re balanced.
❍ The seal, sleeve, or impeller is not concentric with the shaft.
❍ The unit never was balanced.
❍ The shaft is bent.
❍ Excessive heat or force was used during sleeve, seal, or bearing removal.
❍ The rotating unit is dragging something around with it.

All around both the rotating and stationary units. This problem could be caused by a combination ofthe
first and second examples or:

● Design Problems:
❍ High temperature application. The shaft is expanding and a restriction bushing is growing

in towards the shaft/sleeve.

❍ The pump is operating at a critical speed. This can happen with variable speed motors.

● Operation Problems:
❍ The pump is cavitating

● Maintenance Problems
❍ Bad bearings.

❍ The oil is contaminated with water, product, dirt, rust, casting leaching, etc..

❍ Incorrect oil level.

❍ Poor fit because of shaft tolerances or the installation technique.

❍ Excessive load due to a variety of reasons.

❍ Oil temperature too high. Be sure to cool the oil not the bearings. Cooling the housing will

cause it to shrink and thereby increase the squeeze on the bearing.

One mark on both the rotating and stationary component.

● I have only seen this one time and that was when the pump fell off the back of a pick up truck.

Link to Mc Nally home page

SUBJECT: Causes of overheating in cartridge mechanical seals 7-4

Too much heat can cause multiple problems with mechanical seals:

● The elastomer (rubber part) can be damaged.

● Some seal faces can be damaged.
● Carbon-graphite faces can pit as trapped air expands within the carbon, or the product carbonizes
and pulls out pieces of the seal face.
● Plated faces can heat check and crack causing rapid carbon face wear.
● The filler in some carbon /graphite compounds can melt or oxidize at elevated temperatures.
● Critical dimensions can change causing the lapped seal faces to go out of flat and leak
prematurely (especially fugitive emissions).
● The sealed product can change state and :
❍ Vaporize between the faces opening them.

❍ Crystallize on the moving components, restricting their movement.

❍ Change fluid viscosity restricting the ability of the seal to follow run out.

❍ Solidify, making the seal inoperable.

❍ Build a film on sliding components and the lapped seal faces.

❍ Carbonize or coke restricting the seal movement and opening the lapped faces.

● Corrosion always increases with increasing temperature.

Some heat problems are not seal design or seal installation related:

● An inefficient heating or cooling jacket on the pump.

❍ A layer of calcium or some other similar product has built up on the jacket walls,

interfering with the heat transfer.

❍ The coolant is flowing too rapidly through the cooling jacket.

❍ A thermal bushing was not located in the bottom or end of the stuffing box.

❍ If steam is being used as the coolant, the pressure is too high.

❍ The fluid is not "dead ended" in the stuffing box. There is either suction or discharge

recirculation of the pumping fluid.

❍ Clearance between the seal outside diameter and the stuffing box bore is not sufficient.

● The shaft material is conducting the product heat to the cartridge static elastomer and other
components. As an example: carbon steel conducts heat much better than a stainless steel shaft.
● The dual seal convection tank is not convecting.
❍ The convection tank is running backwards.

❍ The dual seal barrier or buffer fluid has been shut off.

● The quench has failed.

● The product has a low specific heat and poor conductivity. Oil is a good example of such a
product.
● The seal faces were over-compressed during the installation process.
● A wrong installation measurement was used.
● The mechanic did not read, or understand the print dimension.
● The pump sleeve moved as the impeller was tightened on the shaft.
● The measurement was taken at the wrong place. The stuffing box face is the only safe reference
 point.

The cartridge seal design has a major affect on heat generation and heat sensitivity:

● Unbalanced seals generate more heat than hydraulically balanced mechanical seals.
● Two hard faces generate more heat than carbon/graphite vs. a hard face.
● Silicone carbide and tungsten carbide dissipate heat faster than 99.5 ceramic or carbon&endash;
graphite.
● The location as well as the grade of the elastomer can be critical in temperature sensitive
applications.
● In dual seal applications, convection systems are not as efficient as pumping rings or forced
circulation of the barrier fluid system. When oil is used as a barrier fluid forced circulation or the
use of a pumping ring is mandatory.

The above problems are not unique to cartridge seals, there are however some problems that are unique:

● Pushing the seal gland along the shaft and against the stuffing box face can over compress the
seal because of the friction between the shaft and the cartridge sleeve static elastomer. In dual
seal applications the inner seal can over compress as the outside seal looses some of its
compression. Be sure to reset the spacing device (usually "clips" of some type) prior to locking
the seal to the shaft.
● Some open impeller pump designs (Duriron as an example) adjust to the back plate rather than
the volute. Be sure to reset the cartridge seal after the impeller adjustment.
● Cartridge set screws can slip on a hardened sleeve. The system pressure can then over compress
the seal.
● Higher pressure applications, or water hammer can move the set screws and over compress the
seal faces.
● Be sure to re-tighten the adjusting nuts after making the impeller micrometer adjustment on those
pump that uses that type of adjustment method. The Chesterton System #1 pump is a good
example of this design.
● Make sure the centering-positioning clips are in place when installing or resetting the seal for
proper face loading.

Link to Mc Nally home page

SUBJECT: Corrossion problems associated with stainless steel 4-1

The rotating equipment business uses a great deal of 300 series stainless steel, and as a result we often
experience corrosion that is described in a variety of technical terms that include:

● General corrosion
● Galvanic corrosion
● Pitting
● Inter granular corrosion
● Stress corrosion cracking
● Erosion- corrosion
● Fretting
● Concentrated cell or crevice corrosion
● Selective leaching
● Micro organisms

The last page of this report is a list titled "The Galvanic Series Of Metals and alloys". I will be referring
to this chart during our discussion.

The basic resistance of stainless steel occurs because of its ability to form a protective coating on the
metal surface. This coating is a "passive" film which is resistant to further "oxidation" or rusting. The
formation of this film is instantaneous in an oxidizing atmosphere such as air, water, or many other
fluids that contain oxygen. Once the layer has formed we say that the metal has become "passivated" and
the oxidation or "rusting" rate will slow down to less than 0.002" per year (0,05 mm. per year).

Unlike aluminum or silver this passive film is invisible in stainless steel. It is due to the combining of
oxygen with the chrome in the stainless to form chrome oxide which is more commonly called
"ceramic". This protective oxide or ceramic coating is common to most corrosion resistant materials.

Halogen salts, especially chlorides easily penetrate this passive film and will allow corrosive attack to
occur. The halogens are easy to recognize because they end in the letters "ine". Listed in order of their
activity they are: fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine and astatine. These are the same chemicals that will
penetrate Teflon and cause trouble with Teflon coated or encapsulated O-Rings and/ or similar coated
materials. Chlorides are one of the most common elements in nature and if that isn't bad enough they are
also soluble, active ions; the basis for good electrolytes, the best conditions for corrosion or chemical
attack.

GENERAL OR OVERALL CORROSION.

This type of corrosion occurs when there is an overall breakdown of the passive film formed on the
stainless steel. It is the easiest to recognize as the entire surface of the metal shows a uniform "sponge
like" appearance. The rate of attack is affected by the fluid concentration, temperature, fluid velocity and
stress in the metal parts subject to attack. As a general rule the rate of attack will double with an eighteen
degree Fahrenheit rise in temperature (10° C.) of either the product or the metal part.
If the rotating portion of the seal is rubbing against some stationary component, such as a protruding
gasket or fitting the protective oxide layer will be polished off and the heat generated will increase the
corrosion as noted above. This explains why corrosion is often limited to only one portion of the metal
case.

There are many good publications available to help you select the proper metal for any given mechanical
seal application. As a general rule, if the wetted parts of the equipment are manufactured from iron,
steel, stainless steel or bronze, and they are showing no signs of corrosion, grade 316 stainless is
acceptable as long as you do not use stainless steel springs. (see chloride stress corrosion)

GALVANIC CORROSION

If you put two dissimilar metals or alloys in a common electrolyte, and connect them with a voltmeter, it
will show an electric current flowing between the two. (This is how the battery in your automobile
works). When the current flows, material will be removed from one of the metals or alloys ( the
ANODIC one) and dissolve into the electrolyte. The other metal (the CATHODIC one) will be protected.

Now let's take a look at the Galvanic Series chart that is attached to this report. The further apart the
materials are located on this chart the more likely that the one on the ANODIC end will corrode if they
are both immersed in a common fluid considered to be an electrolyte. water, containing chlorides, is one
of the best.

Example #1.

A ship has lots of bronze fittings and a steel hull. Note that steel is located seven lines from the
ANODIC end, and bronze is listed at twenty seven rows from the same end. Sea water is a perfect
electrolyte so the bronze fittings would immediately attack the steel hull unless something could be done
to either protect the steel or give the bronze something else to attack. The classic way to solve this
problem is to attach sacrificial zinc pieces to the hull and let the bronze go after them. Again, looking at
the chart, you will note that zinc is found on line three from the top of the chart. In other words the zinc
is further away from the bronze than the iron is, so the galvanic action takes place between the zinc and
the bronze, rather than between the steel and the bronze. Zinc paint is used for the same reason in many
applications.

Example #2

Nickel base tungsten carbide contains active nickel. When this face material is used in dual seal it is
common to circulate water or antifreeze containing water between the seals (as mentioned in the
beginning of this report, water can be an excellent electrolyte because of the addition of chlorine and
fluorine). You will note that active nickel is located twenty one rows from the top of the chart.
Passivated 316 stainless steel is positioned nine rows from the bottom. This means that the stainless steel
can attack the nickel in the tungsten carbide causing it to corrode. Many of you have run into this
problem already.

The rate at which corrosion takes place is determined by :

 ● The distance separating the metals on the galvanic series chart
● The temperature and concentration of the electrolyte. The higher the temperature, the faster it
happens. Any stray electrical currents in the electrolyte will increase the corrosion also.
● The relative size of the metal pieces. A large cross section piece will not be affected as much as a
smaller one.
● Many metal seal components are isolated from each other by the use of rubber O-Rings or similar
materials and designs. Shaft movement that causes fretting of the 316 stainless steel rubs off the
passivated layer and exposes the active stainless to the electrolyte until the metal part becomes
passivated once more. This is one of the reasons we see corrosion under O-rings, Teflon, and
similar materials. In the next paragraph I will be discussing another cause of corrosion under
rubber parts.

PITTING

This is an accelerated form of chemical attack in which the rate of corrosion is greater in some areas
than others. It occurs when the corrosive environment penetrates the passivated film in only a few areas
as opposed to the overall surface. As stated earlier the halogens will penetrate passivated stainless steel.
Referring to the galvanic chart you will note that passivated 316 stainless steel is located nine lines from
the bottom and active 316 stainless steel is located thirteen lines from the top. Pit type corrosion is
therefore simple galvanic corrosion, as the small active area is being attacked by the large passivated
area. This difference in relative areas accelerates the corrosion causing the pits to penetrate deeper. The
electrolyte fills the pits and prevents the oxygen from passivating the active metal so the problem gets
even worse. This type of corrosion is often called "concentrated cell corrosion". You will also see it
under rubber parts that tend to keep oxygen away from the active metal parts, retarding its ability to
form the passivated layer.

INTERGRANULAR CORROSION

All Austenitic stainless steels (the 300 series, the types that "work harden", is one of them) contain a
small amount of carbon in solution in the austenite. Carbon is precipitated out at the grain boundaries, of
the steel, in the temperature range of 1050° F. (565° C) to 1600° F. (870° C.). This is a normal
temperature range during the welding of stainless steel.

This carbon combines with the chrome in the stainless steel to form chromium carbide starving the
adjacent areas of the chrome they need for corrosion protection. In the presence of some strong
corrosives an electrochemical action is initiated between the chrome rich and chrome poor areas with the
areas being low in chrome becoming attacked. The grain boundaries are then dissolved and become non
existent. There are three ways to combat this:

● Anneal the stainless after it has been heated to this sensitive range. This means bringing it up to
the proper annealing temperature and then quickly cooling it down through the sensitive
temperature range to prevent the carbides from forming.
● When possible use low carbon content stainless if you intend to do any welding on it. A carbon
content of less than 0.3% will not precipitate into a continuous film of chrome carbide at the
grain boundaries. 316L is as good example of a low carbon stainless steel.
● Alloy the metal with a strong carbide former. The best is columbium, but sometimes titanium is
 used. The carbon will now form columbium carbide rather than going after the chrome to form
chrome carbide. The material is now said to be "stabilized"

CHLORIDE STRESS CORROSION.

If the metal piece is under tensile stress, either because of operation or residual stress left during
manufacture, the pits mentioned in a previous paragraph will deepen even more. Since the piece is under
tensile stress cracking will occur in the stressed piece. Usually there will be more than one crack present
that causes the pattern to resemble a spider's web. Chloride stress cracking is a common problem in
industry and not often recognized by the people involved. In the seal business it is a serious problem if
you use stainless steel springs or stainless steel bellows material. This is the main reason that Hastelloy
C is recommended for spring material. Here are some additional thoughts about chloride stress cracking
that you will want to consider:

● Chlorides are the big problem when using the 300 series grades of stainless steel. The 300 series
is the one most commonly used in the process industry because of its good corrosion resistant
proprieties. Outside of water chloride is the most common chemical found in nature and
remember that the most common water treatment is the addition of chlorine.
● Beware of insulating or painting stainless steel pipe. Most insulation contains plenty of chlorides
and piping is frequently under tensile stress. The worst condition would be insulated steam
traced, stainless steel piping.

If it is necessary to insulate stainless steel pipe a special chloride free insulation can be purchased or the
pipe can be coated with a protective film prior to insulating.

● Stress cracking can be minimized by annealing the metal, after manufacture to remove residual
manufactured stresses.
● Never replace a carbon steel bolt with a stainless steel one unless you are sure there are no
chlorides present. Bolts can be under severe tensile stress.
● No one knows the threshold values for stress cracking to occur. We only know that you need
tensile stress, chlorides, temperature and the 300 series of stainless steel. We do not know how
much chloride, stress or temperature.
● Until I figured out what was happening I had trouble breaking stainless steel fishing hooks in the
warm water we have in Florida.
● Many cleaning solutions and solvents contain chlorinated hydrocarbons. Be careful using them
on or near stainless steel. Sodium hypochlorite, chlorethene. methylene chloride and
trichlorethane are just a few in common use. The most common cleaner used with dye checking
material is trichloroethane accounting for the reason we sometimes experience cracks after we
weld stainless steel and die check it to check the quality of the weld.

EROSION CORROSION

This is an accelerated attack resulting from the combination of mechanical and chemical wear. The
liquid velocities in some pumps prevents the protective oxide passive layer from forming on the metal
surface. The suspended solids also remove some of the passivated layer increasing the galvanic action.
You see this type of corrosion very frequently at the eye of the pump impeller.
FRETTING CORROSION

This type of corrosion is easily seen on the pump shaft or sleeve. You will see the damage beneath:

● The grease or lip seal that is supposed to protect the bearings.

● The packing used to seal the fluid.
● The dynamic Teflon or elastomer used in most original equipment seals.
● The vibration damper used in rotating metal bellows seals.
● Under the rubber boot used in low cost seals, if they did not attach them selves to the shaft
properly.

As mentioned earlier, 300 series stainless steel passivates its self by forming a protective chrome oxide
layer when ever it is exposed to free oxygen. This oxide layer is very hard and when it imbeds into a soft
elastomer it will cut and damage the shaft or sleeve rubbing against it. The mechanism works like this:

● Oxygen passivates the active stainless steel forming a protective ceramic layer.
● The seal or packing removes the oxide layer as the shaft or sleeve rubs against it.
● The ceramic sticks into the soft elastomer turning it into a "grinding surface".
● The oxide reforms when the active metal is exposed and the process starts all over again.
● A visible groove is cut into the shaft or sleeve that will cause seal leakage and "hang up".

CONCENTRATED CELL OR CREVICE CORROSION

This corrosion occurs any time liquid flow is kept away from the attacked surface. It is common
between nut and bolt surfaces, under O-rings and gaskets, and between the clamps and stainless steel
shafts we find in many split seal applications. Salt water applications are the most severe problem
because of the salt water low PH (8.0&endash;9.0). Here is the mechanism:

● Chlorides pit the passivated stainless steel surface.

● The low PH salt water attacks the active layer that is exposed
● Because of the lack of fluid flow over the attacked surface oxygen is not available to re passivate
the stainless steel.
● Corrosion continues unhampered under the rubber and tight fitting clamp.
● The inside of the O-ring groove experiences the same corrosion as the shaft or sleeve.

SELECTIVE LEACHING

The process fluid selectively removes elements from the piping or any other part that might be exposed
to the liquid flow. The mechanism is:

● Metals are removed from the liquid during a de-ionization or de-mineralizing process.
● The liquid tries to replace the missing elements as it flows through the system.
● The un-dissolved metals often coat them selves on the mechanical seal faces or the sliding
components and cause a premature seal failure.
● Heat accelerates the process.
MICRO ORGANISMS

These organisms are commonly used in sewage treatment, oil spills and other cleaning processes.
Although there are many different uses for these "bugs", one common one is for them to eat the carbon
you find in waste and other hydrocarbons, and convert it to carbon dioxide. The "bugs" fall into three
categories:

● Aerobic, the kind that need oxygen.

● Anaerobic, the kind that do not need oxygen.
● Facultative, the type that goes both ways.

If the protective oxide layer is removed from stainless steel because of rubbing or damage, the "bugs"
can penetrate through the damaged area and attack the carbon in the metal. Once in, the attack can
continue on in a manner similar to that which happens when rust starts to spread under the paint on an
automobile.

GALVANIC SERIES OF METALS AND ALLOYS

CORRODED END ( ANODIC OR LEAST NOBLE)

MAGNESIUM
MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
ZINC
ALUMINUM 5052, 3004, 3003, 1100, 6053
CADMIUM
ALUMINUM 2117, 2017, 2024
MILD STEEL (1018), WROUGHT IRON
CAST IRON, LOW ALLOY HIGH STRENGTH STEEL
CHROME IRON (ACTIVE)
STAINLESS STEEL, 430 SERIES (ACTIVE)
302, 303, 304, 321, 347, 410,416, STAINLESS STEEL (ACTIVE)
NI - RESIST
316, 317, STAINLESS STEEL (ACTIVE)
CARPENTER 20CB-3 STAINLESS (ACTIVE)
ALUMINUM BRONZE (CA 687)
HASTELLOY C (ACTIVE) INCONEL 625 (ACTIVE) TITANIUM (ACTIVE)
LEAD-TIN SOLDERS
LEAD
TIN
INCONEL 600 (ACTIVE)
NICKEL (ACTIVE)
60 NI-15 CR (ACTIVE)
80 NI-20 CR (ACTIVE)
HASTELLOY B (ACTIVE)
BRASSES
COPPER (CA102)
MANGANESE BRONZE (CA 675), TIN BRONZE (CA903, 905)
SILICONE BRONZE
NICKEL SILVER
COPPER - NICKEL ALLOY 90-10
COPPER - NICKEL ALLOY 80-20
430 STAINLESS STEEL
NICKEL, ALUMINUM, BRONZE (CA 630, 632)
MONEL 400, K500
SILVER SOLDER
NICKEL (PASSIVE)
60 NI- 15 CR (PASSIVE)
INCONEL 600 (PASSIVE)
80 NI- 20 CR (PASSIVE)
CHROME IRON (PASSIVE)
302, 303, 304, 321, 347, STAINLESS STEEL (PASSIVE)
316, 317, STAINLESS STEEL (PASSIVE)
CARPENTER 20 CB-3 STAINLESS (PASSIVE), INCOLOY 825
NICKEL - MOLYBDEUM - CHROMIUM - IRON ALLOY (PASSIVE)
SILVER
TITANIUM (PASS.) HASTELLOY C & C276 (PASSIVE), INCONEL 625(PASS.)
GRAPHITE
ZIRCONIUM
GOLD
PLATINUM

PROTECTED END (CATHODIC OR MOST NOBLE)

Link to Mc Nally home page

SUBJECT: Mechanical Seal design, operation, and maintenance problems 8-11

In my seminars I teach that mechanical seals fail prematurely because:

● The lapped faces open.

● A seal component becomes damaged.

In the following paragraphs we will learn how these failures can be separated into:

● Design problems.
● Operation problems.
● Maintenance problems.

These individual subjects have been discussed in other sections of this Technical Series. The purpose of
this paper is to give you an overview of the subject, and assist you in your troubleshooting function.

MECHANICAL SEAL DESIGN PROBLEMS

Problems with the Seal Faces:

● Wrong carbon or hard face selected. The material is not compatible with the fluid you are sealing,
and the cleaner or solvent used to clean or flush the system.
● Face flatness problems:
● The face cross section is too narrow causing temperature or pressure distortion problems.
● The material modulus of elasticity is too low.
● The face is not hard enough.
● All clamping forces must be "equal and opposite" to prevent face distortion. In many designs
they are not.
● The differential expansion between the seal face and its holder can cause the face to go out of flat.
● The faces were not lapped at a cryogenic temperature and the seal is being specified for
cryogenic service.
● Bad packaging.
● Poor heat conductivity:
● Carbon is a poor conductor of heat compared to most hard faces.
● Many ceramics are not good conductors of heat .
● Plated or coated faces can "heat check" due to a differential expansion rate between the coating
and the base material.
● The seal face is sometimes insulated by a gasket or elastomer.
● Low expansion steel face holders are not usually corrosion resistant.
● No vibration damping has been provided to prevent "slip stick" vibration problems. This is a
major problem with metal bellows seals.
● Unbalanced seal designs require excessive flushing or cooling to remove unwanted heat.
● The carbon must be dense enough to prevent entrained air pockets from expanding and causing
pits in the carbon face. An "unfilled carbon" with four impregnates is the best.
The Springs or bellows.

● Springs in the fluid can clog easily, especially the small springs.
● Stainless steel springs and bellows are sensitive to chloride stress corrosion problems.
● A single spring can be wound in the wrong direction.
● Thin bellows plates and small cross section springs are sensitive to abrasive wear.
● Rubber bellows experience a catastrophic failure mode when the bellows ruptures.
● Stressed metal corrodes faster. Springs and metal bellows are subjected to high stress.
● Too much spring or bellows movement will cause an early fatigue of the metal.

The Dynamic Elastomer (the one that moves)

● Some elastomers do not move to a clean surface as the face wears.

● Spring loaded elastomers stick to the shaft or sleeve and are sensitive to the shaft diameter and
finish.
● Elastomers positioned in the seal face are subject to the heat generated between the seal faces.
● Dynamic elastomers are very sensitive to the shaft tolerance and finish.

Operating conditions too severe for the design.

● Elastomers and some seal faces are sensitive to temperature extremes.

● Excessive pressure can distort seal faces causing them to go out of flat.
● Excessive pressure can cause elastomer extrusion.
● High speed can separate the seal faces in rotating seal designs.
● High speed can cause excessive heat at the seal faces.
● Excessive shaft movement separates faces also.
● Hard vacuum can "out gas" an elastomer causing it to leak.

Dual seals

● Rotating "back to back" designs:

● Centrifugal force throws solids into the inner faces.
● Inner seal blows open if barrier fluid pressure is lost.
● Inner stationary face is not positively retained to prevent movement if the pressure is lost
between the faces.
● When the outboard seal fails the inboard will fail also due to the pressure drop between the faces.
● The inner seal has to move into the sealing fluid as the face wears. This is a major problem if the
fluid contains solids.
● Failure to use "two way" hydraulic balance causes the inner faces to open with a reversal in
barrier fluid pressure.

Design problems that cause excessive shaft movement

● An elbow is installed too close to the pump suction inlet.

● The mass of the foundation is not five times the mass of the pump and its driver.
 ● Wrong size pump was specified because of safety factors and, as a result, the pump is operating
off the B.E.P.
● The pump was selected oversize in anticipation of a future need.
● A "centerline" design should have been selected when the operating temperate exceeded 200°F
(100°C).
● The shaft L3/D4 is too high.

The pump is cavitating due to a design problem.

● Too high a N.P.S.H. is required. You need a double suction pump.

● The suction specific speed number is too high.
● You are using too low a specific speed impeller.
● A reducer has been installed up side down, letting an air pocket into the suction.
● The impeller to cutwater clearance is too low.
● There is too much suction resistance due to excessive piping.
● Too much suction lift for the fluid temperature.

Other design problems

● Some seal designs cannot compensate for thermal shaft growth or impeller adjustment. Cartridge
versions are needed for this feature.
● The pumping fluid is located at the inside diameter of the seal faces.
● Solids will be thrown into the lapped faces destroying some face materials.
● Solids will pile up in front of the movable faces, preventing them from compensating for wear.
● Most seal faces are weak in tension.
● Hysteresis (delay) problems caused by the seal mass and sliding elastomers.
● Poor packaging that allows face damage during shipment and storage.
● Designs that frett (damage or groove) the shaft or sleeve.
● High speed requires the use of stationary seal designs. Centrifugal force can open rotating
designs above 5000 fpm. (25 m/sec.)
● The seal is positioned too far from the bearing housing.
● Lack of a self-aligning feature is causing excessive face movement.
● A tapered stuffing box can cause face damage.
● No vent has been provided to vent the stuffing box in a vertical application.
● Hardened shafts and sleeves can cause the seal set screws to slip.
● A discharge recirculation line is aimed at the lapped faces, causing them to wear, and interfering
with the seal movement.

Problems caused by the product you are sealing.

● The fluid can flash or vaporize between the faces.

● Viscous fluids open seal faces as they restrict seal movement.
● Products that solidify will open and damage seal faces.
● Crystallizing products restrict seal movement and open the faces.
● Film building products cause the faces to open. Hot oil is typical.
● The fluid can attack one of the seal components, especially the elastomer.
 ● All chemicals have the potential for corroding a seal component. It is just a mater of time.
● Some fluids are poor lubricants:
● This can cause excessive wear.
● Color contamination problems as the carbon wears.
● "Slip stick" vibration problems.
● Slurries clog up the sliding seal components and open the faces.
● Cryogenic fluids can attack some carbon faces and most elastomers.
● High temperature fluids attack elastomers and change the state of the fluid you are sealing.
● Some fluids can cause the formation of ice outboard the seal, restricting seal movement as the
face wears.
● Agitation can cause some fluids to change their viscosity.
● Cleaners or solvents are attacking a seal component.

OPERATION PROBLEMS

Operations that cause excessive shaft movement that will open or damage the seal faces

● Opening and closing valves in the suction and/or discharge causing the pump to operate off the B.
E.P, and the shaft to deflect.
● Pumping the supply tank dry, causing excessive vibration and heat.
● Series or parallel pump operation can cause shaft deflection.
● Running at a critical speed will cause the shaft to defect.
● Cavitation problems:
● Low N.P.S.H.
● Air getting into the system through packing.
● A stuffing box, suction recirculation line is heating the incoming fluid.
● A discharge bypass line is heating the suction fluid
● A discharge recirculation line is aimed at the seal face restricting its movement.
● Water hammer is opening or damaging the lapped faces.
● The piping system has been altered since the pump was installed.
● The pump is being started with the discharge valve shut or severely throttled.
● Starting a pump with the discharge valve open is just as bad.

Operations that cause excessive heat and corrosion problems

● Cleaners or solvents used in the lines can attack a seal component, especially the elastomer.
● A product concentration change will affect corrosion.
● A change of product.
● Either a temperature or pressure change in the system will affect both.

Operations that cause the seal faces to open

● The seal is seeing frequent reversing pressures.

● Loss or lack of an environmental control.
● Flush not working.
● Quench is shut off.
 ● Barrier fluid not circulating.
● Loss of heating or cooling.
● Heating jacket clogged.
● Pressure drop in the stuffing box.
● Flushing with a dirty product.
● Quenching with shop water leaves solids outboard Of the seal that will cause a hang-up as the
seal moves forward to compensate for wear.
● The quenching steam pressure is too high. It is getting into the bearings.

MAINTENANCE PROBLEMS

● The pump and driver are not aligned&emdash;causing excessive seal movement.
● Pipe strain.
● Thermal growth.
● Bad installation techniques that can injure a seal component.
● Wrong lubricant put on the dynamic elastomer.
● The impeller clearance was set after the seal installation.
● The face is inserted backwards, only one side is lapped.
● The seal is set at the wrong installation length.
● The sleeve moved when the impeller was tightened to the shaft.
● A lubricant was put on the seal face that froze when the product evaporated across the lapped
faces.
● The rotating assembly is not dynamically balanced.
● The shaft is bent.
● The sleeve is not concentric to the shaft.
● Impeller clearance is not being maintained, causing vibration problems.
● The impeller is positioned too close to the cutwater.
● The seal has been set screwed to a hardened shaft.
● No seal or gasket between the shaft sleeve and the solid shaft. This is a big problem with double
ended pumps.
● The seal environmental control is not being maintained.
● Flushing fluid is being restricted or shut off.
● Quenching steam is shut off.
● The barrier fluid tank level is too low
● The convection tank is running backwards.
● The cooling jacket is restricted due to a calcium build up.
● You are running both a discharge recirculation line and a cooling jacket.
● Out of tolerance shaft dimensions will restrict seal movement.
● The impeller clearance was made without re-adjusting the seal face load.
● The shaft sleeve was removed to accommodate a smaller diameter seal. The sleeve was providing
corrosion resistance.
● A gasket is protruding into the stuffing box restricting the seal movement.

Link to Mc Nally home page

SUBJECT : A quick reference guide for mechanical seal failure 4-11

Of all the seal related activities, analyzing mechanical seal failure continues to be the single greatest
problem for both the consumer and the seal company representative. I have addressed this problem in
several of my other technical papers. If you will take a little bit of time to familiarize yourself with the
following outline you should feel a lot more comfortable the next time you are called upon to do some
seal troubleshooting.

I should mention here in the beginning that as you look over the failed seal components keep in mind
that a rebuilt seal may have some marks that occurred during a previous failure, making them especially
difficult to analyze, but regardless of the design mechanical seals fail for only two reasons:

● Damage to one of the components

● The seal faces open prematurely.

We will start with damage. This damage is almost always visible. Look for :

Corrosion - The elastomer swells or the other seal parts become "sponge like" or pitted.

● The product you are sealing is attacking one of the seal components.
● The attack is coming from the cleaner or solvent used to clean the lines between batches or at the
end of a "run".
● The attack is coming from lubricants put on the elastomers or seal faces. Petroleum grease on
Ethylene Propylene O-rings will cause them to "swell up".
● Galvanic corrosion - Happens with dissimilar materials in physical contact and connected by an
electrolyte. As an example: stainless steel can attack the nickel binder in a tungsten carbide face.
● Oxidizers and Halogens attack all forms of carbon including black O-rings.

KEEP IN MIND THE CORROSION INCREASES WITH TEMPERATURE

Physical damage.

● Wear or rubbing of a flexible component.

● Thermal shock of some seal face materials. Especially those that are hard coated or plated.
● Thermal expansion of the shaft or sleeve can break a stationary seal face or interfere with the free
movement of a dynamic elastomer.
● The rotating seal hits something because of shaft deflection.
● Temperature extremes (both high and cryogenic) will destroy elastomers and some seal face
materials.
● Erosion from solids in the product you are pumping.
● Fretting caused by the dynamic elastomer removing the passivated layer from the corrosion
resistant shaft or sleeve.
● Fluid abrasion that can weaken materials and destroy critical tolerances.
● A discharge recirculation line circulates high velocity liquid with entrained solids that can break a
metal bellows and injure lapped seal faces, as well as interfere with the free movement of the seal.
 ● The elastomer or rubber part can swell and breaks the face.
● Problems at installation. This includes mishandling, setting at the wrong compression, putting the
wrong lubricant on the elastomer etc.
● Fatigue of the springs caused by misalignment.

The seal faces opening prematurely is the second cause

Scoring or wear of the hard face is the most common symptom of this failure. The scoring occurs
because the solids imbed into the softer carbon face after they open. The seal faces must stay in contact,
but there are all kinds of conditions that are trying to force or pull them open.

Physical causes

● Axial shaft movement (end play or thrust). This is normal at start up.
● Radial shaft movement (run out or misalignment)
● Operating off of the pump's best efficiency point.
● Hysteresis caused by a viscous (thick) product.
● Centrifugal force tries to separate the faces in a rotating seal application.
● Hydrodynamic forces generated between the lapped faces.
● Pressure distortion caused during pressure peaks such as water hammer and cavitation.
● Thermal distortion that can cause the seal face to separate from its holder or "go out of flat".
● A failure to provide equal and opposite clamping across the stationary seal face will cause
distortion.
● A hardened sleeve can cause the seal set screws to slip.
● A wrong initial setting of the face load.
● Springs can clog if they are located in the product.
● Loose set screws. If the sleeve is too soft they can vibrate out.
● Shaft tolerance and finish is out of specifications.
● The rotating shaft or seal hits something.
● The discharge recirculation line can force open the faces.
● Outside springs painted by maintenance people.
● A cartridge seal installation method can compress one set of faces and open the other.
● Vibration.
● Fretting hang up.
● Cartridge mounted stationary seals move excessively unless they have some type of "built in" self
aligning feature.

Product problems . With a loss of an environmental control the fluid can:

● Vaporize between the lapped faces forcing them open and causing a "chipping" of the carbon
outside diameter as well as leaving solids between the lapped faces.
● Become viscous preventing the faces from following normal "run out".
● Solidify between the lapped faces or around the faces.
● Crystallize between the faces or around the dynamic portions of the seal.
● Build a film on the sliding components or between the faces causing them to separate.
● Be a slurry and/ or abrasive
 ● Operate in a vacuum causing the ingestion of air between the faces of some unbalanced seal
designs.
● Swell up the dynamic elastomer, locking up the seal .
● Cause slipstick between the faces if the sealed fluid is a non, or poor lubricant

The common causes of shaft displacement.

● Operating off the pump's best efficiency point (B.E.P.).

● Misalignment between the pump and its driver.
● The rotating assembly is out of balance.
● A bent shaft.
● A non concentric sleeve or seal.
● Vibration
● Slip stick
● Harmonic
● Induced
● Passing through, or operating at a critical speed.
● Water hammer in the lines.
● The stuffing box is not square to the shaft, causing misalignment problems.
● Pipe strain.
● An impeller adjustment is made to compensate for normal impeller wear.
● Thermal growth of the shaft in both a radial and axial direction.
● Bad bearings or a poor bearing fit.
● Two direction axial thrust at start up is normal.
● The motor is finding its magnetic center.
● Cavitation - there are five separate types of damage that can be observed.
● The sleeve moved when the impeller was tightened.
● The unit is pulley driven causing excessive side thrust
● The impeller is positioned too far from the bearings. This is a severe problem in mixer or agitator
applications.

How to preventing product problems that cause premature seal failure.

Control the environment in the stuffing box.

● Control the temperature in the seal area

● Use the correct spring or bellows compression.
● Use only hydraullically balanced seals.
● Select a low friction face combination.
● Avoid "dead ending" the stuffing box.
● Jacket the stuffing box
● Quench behind the seal with the correct temperture steam or fluid
● Use a gland jacket
● Utilize two seals with a barrier fluid between them
● Use heat tape around the stuffing box
● Use a heat pipe to remove heat from the stuffing box.
 ● Vent the stuffing box, especially in a vertical application
● Flush in a cool compatible liquid.
● Control the pressure in the seal area
❍ Be sure to use only hydraulically balanced seals.

❍ Discharge recirculation will raise the pressure if you put a restrictive bushing into the

bottom of the stuffing box.

❍ Suction recirculation will lower the pressure in the stuffing box.

❍ Use two seals and let the barrier fluid control the pressure between the seals.

❍ Cross connect the stuffing boxes to equalize the stuffing box pressures in a multi stage

pump.
❍ Stage the stuffing box pressure with tandem seals.

❍ Impeller pump out vanes will lower stuffing box pressure.

● Give the seal more radial space

❍ Bore out the existing stuffing box if it is possible.

❍ Make or buy a new back plate with the large stuffing box cast into it.

❍ Make or buy a large bore stuffing box and attach it to the back plate after you have

machined the old one off.

● Flush the product away if you are unable to control it.
❍ Suction recirculation will bring fluid into the stuffing box from behind the impeller, where

it is usually cleaner. This works on most closed impeller pump applications and those
open impeller pump applications where the impeller adjusts to the volute rather than the
back plate.
❍ Flush with a clean liquid from an outside source.

❍ A pressurized barrier fluid between two seals can keep solids from penetrating between

the faces if the faces should open. This application will also work if the solid particles are
less than one micron in diameter (Kaoline is such a product).

Build the seal to compensate for operating extremes.

Slurry features that can be part of seal design.

● Springs out of the fluid

● Teflon coating the metal parts so particles will not stick to sliding components.
● The elastomer moves to a clean surface as the face wears.
● Keep the sealing fluid on the outside diameter of the seal to take advantage of centrifugal force
that will throw solids away from the lapped faces.
● Rotate the fluid with the seal to prevent erosion of the seal components. A simple vane
arrangement can accomplish this.
● Use two hard faces if you find it impossible to keep the lapped seal faces together.
● Use a pumping ring to keep solids away from the faces.
● Mount the seal closer to the bearings to diminish the affect of shaft deflection.

Design for higher temperature capability

● Eliminate elastomers when ever possible.

● If you cannot eliminate elastomers, the O-ring location becomes important. Try to move the
 elastomer away from the faces.
● Hydraulically balanced seals generate less heat.
● Select low friction faces.
● Fool proof, correct installation dimensions are necessary. A cartridge design is your best choice.
● Keep a good product circulation around the components.
● A good lapping technique will keep the faces flat at high and cryogenic temperatures.
● Pumping rings will keep fluid circulating between two seals. If you are using balanced seals a
simple convection tank is usually more than adequate. An air operated diaphragm pump can be
used in the line to increase the circulation. Try to avoid the use of petroleum based fluids as the
barrier or buffer fluid between the seals. Petroleum based fluids have a very low specific heat that
will increase the temperature between the seals,
● Gland features such as quenching, recirculation, venting and flushing help.
● Choose well designed faces that will resist thermal distortion. The closer you get to a "square
block" design, the better off you are going to be.
● Do not insulate the faces with an elastomer.

Design for pressure resistance

● Limit the number of diameters in any single seal component

● Laminated bellows will allow you to keep a low spring rate while maintaining pressure
capability, if you are using a welded metal bellows design.
● Finite element analysis of the seal components will prevent pressure and temperature distortion.
● Use more mass to resist hoop stresses.
● Higher modulus materials will resist bending and deformation.
● Use a tandem seal design for pressure break down between two seals.

Design for corrosion resistance

● Choose good materials, clearly identified by type and grade.

● Eliminate elastomers when possible. Elastomers are the most corrosion sensitive part of the seal.
● Design non stressed parts when ever possible
● Try not to weld any of the metal components. If it is necessary, monitor the temperature to
prevent inter granular corrosion
● Control the temperature. Corrosion increases with temperature.
● Use non metallic materials for non metallic equipment.
● Watch out for galvanic corrosion when using dissimilar materials.
● Do not use stainless steel springs. Stick with Hastelloy "C" if the metal parts of the seal are
manufactured from iron, steel, stainless steel, or bronze. If the seal is manufactured from a
different metal, use springs manufactured from that material.
● Do not depend upon flushing to provide corrosion resistance. Use the correct materials, keeping
in mind that solvents and steam are sometimes used to flush the lines. Any materials that you
select must be compatible with these flushing or cleaning fluids also.

If you need cryogenic capability

● Go to a welded metal bellows configuration to eliminate all elastomers.

 ● You will need a special carbon/ graphite face that has an organic material impregnated to assist in
the release of the graphite.
● Avoid plated or coated hard faces. Differential expansion will cause them to crack.
● Always lap the faces at a cryogenic temperature.
● Do not coat the faces with grease or oil. It will freeze at cryogenic temperatures.

Link to Mc Nally home page

SUBJECT : An overview of seal troubleshooting 3-1

Seal problems are almost always associated with face leakage, but as we will soon learn there are other
leak paths in addition to the obvious one between the lapped seal faces.

In the following paragraphs, we will be looking at all of these leak paths. Keep in mind that seals are
classified into many categories : stationary, rotary, balanced, unbalanced, inside, outside, metallic, non-
Metallic, single, dual, elastomer, metal bellows, rubber bellows, cartridge, split, solid, etc.. These
classifications were described in another paper in this series Try to keep these classifications in mind as
we investigate the cause of seal failure.

As with former papers, I will be presenting the troubleshooting hints in an outline form. You should not
find these terms confusing because I have assumed you have a pretty good knowledge of mechanical
seals or otherwise you would not be attempting to trouble shoot them.

In the event you do have trouble with some of the terms or techniques any representative of a reputable
seal company should be able to explain them to you.

LEAKAGE AT THE SEAL FACES.

The seal face is not flat. (Flatness should be measured within three helium light bands, (0,000033" or 1
micron)

● The face was damaged by mishandling.

● Poor packaging. The seal should be able to survive a 39" (1 meter.) drop. To insure this, the seal
must be shipped in a reusable box insulated with plenty of foam or any other adequate insulation.
● The face was distorted by high pressure or surges in pressure. "Water hammer" would be an
example.
● It was distorted when you tightened the stationary face against an uneven surface.
● The clamping is not "equal and opposite" across the stationary face. This is a common problem
with "L" shaped and "T" shaped stationary faces.
● The "hard" seal face has been installed backwards. You are running on a non lapped seal face. It
is common practice to lap only one side of a hard face.
● The face is being distorted by a change in temperature. This happens when you forget to vent a
vertical pump.
● The face never was flat. You have a bad part.
● The carbon metal composite was not stress relieved after the carbon was "pressed in".

The face has been chemically attacked.

● Oxidizing agents attack all forms and grades of carbon graphite.

● Some de ionized water will attack any form of carbon.
● Corrosion increases with any temperature increase. A 10 ° Centigrade (18°F.) rise in temperature
will double the corrosion rate of most corrosives.
● A cleaner or solvent is being flushed through the lines and it is attacking the carbon.
 ● You are using a poor grade of Carbon. Go to an unfilled grade such as Pure Carbon Company
grade 658 RC. This is a common occurrence if the seal is being repaired by some one other than
the original manufacturer.

The plating or hard coating is coming off of the hard face.

● All coatings are porous. The chemical is penetrating this porous coating and attacking the bond
between the coating and the base material, or the base material its self.
● An inferior plating was originally put on the base material.
● Differential expansion of the dissimilar materials is causing them to separate.

The seal face is cracked, pitted or damaged.

● High temperature is heat checking (cracking) the plated face. This is a common problem with
cobalt based tungsten carbide. The nickel base version is less likely to crack.
● The product is solidifying between the faces and they are breaking at start up. Most face
materials have high compressive strength, but tend to be weak in tension.
● Excessive vibration is causing the drive pins to crack the face. Low cost seals experience this
problem quite often.
● There is a high temperature differential across the ceramic. 7 to 10 cycles can break even good
ceramics in hot water or hot petroleum products.
● Air is trapped in the Carbon. Heat is causing it to expand and blow out pieces of the carbon face.
The carbon usually blisters prior to blowing out. The solution is to go to a more dense carbon.
● The product is vaporizing and allowing solid material to blow across the lapped face. This is a
common occurrence in boiler feed water applications.
● The seal faces have opened, solids penetrated and imbedded into the soft carbon causing rapid
wear in the hard face. The same problem occurs if the carbon was relapped using lapping powder.
● Lubricant, on the faces is freezing in cryogenic (cold) applications.
● The elastomer is being chemically attacked and swelling up. This can break the face in those seal
applications where the elastomer is positioned in the seal inside diameter. In some instances the
swelling elastomer will open up the two faces, allowing the solids to penetrate. This can be a
problem with boot mounted faces
● The rotating shaft, or sleeve, is hitting the stationary face. This can happen if the pump is running
off of its B.E.P., which almost always occurs at start up.
● The seal is being mishandled during installation. Good packaging and proper training can solve
many of these problems.
● The crack may have occurred during disassembly. Check to see if there is discoloration deep in
the crack. Discoloration means that it occurred during, or before, operation.
● Petroleum products can "coke" at the face causing pieces of carbon to be pulled out as the face
rotates. You will have to select two hard faces for this application.
● The rotating face is not centered in the stationary face and is running off the edge of the
stationary face. Look for rubbing marks around the O.D. of the rotary unit. A bent shaft or out of
balance rotating assembly is the most common cause
● You will notice a much wider wear track if you are experiencing this problem.
● The seal will appear to "spit" as lubricant is dragged across the face and off the seal outside
diameter.
 ● Dirt can be dragged across the faces as they separate.

The movable face is not free to follow whip, wobble or run out.

● The rotating face is hitting the I.D. of the stuffing box.

● The recirculation line from the pump discharge is aimed at the seal faces and interfering with
their free movement.
● Dirt or solids are clogging the movable components. Magnetite is a very big problem in most hot
water applications.
● The product is interfering with the free movement of the components. It is:
● Crystallizing ( like sugar)
● Solidifying (like glue)
● Viscous (molasses)
● Building a film on the sliding components ( hard water or paint)
● Coking (oil or any other petroleum product)
● The elastomer has been chemically attacked causing it to swell up and interfere with free
movement of the face.
● Temperature growth of the shaft is interfering with the free movement of the movable face.
● The shaft or sleeve is the problem.
● It is over size - + 0.00" - 0.002" ( 0,00-0,05 mm.) is ideal.
● It is too rough; it should be at least 32 R.M.S. (0,8 microns)
● It is fretted, corroded or damaged in some way.
● Solids have attached themselves to that portion of the shaft where the dynamic elastomer is
located.
● A gasket or fitting is protruding into the stuffing box.
● Solids from outside the stuffing box are getting under the faces. This is a common problem with
vertical pumps.
● The elastomer is spring loaded and the interference on the shaft is restricting the face movement.
● The elastomer has extruded because of high pressure or excessive clearance.
● A foreign object has passed into the seal chamber and is interfering with the free movement of
the seal.

The product has plated, or formed on the face and a piece of it has broken off.

● This problem occurs with products that are sensitive to temperature and/ or pressure changes.

The set screws have come loose.

● The shaft has been hardened.

● They have worked loose in a sleeve that is too soft.
● The hardened set screws have corroded.
● They were not replaced when the seal was rebuilt and as a result are not "digging" into the shaft.

The face has lost its spring load.

● The initial setting was wrong.

 ● Temperature growth of the shaft has altered the original setting.
● The impeller has been adjusted towards the wet end of the pump.
● The sleeve moved when the impeller was tightened to the shaft.
● The cartridge seal was pushed on the shaft by pushing on the gland and the seal is now over
compressed. In a dual seal application this will over compress the inner seal and open up, or
unload the outer seal.

The product is vaporizing and blowing the faces open. This happens in hot applications if there is water
in the product.

● It can also occur if the pump/seal was hydrostatically tested with a water base fluid.

The inner seal, of a dual seal application was not balanced in both directions and is opening up with
reversing pressure. This is a common problem in unbalanced seals that are subject to both vacuum and
pressure or if the barrier fluid pressure varies.

The single spring, found in some seal designs, was wound in the wrong direction for the shaft rotation.

The Bellows seal has lost cooling and the anti vibration lugs are engaging the shaft. Shaft movement
will cause the faces to open.

LEAKAGE AT THE ELASTOMER LOCATION.

Compression set ( the elastomer has changed shape).

● Either the product is too hot or there is too much heat being generated at the seal faces. You must
vent vertical pumps to prevent this problem.
● This is a common problem with most grades of Dupont's Kalrez® material, preventing it from
being free to flex and roll.

The elastomer is cracked.

● The shelf life has been exceeded. Buna N (Nitrile) has a shelf life of only twelve months because
of its sensitivity to ozone attack.
● High heat is the main cause.
● Chemical attack. In most cases the elastomer swells but cracking and shrinking does occur in
isolated cases.
● Cryogenic (cold) temperatures freeze the elastomer and it will crack when hit..
● The rubber bellows did not stick to the shaft because the wrong lubricant was used. The shaft
turned inside the bellows causing high heat.
● The seal faces stuck together. The shaft was turning inside the rubber bellows causing excessive
heat.

The elastomer is cut or damaged.

 ● Mishandling.
● The elastomer was slid over a rough spot on the shaft or sleeve. Be careful of old set screw
marks, splined shafts, key ways, etc.
● It was extruded by high pressure. You may need a backup ring.
● The product is penetrating into the elastomer and blowing out the other side. This problem is a
common occurrence when you are trying to seal ethylene oxide.
● Teflon jacketed O-Rings can split in the presence of halogenated fluids. The halogen will cause
the elastomer to swell up, inside of the Teflon jacket. Halogens can be recognized because most
of them end in the letters "ine", such as bromine, astintine, chlorine, fluorine, iodine, etc..

The elastomer is not seated properly.

● It was twisted during installation.

● High pressure can cause the elastomer to extrude or twist in the O-Ring groove.
● Solids have "built up" or penetrated between the elastomer and the shaft.
● The shaft is corroded, damaged, or fretted.
● The shaft is oversized.
● Excessive travel can cause the elastomer to "snake". Most o-rings can roll up to one half of their
diameter.
● The O-ring groove is damaged or coated with a solid material.

The elastomer has swollen or changed color.

● Product attack. This is the most common cause and usually occurs within five to ten days
● The wrong lubricant was used at installation. As an example, you should never put petroleum
grease on EPR O-rings.
● Solvents or chemicals used to clean the lines are not compatible with the elastomer.
● Steam can harm many elastomers including most grades of Viton®.
● Oxidizers can attack the carbon black in O-Rings and other elastomers.

The elastomer leaks when pressurized in the opposite direction.

● A common problem with unbalanced, dual seal applications. Two way balanced seals are
recommended for these applications.
● Remember that O-Rings are the only common elastomers that seal in both directions. Wedges, U
cups, and chevrons do not have this ability.

OTHER LEAK PATHS TO CONSIDER

Between the carbon and its metal holder.

● Some seal companies, and most seal repair facilities, glue the carbon in place. The glue may not
be compatible with the product you are sealing.
● "Pressed in" carbons can leak in a high temperature application because of the differential
expansion between carbon and metal. Low expansion metal is available for these applications
Between the shaft and the sleeve.

● Damaged gasket or gasket surface.

● Distorted sleeve or shaft.Many packed, double ended pumps have this problem because there is
no gasket between the impeller and the sleeve that is holding it in place.

Stationary face gasket or elastomer leaking.

● This leak path is not always visible. It often looks like face leakage.

Gland gasket or gasket surface leakage.

● This leak path should always be visible.

Pipe flange leaking above the seal and dripping into the seal area.

● I found this one after every other avenue was exhausted.

At the weld location if a seal face holder is welded to the cartridge sleeve.

At the pipe connections, ancillary hardware, A.P.I. Gland fittings, and recirculation lines.

A scratch or nick in the o-ring groove. Remember that up to 100 p.s.i. (6 bar) o-rings seal on the O.D.
and the I.D. not the sides.

Seal faces will not leak visibly if they are lapped flat and we keep them in total contact. Shaft movement
is the main contributor to the opening of the seal faces and allowing solids to penetrate. Shaft movement
is caused by many factors. In the following paragraphs we will be looking at most of them.

CAUSES OF EXCESSIVE SHAFT MOVEMENT, INCLUDING VIBRATION.

Cavitation

● Vaporization caused by too high a product temperature or too low a suction head.
● Air is entering the stuffing box. A common problem with pumps that run in a vacuum or taking a
suction from an evaporator or condenser.
● Internal recirculation. Occurs when the Suction Specific Speed is too high, or when either the
impeller or wear ring clearance becomes excessive.
● The vane passing syndrome occurs if the O.D. of the impeller is too close to the pump cutwater.
This clearance should be at least 4% of the impeller diameter in the smaller size impellers and at
least 6% in the larger diameter impellers (greater than 14 inch or 355 mm.)
● Turbulence. Occurs if there is not laminar flow in the lines.

The bearings are worn excessively.

 ● Contamination of the lubricant is the biggest cause. Grease or lip seals have a useful life of only
2000 hours (84 days).
● Poor fit or installation.
● Serious misalignment. The misalignment can be the result of pipe strain or misalignment between
the pump and its driver.

The shaft is bent.

● Usually occurs during sleeve removal or if the bearing was installed with an arbor press.
● Improper storage with the long shaft supported only on the ends.
● Heating the shat to remove the sleeve is another common cause

The impeller is out of balance.

● The impeller was damaged by either wear, corrosion or cavitation.

● Product has built up on the vanes or in the balance holes.
● The impeller diameter was reduced and the impeller was not re balanced
● The impeller never was balanced.

An unbalanced rotating assembly.

Pressure surges or water hammer.

Worn coupling.

The pump is operating off of its best efficiency point.

Rubbing of a rotating component.

● The shaft is hitting the wear ring, or a stationary wear ring is contacting a rotating wear ring.
● The shaft is hitting the seal gland or stationary face.
● A seal rotating component is hitting the stuffing box I.D..
● A recirculation line aimed at the seal faces is causing a pulse each time the impeller vane passes
the fitting.
● A gasket or fitting is protruding into the stuffing box.

The stationary seal face is not perpendicular to the rotating shaft. This causes the spring loaded, rotating
face to move back and forth twice per revolution.

● The stuffing box face is not square to the shaft. The stuffing box face is often a rough casting.
● Tightening the gland bolts through a gasket is cocking the stationary face.
● Pipe strain.
● Temperature growth.
● A convection tank, or some other heavy device is hanging off of the gland.
● Bearing fit or wear.
 ● Coupling alignment.
● Shaft deflection. The deflection can be caused by operating the pump off of its best efficiency
point, the rotating assembly is out of balance, or the shaft is bent.
● Poor installation technique.

VIBRATION AT THE SEAL FACES.

Harmonic vibration.

● The seal is vibrating in harmony with some rotating component. The same thing that causes a
rear view mirror to vibrate in an automobile. Most harmonic vibration can be stopped by
changing the speed of the equipment or "damping" the vibrating component.

Slipstick--caused by:

● Poor lubricating fluids.

● Hot water.
● Solvents.
● Some detergents.
● Gases
● Dry running applications.
● Too high a face load.
● Using unbalanced seals.
● Poor installation technique.
● Face load has changed because of temperature growth or impeller adjustment.
● You are using a high friction face combination. Often occurs if you use two hard faces.

A discharge recirculation line aimed at the seal faces.

● Each time the impeller passes the recirculation connection it causes a pulse of fluid at the seal
face.

Vaporization of the product at the seal face.

● Happens frequently with products that contain water, and are operated at elevated temperature.
● Can occur at the seal face because of high face load or if you use unbalanced seals.

EXCESSIVE AXIAL MOVEMENT OF THE SEAL

● Temperature growth.
● The impeller was adjusted, after the seal was installed, to compensate for wear.
● The rotor motor, moved to its magnetic center at start up.
● The equipment is equipped with sleeve or babbitted bearings and has excessive end play.
● Shaft thrust.
● There is a thrust towards the bearings caused by the combination of the fluid changing direction
 in the impeller and acting on the shaft and/or impeller surfaces. This thrust is offset by a thrust
towards the wet end caused by the impeller shape.
● In centrifugal pumps the resulting force can be in either direction, depending upon how close the
pump is operating to its best efficiency point. Above 65% of its best efficiency, the thrust is
towards the wet end. Below 65% of the best efficiency the thrust is towards the power or bearing
end. There is little to no movement at 65% of the pumps best efficiency. This means that at start
up the shaft moves in both directions accounting for a higher percentage of seal failure at start up.
● Vertical mixer shafts often lift vertically when solids are mixed with liquid.

SHAFT NOT CONCENTRIC WITH THE STUFFING BOX, this will cause a wiping action in
stationary seals.

● The shaft is bending as you move away from the pump B.E.P.
● It bends at 240 degrees, from the cutwater, at low flow and high head.
● It bends at 60 degrees, from the cutwater, at high flow and low head.
● Coupling misalignment.
● Poor bearing fit.
● Pipe strain.
● Temperature growth causes the stuffing box to move relative to the shaft.
● The sleeve is not concentric with the shaft.
● The seal is not concentric with the sleeve/ shaft.
● A bolted on stuffing box has slipped.
● The back plate is not machined concentric to the stuffing box.

Heat is always an indication of wasted energy, but it can also have a disastrous affect on seal life and
performance. Let's take a look at what is causing this heat

CAUSES OF HIGH HEAT AT THE SEAL FACES.

Too much spring compression.

● Installation error.
● No print was used or the mechanic cannot read the print he was given.
● The shaft was marked in the wrong location.
● The mechanic used the wrong marking tool. The mark is too wide.
● The sleeve moved when the impeller was tightened.
● The impeller was adjusted after the seal was installed.
● A cartridge seal was installed on the shaft, by pushing on the gland. Interference from the sleeve
elastomer has caused an over compression of the seal. In some dual seal applications the outer
seal will become under compressed.
● The shaft moved because of thrust.
● Thermal growth of the shat.

Problems with some seal designs.

● Unbalanced seals are supplied by original equipment companies. They generate more heat than
 balanced seals.
● The elastomer is located too close to the seal faces. The heat generated at the faces is affecting
both the elastomer and the seal face.
● The carbon face is insulated by an elastomer.
● The face is too wide causing the hydraulic force to generate excessive heat.
● The Carbon seal face is too narrow causing excessive heat from the spring pressure.
● A vertical seal installation is not being vented. The faces are running dry in a bubble.
● Speeds above 5000 F.P.M. (25 m/sec) require a special balance and less spring load. A 60/40
balance and a face load of 8 psi. to 15 psi. ( 0,07 to 0,2 n/mm2) would be normal.
● An outside metal or elastomer bellows seal is almost impossible to vent.
● Spring loaded elastomers cause varying seal face loads. The actual load depends upon shaft
tolerance and installation dimension.
● Some seal faces are glued in. The glue acts as an insulator preventing the face heat from
conducting to the metal holder.
● Many single spring designs are uni-directional requiring both right handed and left handed seals
on a double ended pump.
● Many metal bellows designs lack effective vibration damping.
● Stationary seal designs require clean flushing if solids are present. centrifugal force does not
throw the solids away from the moveable (spring loaded) components.

Problems with face materials.

● Heat conductivity is low in some materials. (ceramic, carbon, Teflon)

● The coefficient of friction varies with face combinations and various sealing products.
● Carbon/ metal composite faces conduct heat better than plain carbon/ graphite, as long as there is
a true interference fit and they are not glued together to hold them in place.

Problems with the pump operation that causes high heat at the faces.

● Operating off of the B.E.P

● The degree of the problem is determined by the L3/D4 ratio.
● Operating at vapor point, causing cavitation.
● Running dry.
● Gases.
● Dry solids.
● Pumping a tank dry.
● Losing barrier fluid in a dual seal application.
● Shutting off the flushing water.
● Vacuum applications.
● Vertical pumps not vented in the stuffing box.
● The liquid is not a lubricant.
● Pump out rings on the back of the impeller running too close to the pump back plate.

Other causes of high heat.

● The shaft, or sleeve is rubbing a stationary component.

 ● The gland.
● The bushing in the bottom of the stuffing box.
● The bushing in the A.P.I. gland.
● A pump wear ring.
● A protruding gasket.
● A fitting.
● The stationary portion of a mechanical seal.
● The shaft, or sleeve, is not straight.
● It is bending, because the pump is operating off of its best efficiency point.
● It is bent. This often happens when the sleeve is removed.
● The rotating assembly is not balanced.
● The shaft never was straight.
● There is not enough circulation around the seal.
● Install a large diameter stuffing box. You should be able to get at least 1" (25 mm.) all around the
rotating unit.
● Connect a recirculation line from the bottom of the stuffing box to the suction side of the pump.
You can do this in almost every case except when you are pumping a product at its vapor point or
if the solids have a specific gravity lower than the fluid.
● The cooling jacket is clogged.
● There is no carbon restriction bushing in the bottom of the stuffing box and you are using the
cooling jacket. The restriction bushing slows down the heat transfer.
● Loss of an environmental control.
● The flush is not constant. The pressure is changing.
● Quenching steam or water has been shut off during pump shut down.
● The double seal barrier fluid is not circulating.
● The cooling jacket has become clogged by the calcium in the hard water. Try condensate instead.
● The filter, or separator, is clogged.
● Either the suction or discharge recirculation line is clogged.
● If you are using double seals, remember that two seals generate twice as much heat and
conventional cooling may not be sufficient. Contact the manufacturer for the rules when using
convection tanks and dual seals. You may need a "built in" pumping ring.
● Solids in the stuffing box are interfering with a rotating component.

® DuPont Dow elastomer

Link to Mc Nally home page

SUBJECT : Troubleshooting mechanical seals at equipment disassembly 3-9

All seals fail for the same reasons:

● The faces open up and allow dirt or solids to penetrate.

● One of the seal components has been damaged by either the product, heat, or a cleaner used to
flush the system.

After the failure has occurred you will frequently get a chance to analyze the failed components. You are
going to be looking for several things:

● Evidence of corrosion.
● Wear patterns on those parts that should be rubbing.
● Evidence of rubbing or wear on those components that should not be in contact.
● Discoloration of any of the seal components, especially the metal parts.
● Parts that are missing. Springs, set screws and drive lugs as an example.
● Loose hardware. Either a seal component or a foreign object.
● Product attaching to a rotating component. Carefully inspect the impeller and rotating part of the
seal.

In the following paragraphs we will be inspecting the individual components and looking for evidence of
the above.

THE CARBON FACE

Chipping on the O.D. of the carbon. Indicating vibration.

● This can be caused by harmonic vibration, or if the rotating equipment hits a critical speed.
● Slipstick can occur if you are pumping a fluid with poor lubricating qualities.
● Mishandling is a common problem. Look for evidence of drive lug wear to eliminate this as a
possibility.
● Vaporization of the liquid causing the faces to rapidly open and then close as the leaking fluid
cools the faces.
● A discharge recirculation line is aimed at the carbon seal face.
● The pump is cavitating. Remember there are five types of cavitation.
● Water hammer is a another possibility.

Pits in the carbon face. This problem is usually associated with poor grades of carbon/ graphite.

● Exploded carbon. Air trapped in the pores of the carbon expands and expels pieces of the carbon
when the seal faces get hot. Prior to ejection polished patches will be visible, usually with small
cracks visible in the center.
● If the product solidifies between the faces it will tear out pieces of the carbon at start up. This is a
common occurrence with ammonia compressor seals because petroleum oil is mixed with the
 ammonia and it can coke at the elevated temperature.
● Most petroleum products will "coke" because of the higher face temperature, and pull out small
pieces of the carbon as the faces rotate. You will see evidence of these small pits if you inspect
the carbon face under a magnifying glass.

Chips at the I.D. of the carbon

● Solids, or a foreign object of some type from outside of the pump are getting under the gland and
are being thrown into the seal faces. This can occur if the seal leaked at some time and the
product solidified on the outboard side of the seal. It can also occur if liquid, containing solids, is
used in the quench connection of an A.P.I. type gland.
● If the seal was installed outside of the stuffing box, as is the case with non metallic seals, solid
particles in the fluid can be centrifuged into the rotating carbon face.
● If the stationary face is manufactured from carbon it can be chipped if it comes into contact with
the rotating shaft. This is a common problem at pump start up, or if the pump is operating off of
its B.E.P.

Phonograph finish on the carbon face.

● A solid product was blown across the seal face. This happens in boiler feed water applications.

Chemical attack of the carbon.

● You are using the wrong carbon. Something in the product or the flush is attacking the carbon
filler. Switch to an unfilled carbon such as Pure grade 658 RC or C.T.I. grade CNFJ.
● You are trying to seal an oxidizing agent. Oxidizers attack all forms of carbon including the
unfilled type. The carbon combines with the oxygen to form either carbon monoxide or carbon
dioxide.
● Some forms of de ionized water will pit and corrode carbon faces

Cracked or damaged carbon face.

● The product is solidifying between the faces. Carbons are strong in compression but weak in
tension or shear. This problem is common with intermittent pumps each time they start up.
● Excessive vibration can bang the carbon against a metal drive lug.
● A cryogenic fluid is freezing a lubricant that was put on the face.
● The elastomer is swelling up under a carbon or hard face.
● The shaft is hitting the stationary face or the rotating seal face is hitting a stationary object.
● Mishandling.
● Poor packaging. The lapped seal faces should be able to survive a 39" (one meter) drop.
● Ice is forming on the outboard side of the seal and preventing the seal from moving to
compensate for face wear.

A coating is forming on the carbon face:

● A change in temperature. Many products solidify at temperature extremes.

 ● The product is taking a pressure drop across the seal faces and solidifying.
● Selective leaching is picking up an element from the system and depositing it on the seal face.
● The stuffing box is running under a vacuum because the impeller was adjusted backwards and the
impeller "pump out vanes" are causing the vacuum.
● The system protective oxide is depositing at the faces. In hot water systems we experience this
problem with magnetite (Fe3O4) until the system stabilizes.

Coking

● This is a problem with all oils, and petroleum products in particular.

● Coking is caused by the combination of high temperature and time. Contrary to popular belief the
presence of air or oxygen is not necessary.

Shiny spots, cracks and raised portions of carbon.

● The carbon is not dense enough, causing the expanding gases trapped beneath the surface of the
carbon to explode through the face.
● Product is solidifying between the faces and pulling out pieces of the carbon as the seal revolves.

Excessive carbon wear in a short period of time. Evidence of excessive heat is usually present.

● Heat checking of the hard face. It shows up as a cracking of the hard face. This is a problem with
coated or plated hard faces. Cobalt base tungsten carbide is a typical example.
● The shaft is moving in an axial direction because of thrust. This can cause an over compression
and heating of the seal faces
● The impeller is being adjusted towards the back plate. This is problem with seals installed in
Duriron pumps or any other pump that adjusts the open impeller against the back plate.
● Any installation problem:
● The inner face of a "back to back" double seal application is not positively locked in position. A
snap ring must be installed to prevent the inboard stationary face from moving towards the
rotating face when the high pressure barrier fluid pressure is lost or overcome by system pressure.
● The seal was installed at the wrong dimension.
● A cartridge double seal was installed by pushing on the gland. Friction, between the shaft and the
sleeve O-Ring is compressing the inner seal.
● A vertical pump was not vented.
● Solids have penetrated between the faces.
● The faces are not flat.
● The movable face is sluggish.
● The product is vaporizing between the faces because of either high temperature or low stuffing
box pressure .
● Non lubricants will cause rapid face wear. A non lubricant is any fluid with a film thickness less
than one micron at its load and operating temperature..

The carbon has a concave or convex wear pattern

 ● High pressure distortion.
● The stationary face is not perpendicular to the shaft.
● Some companies lap a concave pattern as standard. Check with your manufacturer.
● The shaft is bending because the pump is running off of its B.E.P.

The carbon is not flat.

● Mishandling.
● Poor packaging.
● The hard face has been installed backwards and you are running on a non lapped surface.
● The seal was shipped out of flat.
● The metal/ carbon composite has not been stress relieved and it is distorting the carbon.
● When the carbon was lapped the lapping plate was too hot and as a result, not flat.
● The carbon was lapped at room temperature and the seal is running at cryogenic temperatures.
● Solids are imbedded in the carbon. The faces have opened.
❍ The seal was set screwed to a hard shaft.

❍ The elastomer (rubber part) is spring loaded to the shaft causing the faces to open as the

shaft moves due to end play, vibration or carbon wear. The shaft/ sleeve is over sized
causing an excessive interference between the elastomer and the shaft/ sleeve.
❍ The sleeve finish is too rough.

❍ The product has changed from a liquid to a solid.

❍ Dirt or solids are interfering with the seal movement.

❍ Some one put the wrong compression on the faces.

❍ Shaft fretting is hanging up the face.

❍ The face has been distorted for some reason allowing solid particles to enter.

❍ The sliding elastomer has swollen up causing too much interference on the shaft/ sleeve.

❍ Poor centering is causing the rotating face to run off the stationary face. Keep in mind the

gland bolts are not always concentric with the shaft.

❍ The single spring was wound in the wrong direction.

❍ An out of balance rotating assembly or bent shaft is causing the rotating face to "run off"

of the stationary face.

THE HARD FACE.

Chemical attack.

● Some ceramics and silicone carbides are attacked by caustic. Check to see if your seal face
contains silica. As an example: both reaction bonded silicone carbide and 85% ceramic have this
high silica content.

Cracked or broken.

● The product is solidifying between the faces. Most hard faces have poor tensile or shear strength.
● Excessive vibration will cause cracking at the drive lug location..
● A cryogenic fluid is freezing a lubricant that was put on the face.
● The elastomer is swelling up under an outside seal face. This problem can also occur if the seal
 design allows a spring to contact the I.D. of the hard face.
● The shaft is hitting the stationary face or the rotating seal face is hitting a stationary object.
● Mishandling.
● Poor packaging.

Heat check (a common problem with coated or plated faces)

● Caused by a high heat differential across the face. Most hard coating have only one third the
expansion rate of the stainless steel base material.

Hard coating coming off of the face.

● The base material not compatible with the sealed product. These coating are very porous so if the
product attacks the base material the coating will come off in sheets.
● The plating process was not applied correctly.

Analysis of the wear track on the hard face.

Deep grooves&emdash;excessive wear. Solids imbedded in the carbon are causing the problem. The
solids were trapped between the faces when the seal faces opened.

● The seal was set screwed to a hard shaft.

● The elastomer is spring loaded to the shaft preventing it from flexing as the shaft vibrates..
● The shaft/ sleeve is over sized causing the dynamic elastomer or bellows vibration damper to
hang up..
● The shaft/ sleeve finish is too rough
● The product has solidified in the seal components.
● Dirt or solids are interfering with seal movement.
● Not enough spring compression on the faces.
● Fretting of the shaft/ sleeve is hanging up the face.
● The face has been distorted by either excessive temperature or pressure.
● The sliding elastomer has swollen up due to chemical attack of the product or a cleaner that was
flushed through the lines. The wrong choice of rubber lubricant, at installation, can also cause the
problem
● Poor centering is causing the rotating face to run off of the stationary face..
● The single spring was wound in the wrong direction.

The wear track is wider than the carbon.

● Worn bearings.
● Bent shaft.
● Unbalanced impeller.
● Sleeve not concentric with the shaft.
● Seal not concentric with the sleeve.
● In a stationary seal, the stationary carbon is often not centered to the shaft, causing a wiping
action.
The wear track is narrower than the carbon.

● The soft face (carbon) was distorted by pressure.

● The hard face was over tightened against an uneven surface.
● The hard face clamping forces are not "equal and opposite".
● The face never was flat, or it was damaged during shipment.

Non Concentric pattern. The wear track is not in the center of the hard face.

● The shaft is bending because the pump is running off of its best efficiency point.
● Poor bearing fit.
● Pipe strain.
● Temperature growth is distorting the stuffing box.
● The stationary face is not centered to the shaft.
● Misalignment between the pump[ and its driver.

Uneven face wear. The hard face is distorted:

● High pressure.
● Excessive temperature.
● Over tightening of the stationary face against the stuffing box.
● The clamping forces are not equal and opposite.
● The hard face is not wide enough.
● You are using a two bolt gland and the gland is too thin causing it to distort.
● You are using a pump seal in a motion seal application.

The product is sticking to the seal face. The product is changing state and becoming a solid. Most
products solidify for the following reasons:

● A change in temperature.
● A change in pressure.
● Dilatants will solidify with agitation. As an example: cream becomes butter.
● Some products solidify when two or more chemicals are mixed together.

The hard face is not flat.

● Mishandling.
● Poor packaging.
● The hard face has been installed backwards and you are running on a non lapped surface.
● It was shipped out of flat.

THE ELASTOMER.

Compression set. The O-ring has changed shape.

 ● … High heat is almost always the cause unless you are dealing with Kalrez, Chemraz, or a
similar material where a certain amount of compression set is normal.

Shrinking, hardening or cracking.

● High heat.
● The shelf life was exceeded. This is a big problem with "Buna N" that has a shelf life of only
twelve months.
● Cryogenics will freeze just about any elastomer.
● Chemical attack normally causes swelling, but in rare cases can harden an elastomer.
● Oxidizing liquids can attack the carbon that is used to color most elastomers black.

Torn nibbled, or extruded.

● Mishandling.
● Sliding over a rough surface.
● Forced out of the O-Ring groove by high pressure.
● The liquid has penetrated the elastomer, vaporizing inside and blowing out pieces. This is a
problem with Ethylene Oxide.
● Halogenated fluids can penetrate the Teflon coating on an elastomer and cause the base material
to swell up, splitting the Teflon jacket.

Swelling, changing color, weight or size. Almost always caused by:

● Chemical attack.
● Be careful of the lubricant used to install the elastomer.
● Solvents or cleaners used in the system may not be compatible with the elastomer.
● Some compounds are sensitive to steam. Most Vitons are a good example of this problem.
● The elastomer is not compatible with something in the fluid you are sealing.

Torn rubber bellows.

● The bellows did not vulcanize to the shaft because you used the wrong lubricant.
● The shelf life was exceeded.
● The seal faces stuck together and the shaft spun inside the bellows.
● The pump discharge recirculation line was aimed at the rubber bellows. Solids entrained in the
high velocity liquid are abrading the bellows.

THE METAL CASE OR BODY OF THE SEAL.

Corrosion.

● General or overall. This is the easiest to see and predict. The metal has a "sponge like"
appearance. It always increases with temperature.
● Concentrated cell or crevice corrosion. Caused by a difference in concentration of ions, or
 oxygen in stagnant areas causing an electric current to flow. Common around gaskets, set screws,
threads, and small crevices.
● Pitting corrosion. Found in other than stagnant areas. Extremely localized. Chlorides are a
common cause. Can be recognized by pits and holes in the metal.
● Stress corrosion cracking. Threshold values are not known. A combination of chloride, tensile
stress, and heat are necessary. Chloride stress corrosion is a serious problem with the 300 series
of stainless steels used in industry. This is the reason you should never use stainless steel springs
or stainless metal bellows in mechanical seals.
● Inter granular corrosion. Forms at the grain boundaries. Occurs in stainless steel at 800-1600 F.
(412-825 C.), unless it has been stress relieved. A common problem with welded pieces.
Stabilizers such as columbium are added to the stainless steel to prevent this. Rapid cooling of
the welds, the use of 316L and stress relieving after the welding are the common solutions.
● Galvanic corrosion. Occurs with dissimilar materials in contact with and connected by an
electrical current. Common in brine, caustic, and salt water applications.
● Erosion / Corrosion. An accelerated attack caused by a combination of corrosion and mechanical
wear. Vaporization, liquid turbulence, vane passing syndrome, and suction recirculation are
special cases often called cavitation. Solids in the liquid and high velocity increase the problem.
● Selective leaching. Involves the removal of one or more elements from an alloy. Common with
demineralized or de ionized water applications.
● Micro organisms, that will attack the carbon in active stainless steel.

Rubbing--All around the metal body.

● A gasket or fitting is protruding into the stuffing box and rubbing against the seal.
● The pump discharge recirculation line is aimed at the seal body.
● The shaft is bending due to the pump operating off of its best efficiency point.
● Pipe strain.
● Misalignment between the pump and its driver.
● A bolted on stuffing box has slipped.

Partial rubbing -- On the metal body.

● Bent shaft.
● An unbalanced impeller or rotating assembly.
● Excessively worn or damaged by corrosion or solids in the product.
● The product has attached its self to the impeller.
● The impeller never was balanced.
● The impeller was trimmed, and not re balanced.
● The seal is not concentric with the shaft, and is hitting the stuffing box I.D..

Discoloration. Caused by high heat. Stainless steel changes color at various temperatures.

FAHRENHEIT COLOR OF THE METAL CENTIGRADE

 700 - 800 Straw Yellow 370 - 425
900 - 1000 Brown 480 - 540
1100 - 1200 Blue 600 -650
> 1200 Black > 650
NOTE: To tell the difference between discoloration caused high heat and product attaching to the metal
part, try to erase the color with a common pencil eraser. Discoloration will not erase off.

Product sticking to the metal surfaces.

● Heat is the main cause.

● The product pressure has dropped.
● Air or oxygen is getting into the system.
● Valves above the water line.
● Through the stuffing box.
● The product was not deaerated.
● The pump suction is not completely submerged.
● The bypass return is too close to the pump suction.
● The liquid is vortexing in the suction line.
● A non O-Ring elastomer is being used in the seal allowing air to enter the stuffing box when you
are sealing a vacuum application.
● The system protective oxide coating is depositing on the sliding metal components.

The following applications cause a vacuum to be present in the pump stuffing box.

● Pumps that lift liquid.

● Heater drain pumps.
● Pumping from an evaporator.
● Pumping from the hot well of a condenser.
● Pumps that prime other pumps.
● The open impeller was adjusted in the wrong direction and the impeller pump out vanes are
causing the vacuum.

The Teflon coating is coming off some of the metal parts.

● Coatings are very porous. They do not provide corrosion resistance. The base material is being
attacked by the product.

DRIVE LUGS, PINS, SLOTS, etc.

Broken.

● Chemical attack.
● Excessive side load.
● The seal faces are glued together because the product has solidified.
 ● A cryogenic fluid is sticking the faces together.

Wear on one side of the drive lug or slot.

● Vibration.
● Slipstick.
● The stationary is not perpendicular to the shaft.

The drive pins are falling out of the holder.

● Corrosion.
● Improper fit.
● Bad part.
● Excessive vibration.

THE SPRINGS.

Broken or cracked.

● The stationary face is not perpendicular to the shaft causing excessive spring flexing in the metal
"plastic range". The spring material has "work hardened" and fatigued.
● Chloride stress corrosion problems with 300 series stainless steel.

Corroded.

● Stressed material corrodes much faster than unstressed material. The springs are always under
severe stress.

Clogged.

● Be sure to distinguish between "cause and effect". If the springs are located outside the liquid, it
happened after the failure.
● If the product solidifies or crystallizes it can clog springs exposed to the pumped fluid.
● Dirt or solids in the fluid can clog exposed springs.

Twisted.

● Almost always an assembly problem. The lugs were not engaged in the slots. This is a problem
with many seal designs. Check to see if your seals can come apart easily or if the drive lugs can
change position when the seal is not compressed.

The drive lugs or slots are worn on both sides.

● Excessive vibration.
● The single spring, rubber bellows seal, was not vulcanized to the shaft.
 ● The stationary is not perpendicular to the shaft, causing excessive spring movement.

Broken Metal Bellows.

● Fatigue caused by over flexing in the plastic range of the metal

❍ Harmonic vibration.

❍ Slipstick.

● The discharge recirculation line is aimed at the thin bellows plates.

● Excessive wear from solids in the stuffing box.
● Faces sticking together as the product solidifies.
● Chloride stress corrosion with 300 series stainless steel.

Because these seals do not have a dynamic elastomer to provide vibration damping some other means
must be provided or vibration will always be a problem.

THE SLEEVE, OR SHAFT.

Grooves or pits at the seal dynamic elastomer location.

● Fretting.
● Concentrated cell corrosion.
● The rubber bellows did not vulcanize to the shaft/ sleeve.
● The set screws slipped on a hardened shaft or were not tightened properly. The seal faces stuck
together causing the shaft to rotate inside the static elastomer.
● Salt water applications are particularly troublesome when a static elastomer or clamp is attached
to the shaft. Pitting caused by the chlorides and the low PH of salt water are the main problems.

Rubbing at the wear ring location.

● The pump is running off of its best efficiency point.

● The shaft is bending.
● Bad bearings.
● Excessive temperature.
● Sleeve is not concentric with the shaft, or the seal with the sleeve.
● Bent shaft.
● Unbalanced impeller or rotating assembly.
● Pipe strain.
● Misalignment between the pump and its driver
● High temperature applications require a "center line: pump design.

Corrosion. See above description under metal corrosion

.THE SET SCREWS.

● Stripped from over tightening.

 ● Corroded. Check to see if you are using hardened set screws. This type is normally supplied with
most cartridge seals and can corrode easily.
● Rounded Allen Head. Alan wrenches wear rapidly. They are an expendable tool.
● Loose.
❍ Sleeve too hard. They are not biting in.

❍ Sleeve too soft. They are vibrating loose.

THE GLAND.

Rubbing at the I.D.

● Partial rubbing.
● The gland has slipped.
● Improper installation. It was not centered to the shaft.
● The shaft is bending.
● Pipe strain.
● Rubbing all around.
● The shaft is not concentric with the sleeve.
● The seal is not concentric with the sleeve.
● Bad bearings.
● Bent shaft.
● Unbalanced impeller or rotating assembly.
● Solids attached to the shaft, or caught between the shaft, and the gland.
● Cavitation.

Corrosion.

● If there is evidence of rubbing the corrosion will be accelerated.

Passages clogged or not connected properly.

● A.P.I Gland.
❍ Hooked up wrong.

❍ Flushing connection clogged.

❍ Quench connection clogged.

BUSHINGS

Rubbing at the I. D.

● Partial rubbing.
● The A.P.I. gland has slipped.
● Improper installation. It was not centered to the shaft.
● The shaft is bending.
● The gland bolt holes are often not concentric with the shaft/ sleeve.
● Misalignment between the pump and its driver.
 ● Excessive pipe strain.
● Rubbing all around.
● The shaft is not concentric with the sleeve.
● The seal is not concentric with the sleeve.
● Bad bearings.
● Bent shaft.
● Unbalanced impeller.
● Cavitation

Erosion.

● Dirt and solids are present in the discharge or suction recirculating fluid.

Link to Mc Nally home page

●
SUBJECT : Troubleshooting mechanical seals at the pump site 4-2

Leakage can occur at any time throughout the life of the mechanical seal. To troubleshoot seals
effectively it is helpful to know just when the leakage starts. This is the advantage of being able to
troubleshoot a running pump or one that is still hooked up to its piping. By noting the type of leakage
and when the leakage occurs we can do a more thorough job of analyzing any seal failure. In addition to
leakage we will be looking for other symptoms that are visible to the trained troubleshooter.

We will start with the different types of leakage. Please look at the following diagram.

The leakage occurs while the pump is both running and stopped.

The leakage can be detectable visually, by odor, or by instrumentation. A strobe light can sometimes be
used to determine its location. As you can see in the above diagram there are several leak paths possible.
You must determine which ones you have. The seal can leak :

At the lapped faces. Since they are a wearable surface the leak will probably get either better or worse. It
should never remain constant. The leak started because:

● The outside springs in a dual cartridge seal were painted during routine maintenance.
● The spring load has been reduced because of thermal growth, axial thrust, or impeller adjustment.
● The seal was set screwed to a hardened shaft and has vibrated loose.
● One or both of the seal faces is not flat. Solid tungsten carbide and silicone carbide faces are
often lapped flat on only one side. Check to see if the face has been installed backwards.
● The dynamic elastomer has swollen up and seized the spring loaded face, preventing it from
remaining in contact with the stationary face.
● The product prevented the lapped seal faces from remaining in contact.
● Dirt has gotten into the sliding components.
● The product has crystallized.
 ● The product solidified or became very viscous.
● The product is vaporizing across the seal faces expanding and blowing them open.

At the static and dynamic elastomer locations.

● This type of leak tends to remain constant and will often stop when the small opening clogs up
with solids. The leak can be caused by a damaged elastomer or damage on the surface where the
elastomer seals. In some instances the elastomer is not seated properly. It is twisted because of
either poor installation, excessive shaft movement, or high pressure extrusion.

At the gland gasket.

● This is the easiest leak to detect because it is very visible and does not change with shaft rotation.

Between the shaft sleeve and the shaft.

● This is a common problem with double ended pumps, where the sleeve is used to position the
impeller and there is no method of sealing the sleeve against the impeller.

Between the seal face and its metal holder.

● The leakage frequently increases, as the product temperature increases, because the metal face
holder has an expansion rate three times that of the carbon or hard faces.

Through fretting damage

● The damage is caused by spring loaded dynamic O-rings, Teflon wedges, chevrons, U- cups etc.
● You can't miss the frett marks. They will be located on the pump shaft, pump sleeve, or inner
sleeve of the mechanical seal.

The seal leaks only when the pump is running.

● The stationary face has been over tightened against the stuffing box face causing it to go out of
flat. Statically the carbon will readjust to the distorted hard face.
● The clamping is not equal and opposite across the static seal face. Look for different width
gaskets at the front and rear of the static face. Again, the carbon will readjust when the shaft is
not turning.
● Between face and holder. The holder heats up and expands faster than the pressed in face. The
leak will begin when the metal holder comes up to temperature. Remember that metal expands
three times faster than a seal face.
● Cryogenic (cold) service will harden the elastomer. Be sure to check the lower temperature limit
of the elastomer that was selected.
● Misalignment between the pump and the driver.
● The shaft is bending and not allowing the seal to move freely. This occurs if the pump is
operating off of its best efficiency point and the shaft L3/D4 is not small enough to resist the
 bending.
● The product is vaporizing across the seal faces.
● Cavitation, slip stick, harmonic, or some other type of vibration is bouncing the faces open, check
the lugs or drive pins for sign of excessive wear.
● The seal was installed without enough compression or the impeller was adjusted after the seal
was installed and thermal expansion of the shaft is opening the faces.
● A discharge recirculation line is aimed at the seal faces or some other critical point and the faces
are being forced open.
● A non- concentric seal, bad sleeve installation, or an out of balance rotating assembly, is causing
the rotating portion of the seal to run off the stationary face.
● A bent shaft can cause the rotating portion of the seal to run off the stationary face.
● The rotating portion of the seal is hitting a stationary object. Look for:
● A protruding gasket or fitting.
● A foreign object that has worked its way into the stuffing box area.
● A stationary portion of the rotating equipment, such as a close fitting bushing.
● At elevated temperature the product thins out (the viscosity decreases) and is leaking through an
elastomer. It will not leak at the cooler temperature when the product viscosity is higher.
● High temperature is causing the lapped seal face to go out of flat.

The seal leaks only when the pump is not running.

● The seal is also leaking while running, but the leak is vaporizing and not visible. Hold a piece of
white paper over the seal area and see if the paper becomes damp.
● A meniscus caused by centrifugal force and liquid surface tension had formed at the inside
diameter of the seal faces. This prevented a leaking seal from dripping while the shaft was
turning.
● You are using high temperature grade Kalrez. It is too hard at ambient temperature and will
soften at operating temperature.
● The pump is running under vacuum and while it is running air is being pulled into the system.
The fluid leaks out when the shaft is static. This can occur if an open impeller that was designed
to be adjusted against the volute has accidentally been adjusted backwards against the back plate.
The impeller "pump out vanes" can then pull a vacuum in the stuffing box. This is a common
problem if you use a lot of Duriron pumps and then bring in a few of another brand.

The leak occurs only at start up and then stops after a short time.

● Face distortion. Caused by a high pressure surge that was created when the pump was started
with the discharge valve shut.
● The shaft is bending, and interfering with the seal movement.
● Occurs because the pump is running with the discharge valve throttled or shut. Operators shut the
discharge valve at start up to save electricity and prevent cavitation.
● The same problem can occur if the pump is started with the discharge valve wide open and
because of the lack of discharge resistance the pump will run to the right hand side of its curve. In
some cases you could also burn out the electric motor.
● The product has changed state, and becomes a liquid again when the pump comes up to operating
temperature. The product had :
 ● Crystallized
● Solidified
● Became viscous
● Excessive axial shaft movement at start up. This is a common problem with sleeve bearing
equipment.

The seal leaks intermittently or after the pump has run for a fixed period of time

Look for reoccurring events that initiate the leakage. They can include:

● Flushing the lines at the end of a batch or season.

● Alternating pumps in a multiple pump arrangement.
● An additive is being put into the product.
● Batch operations are beginning or ending.
● The cooling water is passing through temperature cycles.
● The outside ambient temperature has changed dramatically. I ran into a situation where a supplier
was oiling the bed of his truck to prevent solids from sticking in the winter and this oil attacked
the elastomer in the seal.
● Hard water is being used as a flush and it is gradually restricting the flush lines or cooling jacket.
● A filter or strainer is clogged in a flush line.
● The flushing water pressure drops at certain times of the day because of demand.
● The boiler or cooling tower is being blown down.
● There is a control valve in the pump discharge that is causing the pump to occasionally operate
too far off of the B.E.P.
● The stuffing box is cycling between a positive and negative pressure.
● Vortexing can occur if the pump suction falls too low. This also occurs in mixers and agitators..
● You are quenching a high temperature application with water. As the quench water vaporizes it
leaves dissolved solids outboard of the seal restricting axial movement as the seal faces wear.
● The pump is cavitating on a regular or intermittent basis. Here are a few possibilities:
● The suction level falls too low
● The tank vent freezes.
● The velocity is too high on the suction side of the pump.
● A suction strainer is plugged up.
● A stuck or broken check valve in the pump suction piping.
● A temporary loss of discharge head.
● A booster pump has shut off.
● A suction eccentric reducer was installed up side down allowing slugs of air into the suction of
the pump.
● The fluid is vortexing in the supply tank. The level is too low for the pump capacity.
● The pump is lifting liquid and the foot valve is sticking..
● The impeller is too close to the cutwater.
● Air is entering the system through the pump packing.
● A lower "specific speed" impeller as been substituted.
● The pump was specified with too low a "suction specific speed" number.
● The pump is running at a higher speed or a larger impeller was installed after the system heads
were calculated.
 ● In some parallel pump installations, a stronger pump can throttle the weaker one causing shaft
deflection.
● The wrong lubricant was used on the dynamic elastomer, causing it to swell up.
● Reaction bonded type, Silicone Carbide can crack if the lines were flushed with Caustic solution.

TYPES OF LEAKAGE.

The leak rate is changing, It gets better or worse.

● This type of leak is usually associated with seal face leakage because the seal face is a wearable
surface.
● The carbon seal face is not flat.
● The seal face was damaged at the time of assembly.
● Dirt or solids are imbedded into one of the faces
● Coke (over heated oil) or some other solid has formed on the seal faces causing them to separate.
● The rotating face is hung up on the shaft.
● Outside seal springs have been painted during routine maintenance.

The faces spit liquid.

● The product is vaporizing at the faces - check the fluid vapor point. When using balanced seals
the stuffing box pressure must be at least one atmosphere higher than the product vapor point.
Unbalanced seals require a much higher differential pressure.
● The rotating face is running off of the stationary face.
● The stationary was not centered to the shaft - a common problem.
● The seal is not concentric with the shaft.
● The rotating assembly is out of balance.
● The shaft is bent.

Fire hose type leakage. The leak is following shaft rotation.

● Product has solidified on the seal face and a piece has broken off. This is usually initiated by a
high temperature between the faces.
● The rotating face is cracked.
● The hard surfacing, or coating, is lifting off of the rotating face.

Intermittent leakage.

● Temperature changes or pressure surges are altering the face flatness within the elastic range of
the material.
● The stuffing box is alternating between vacuum and pressure
● The movable face is sluggish and not able to follow run out.
● The product is viscous.
● The product has started to solidify.
● The shaft/ sleeve is too large in diameter restricting movement of the seal. Spring loaded,
dynamic elastomers such as Teflon wedges, U- cups, Chevrons and spring loaded O-ring designs
 are very sensitive to this problem
● Dirt or solids are clogging the seal and preventing it from following shaft run out.
● In a non O-Ring version, the spring load is too high causing the elastomer or Teflon to stick to
the shaft.
● The product is occasionally vaporizing between the faces.
● There is a leak between the face and the holder that becomes visible only when the unit comes up
to operating temperature.
● A bending, or bent shaft is causing the seal outside diameter to contact the inside diameter of the
stuffing box, or some other stationary object.
● The pump is running with too high or too low a head. Check the pump curve against actual
operating conditions.
● The application is cycling between ambient and cryogenic temperatures causing the elastomer to
harden on the cold cycle and the faces to go out of flat.

The seal area is damp. There is no visible leakage.

● There is a leaking flange or fitting above the seal that is dripping close to the seal location.
● The product is vaporizing. Hold a clean piece of white paper over the running seal, and check for
leakage. The paper will become damp.
● Any condition that could cause intermittent leakage will cause this problem.

Constant dripping. It gets neither better nor worse. This cannot be a damaged seal face leak because seal
faces are a wearable surface and the leak rate would have to change.

● The elastomer is cut or nicked.

● The shaft/sleeve is damaged at the elastomer location.
● There is damage in the O-Ring groove. Maybe the O-ring was removed with a sharp metal
instrument and this has caused a scratch in the O-ring groove.
● There is a leak path between the carbon and the holder.
● Leaking at the cartridge sleeve location.
● Leaking between the sleeve and the shaft.
● Leaking between the gland and the stuffing box.
● Leaking between the stationary face and the seal gland.
● Seal faces are stuck open.
● The elastomer has swollen up due to chemical attack by either the product, the flush, what ever is
being used to clean the lines, or by the lubricant that was put on the elastomer to help the
installation. This attack usually takes place within one week of exposure to the non compatible
lubricating fluid.

THE STUFFING BOX AREA IS GETTING HOT.

Heat is being generated at the seal faces. Unbalanced seals generate more heat than balanced seals.

● The carbon is being insulated by an elastomer and cannot dissipate the heat.
● High friction face materials. Two hard faces usually generate more heat than carbon vs. a hard
face.
 ● The faces are running dry.
● The stuffing box has not been vented. This is especially important in vertical applications.
● You do not have a barrier fluid between the seals in a dual seal application.
● You have lost an environmental control.
● Flushing.
● Quenching.
● The cooling jacket is clogged or not functioning for some reason.
● The discharge or suction recirculation line is clogged.
● The barrier fluid has stopped circulating in a dual seal application or you are using oil as a barrier
fluid. Oil has a low specific heat and poor conductivity, making it a poor choice as a heat transfer
medium. If you must use oil as the barrier fluid you may have to forsake convection and go to a
forced circulation system or a pumping ring.
● An A.P.I. type gland has been piped incorrectly
● Poor conductivity of the hard face. Silicone carbide is better than 99.5 ceramic.
● There is too much spring load on the seal faces:
● A wrong installation measurement.
● The impeller was adjusted after the seal was installed. Any pump impeller that adjusts against the
back plate has this problem. Durco pumps are a good example.
● Excessive axial movement of the shaft.
● Thermal expansion

A seal component is rubbing the inside diameter of the stuffing box, or against a product that has
attached its self to the inside of the stuffing box.

● The seal is not concentric with the shaft.

● The shaft is out of balance.
● The shaft is bent.

The sleeve, shaft or rotating seal is hitting a stationary component.

● A protruding gasket or fitting.

● A bushing in the bottom of the stuffing box.

A foreign object is loose in the stuffing box.

A suction recirculation line was used to lower stuffing box pressure. The high velocity recirculation is
heating up the return line.

NOISE IN THE STUFFING BOX.

● The product is cavitating in the pump. There are five types of cavitation:
❍ Vaporization.

❍ Internal recirculation

❍ The Vane Passing Syndrome

❍ Turbulence

❍ Air ingestion
 ● A component is rubbing.
● The bearings are bad.
● The seal has come loose from the shaft.
● A foreign object has entered into the stuffing box.
● The sleeve is hitting an A.P.I. disaster bushing.
● The seal faces are running dry. They will make a whistling noise.
● You have hit a critical speed.
● Coupling misalignment.
● The noise is coming from the motor or some near by equipment.
● "Slip stick" at the seal faces.

AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT FAILURE.

The convection tank

● It is running backwards.
● The seal faces are off center causing a pumping action across the faces.
● The inlet and outlet ports are not drilled properly.
● A cartridge double seal has not been centered properly
● The pressure or level in the tank changes.
● One of the seals is leaking. The pressure or level change should tell you which one.
● Temperature change.
● No air pocket in the tank.
● Not convecting. It was installed incorrectly. The minimum and maximum dimensions were
ignored.

Flow meter not indicating.

● Meter broke.
● Line clogged.
● The flow is not high enough.
● The gage graduations are too large.

No flow through the quench and drain connections.

● You are piped to the wrong connection. Most glands that have been drilled for a quench
connection, have a flush connection also.
● Valve not open
● Line clogged

Loss of jacket cooling. The incoming and out going lines are at the same temperature.

● A layer of calcium has built up on the inside of the cooling jacket.

● A discharge recirculation line is connected to the stuffing box (it may be hidden inside the
insulation).
● Some one has shut off the cooling water or steam.
VIBRATION.

● Cavitation. Remember there are five types.

● The pump is operating off of its best efficiency point.
● Unbalanced impeller or rotating assembly. Look for wear or product is attached.
● Bent shaft.
● Bad bearings.
● Misalignment between the pump and driver.
● Pipe strain. Maybe you need a center line design pump
● Rotating component hitting a stationary component.
● The pump is running at a critical speed
● Harmonic vibration induced by nearby equipment.
● Loose hold down bolts.
● Pipe hangers are spaced improperly.
● The mass of the pump base is not five times the mass of the pump, and motor.
● The base is too narrow. Imaginary lines extended downward thirty degrees to either side of a
vertical through the pump shaft must pass through the bottom of the foundation, not the sides.
● Seal "slip stick" that can occur when pumping non lubricants such as hot water and most solvents.

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SUBJECT : Why Mechanical Seals fail 2-2

A mechanical seal can either wear out or fail. To determine which your seals are doing, look at the
wearable face. In most instances this will be the face manufactured from some grade of carbon/ graphite.

Since the seal face is the only sacrificial part of the mechanical seal, a worn out seal is identified as one
that has no carbon nose piece left at the time it started to leak. A failed seal is identified by the fact that
it has substantial carbon remaining at the time it started to leak.

The above illustrations show the difference between a worn out and a new mechanical seal.

Most consumers experience seal failure rates in excess of 85%, and for the most part these seal failures
are easily correctable. Seal failures fall into only two broad categories, either the seal faces opened, or
one of the seal components was damaged by contact, heat or corrosion. Whenever we try to troubleshoot
any mechanical seal it is wise to remember that only three things are visible:

● Evidence of rubbing.
● Evidence of damage including corrosion, physical damage, or discoloration of one of the seal
component materials. Most mechanical seals are constructed of three materials:
❍ Metal parts

❍ A face combination

❍ Some rubber like parts (called elastomers)

● The product is attaching to a sliding component causing sticking, or coating on the face causing
face separation.

Here are some reasons why a mechanical seal face would open:

The dynamic elastomer is not free to slide or move on the rotating shaft or sleeve.

● The shaft is oversize. A tolerance of + 0.000 - 0.002 inches (+ 0,00 - 0,05 mm) would be typical.
● The shaft finish is too rough. Most seal companies want at least a 32 R.M.S. (0,8 micro meters)
surface finish in the area of the dynamic (sliding) elastomer.
● The fluid we are pumping is causing the elastomer to stick to the shaft. The dynamic O-ring can
generate a lot of heat if there is misalignment between the shaft and the stuffing box face. The
rapid movement of the elastomer will generate localized heat causing the following to occur at a
faster rate:
 ❍ The product is solidifying (glue and paint will do this)
❍ It is crystallizing (sugar syrup and caustic are good examples)

❍ It is building a coating on the shaft (petroleum products will form varnish or coke at

elevated temperatures, or hard water will form a layer of calcium. etc.)

● Dirt or solids are restricting the elastomer from moving.
● Chemicals added to treat water or impurities in the water can collect on the seal sliding surfaces
● A chemical has attacked the elastomer causing it to swell up and restrict the movement of the
seal. In some instances a swollen elastomer has been known to open seal faces while the pump
was not running in a standby mode.
● The shaft or sleeve has been hardened and the set screws have slipped. Many sleeves were hard
coated to resist packing wear. Stock rooms are full of these sleeves.
● The seal has lost its compression.
❍ It was installed with the wrong compression.

❍ The impeller was adjusted after the seal was attached to the shaft. This is a very common

problem with A.N.S.I. or other back pull out pumps.

❍ A temperature change has altered the location of the seal. Remember that each inch of

stainless steel shaft will grow one thousandth of an inch for each one hundred degree
Fahrenheit rise in temperature or 0.001"/1"/100°F . Metric grows 0,001 mm/1 mm of shaft
for each 50°C rise in temperature.
❍ The open impeller was adjusted to compensate for normal wear. Typical pump

specifications allow the impeller and the casing each to wear as much as 0.125 inch (3
mm) and still be adjusted back to the correct pump efficiency. This is important when you
realize that the average mechanical seal has a carbon nose that extends only 0.125 inch (3
mm).
● The springs, spring or bellows are not operating properly.
❍ A single spring has been installed backwards allowing the faces to stay in contact while

the shaft or sleeve rotates within the dynamic elastomer or end fitting.
❍ Excessive misalignment is causing rapid flexing of the spring or bellows causing them to

fatigue.
❍ The drive lugs have failed and the multiple springs are twisted in their holder.

❍ The product has clogged the springs.

❍ Many times the outside springs of a dual seal have been painted either at the pump

company or as part of a normal maintenance routine.

Something is restricting the free movement of the seal.

● The product is viscous. Remember that some products become more viscous with agitation.
These products are called dilatants (cream becomes butter with agitation)
● A recirculation line from the discharge of the pump is aimed at the seal and interfering with its
movement.
● A foreign object is in the stuffing box.
● A protruding gasket is touching the movable part of the seal

The shaft is being displaced causing the seal to hit something as it rotates or to cause the rotating face to
run off of the stationary face.
 ● The pump is operating off of its best efficiency point (B.E.P.) causing the shaft to bend.
● The rotating assembly is out of dynamic balance.
● The shaft is bent.
● There is misalignment between the motor and the pump.
● Pipe Strain is twisting the pump stuffing box.
● Heat causes expansion and that always opens the possibility for rubbing or wear.
● Cavitation, slip stick, harmonic vibration, bad bearings or some other form of vibration is causing
excessive movement of the shaft.
● The shaft sleeve is not concentric with the shaft causing it to run "off center".
● The pump designed with sleeve or babbitted bearings and shaft movement is excessive.

The seal face is being distorted by either temperature or pressure.

The product is vaporizing between the seal faces causing the faces to blow apart.

● If boiler feed water vaporizes it leaves behind all of the chemicals that were added to the water to
prevent hardness, adjust PH, soften boiler scale etc....
● In cryogenic (cold) applications the vaporizing fluid can freeze any lubricant that might have
been placed on the seal faces. This frozen lubricant can damage the carbon/ graphite seal face.

An environmental control has failed. There are many types used with Mechanical Seals, here are a few
of the common environmental controls:

● Flushing is used for cooling and to wash away solids.

● Quenching is used for temperature control and vapor removal.
● Barrier fluids are used to keep air away from a fluid and to provide temperature control.
● Cooling/ heating jackets are used to keep products in a liquid state and at the proper temperature.
● A suction recirculation line is installed from the bottom of the stuffing box to the suction side of
the pump. This is done to remove stuffing box solids in the pumping fluid and to provide cooling
to the seal components.
● A line can be installed from the discharge of the pump to the stuffing box to increase stuffing box
pressure whenever you pump a fluid close to its vapor point. It is also wise to install a carbon
restriction bushing in the bottom of the stuffing box with a clearance of approximately 0.005" to
0.007" (0,13 mm to 0,018 mm) on the inside diameter.
● Dual seals can be installed to prevent a pressure drop across the inside seal face and to control the
temperature at the seal face.

Unbalanced seals and some split seals can open their lapped faces in vacuum applications.

● Those pumps that run under vacuum include: condensate pumps, heater drain pumps, pumps that
lift liquid and any pump that takes its suction from a condenser or evaporator. Remember to use
O-ring elastomers in vacuum applications as this shape elastomer will seal either vacuum or
pressure.
● The product has built up on one of the seal faces causing the faces to separate. This is a common
problem with petroleum products or any product that can build a film on a surface. Since this
coating is not dense enough to provide good sealing, it can cause the faces to leak at shutdown.
When a seal face opens it allows solids to penetrate between the lapped surfaces. The solids imbed
themselves into the softer carbon/graphite face causing it to act like a grinding wheel. This grinding
action will cause severe wear in the hard face. It should be noted that seal face opening accounts for the
largest majority of mechanical seal failures.

The second major cause of seal failure is when one of the seal components is attacked by the sealing
fluid or a chemical being used to clean or flush the lines. Chemical attack is easy to see:

● The Carbon will appear to have a sponge like appearance

● Plated materials will have their hard coating peel off when the base material is attacked. This
same thing happens when you allow rust to penetrate behind automobile paint and you then
notice that the paint is peeling off in sheets.
● The elastomer will usually swell up and get soft. When an elastomer shrinks and gets hard it is
almost always evidence of excessive heat. Prior to failure caused by excessive heat, most
elastomers will take a compression set ( the round O-Ring becomes square)
● Metal components will develop pits and an overall dull appearance. The color of the metal is
often an indication of the amount of heat it was subjected to:

FAHRENHEIT COLOR OF THE METAL CENTIGRADE

700 - 800 Straw Yellow 370 - 425
900 - 1000 Brown 480 - 540
1100 - 1200 Blue 600 -650
> 1200 Black > 650

Here are a few things to consider when you suspect corrosion is the problem :

The corrosion rate of almost all chemicals doubles with each 18 degree Fahrenheit (10 C.) rise in
temperature.

● Be sure to vent vertical pumps. Air trapped in the stuffing box is a good insulator.
● See if the operator is running the pump with a restricted discharge. In addition to deflecting the
shaft it can cause a severe heat rise in the pump. The control valve may be stuck in the throttled
position.
● Try to use a recirculating line from the bottom of the stuffing box to the suction side of the pump.
This is practical in almost any application other than when we are pumping a product close to its
vapor point and there would be a danger of vaporizing the product in the stuffing box.
● When ever possible bore out the packing stuffing box or install a large seal chamber in place of
the packing stuffing box. This extra room will allow centrifugal force to centrifuge and clean the
fluid in the seal chamber as well as provide extra cooling in the seal area.
● It is normal to dead end the fluid in the stuffing box when a cooling or heating jacket is being
used. If a recirculation line is installed in the stuffing box along with the cooling jacket, the jacket
will become inoperative because the circulating hot fluid will not be in the stuffing box long
enough to be cooled by the jacket.
 ● Be sure to check that the cooling jacket is functioning. A layer of calcium inside the jacket, can
just about stop heat transfer. If the water is too hard in your area, consider condensate as an
alternative cooling fluid.
● More than one stuffing box jacket has frozen in cold weather, be sure to use non freezing cooling
fluids at lower temperatures
● If a convection tank is being used with dual seals make sure it is operating. Every design has
limits, make sure you are not exceeding them. Also check that the fluid is flowing from the top of
the stuffing box to the convection tank and returning to the bottom of the stuffing box. I have
seen many of these applications running backwards.
● Use only balanced seals. They generate less heat than unbalanced seals.
● If there is a bypass line installed from the discharge piping to the suction side of the pump, it may
be heating up the incoming fluid.
● Check to see if the cooling jacket has been isolated and drained. This often occurs when a metal
bellows seal is used in hot oil applications. An empty cooling jacket will act as an insulation to
the stuffing box fluid.
● Remember that the cooling jacket is also there to cool down the shaft and protect the bearings.
Do not disconnect it.

When you look for corrosion be sure to check out any cleaners or solvents that are used to flush out the
system or clean the lines. Many grades of Viton® can be attacked by cleaning the lines with steam or
caustic. It is important to identify all of the materials used in the seal components.

● Carbon fillers can be attacked by heat and chemicals

● Plated materials can crack due to differential expansion.
● Stainless Steel springs can break due to Chloride Stress Corrosion.
● Hardened set screws can corrode and vibrate loose.
● Some elastomers can be attacked by steam. Be careful of using petroleum grease on elastomers as
some compounds can be attacked by any petroleum product.

Some hard coatings have very little flexibility and will crack with a small differential temperature. Be
careful of tungsten carbide with a cobalt binder; nickel binder would be a much better choice.

®DuPont Dow elastomer

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SUBJECT: Why do not good seals wear out? 9-9

We know that a mechanical seal is supposed to run until the carbon wears down, but our experience
shows us this never happens with the original equipment seal that came installed in the pump. We buy
an expensive new mechanical seal and that one doesn't wear out either. What is wrong? Was the new
seal a waste of money?

Not really. You are doing something that appears logical, you are trying to solve the seal problem by
purchasing a different seal, but that is like trying to get a good paint job on an automobile by buying a
good brand of paint. If you wanted to get a good paint job on an automobile you would have to do four
things and purchasing a good brand of paint is only one of them.

Here are the things you would have to do in no particular order:

● Prepare the body. This is the most costly part involving metal repair, rust removal, sanding,
masking etc.
● Buy a good brand of paint. All paint is not the same, and like anything good it will cost more
money than many other brands.
● Apply the paint correctly. This means exactly the right amount of air pressure and a technique
that guarantees no drips or runs. It also means a super clean paint room and frequent sanding
between primer and finish coats. Needless to say the paint job can be ruined in this step.
● Take care of the paint after it has been applied. This means that you have to keep the car washed
and waxed and garaged in bad weather. It also means frequent touch ups and paying attention to
small details.

If you did those four things correctly, how long can a paint job last on an automobile? Obviously for
years. Step outside and watch the cars go by and you will see evidence of people that are not doing those
four things. In fact it is so rare that when we see an older car that looks good, we stare at it.

Getting good seal life involves four steps also. They should be obvious, but let's look at them any way.:

● Prepare the pump for the seal, that's the body work
● Purchase a good seal, the good paint.
● Install the seal correctly, apply the paint correctly
● Apply the correct environmental control if necessary (and it probably is),washing and waxing.

We will look at each of these subjects in detail and hopefully begin to increase the life of our mechanical
seals to the point where most of them wear out. We will be discussing seals for centrifugal pumps in this
paper, but the information applies to just about any kind of rotating equipment including mixers and
agitators.

Prepare the pump for the seal

● Do an alignment between the pump and driver. Use a laser aligner. A "C or D" frame adapter is
 an even better choice.
● Dynamically balance the rotating assembly. You can use most vibration analysis equipment to do
this. Check with your supplier if you do not have the program.
● Make sure the shaft is not bent. Rotate it between centers.
● Avoid shaft sleeves. A solid shaft is less likely to deflect and is much better for a mechanical seal.
● Reduce pipe strain where ever possible.
● Use a "center line" design pump if the product temperature is greater than 200°F (100°C). This
will reduce some pipe strain problems at the pump.
● Use pumps with a low ratio. This is extremely important with intermittent service pumps.
● Use an oversize stuffing box. Avoid tapered designs. Give the seal lots of room.
● Try to get the stuffing box face as square to the shaft as possible. There are facing tools available
to do this.
● Reduce vibration by any techniques you know or can learn.
● Do not let the pump cavitate. The seal faces will bounce open and possibly become damaged.
● Water hammer can occur if power is lost to the pump while it is running. Maybe you can take
some preventative action to avoid water hammer problems.
● Be sure the mass of the pump/motor pedestal is at least five times the mass of the hardware
sitting on it.
● Be sure there are ten diameters of pipe between the pump suction and the first elbow.
● Be sure the base plate is level and grouted in place.
● Keep the open impeller adjusted to lessen vibration and internal recirculation problems.
● Make sure the bearings have the proper amount of lubrication and that water and solids are not
penetrating into the bearing cavity. Replace the grease or lip seals with labyrinth or face seals.
● Avoid discharge recirculation lines connected to the stuffing box. In most instances suction
recirculation will be better.
● If the pump has wear rings, check their clearance.
● Make sure the wetted parts of the pump are manufactured from corrosion resistant materials.
Cleaners and solvents in the lines sometimes cause problems that the designer never anticipated.
● Seal off any air that might be leaking into the suction side of the pump and remove any that
might be trapped in the volute.

Purchase a good seal

● Use hydraulically balanced designs that seal both pressure and vacuum.
● If you are going to use an elastomer in the seal try to use an o-ring. They are the best shape for
lots of reasons, but don't let any one spring load the o-ring or it will not flex or roll as it should.
● Use non fretting seal designs. Shaft fretting is a major cause of premature seal failure.
● Stationary seals (the springs do not rotate with the shaft) are better than rotating seals (the springs
rotate) for sealing fugitive emissions and any other fluids.
● If the seal has small springs keep them out of the fluid or they will clog easily. There are plenty
of seal designs that have this non-clogging feature.
● A wide hard face is excellent for the radial movement we see in mixer applications and those
seals that are physically positioned a long way from the bearings.
● You will need some sort of vibration damping for high temperature metal bellows seals. They
lack the elastomer that normally performs that function.
● Use designs that keep the sealing fluid at the seal outside diameter, or centrifugal force will throw
solids into the lapped faces and restrict their movement when the carbon wears.
 ● Use unfilled carbons for the seal faces. They are the best kinds and the cost is not excessive.
● Be sure you can identify all of the seal materials. It is impossible to troubleshoot a "mystery
material". Do not let the supplier tell you that his material is proprietary. If that is his attitude find
another supplier or manufacturer, otherwise you deserve all of the problems you are going to
have.
● Try to keep elastomers away from the seal face. The elastomer is the one part of the seal that is
the most sensitive to heat, and the temperature is hottest at the faces.
● Any dangerous or expensive product should be sealed with dual seals. Be sure the hydraulic
balance is in both directions or you are gambling that one of the faces might open in a pressure
reversal or surge.
● If the design has a carbon pressed into a metal holder, be sure the carbon was pressed and not
"shrunk in". Pressed carbon will shear to conform to irregularities in the metal holder&emdash;
helping to keep the lapped faces flat.

Install the seal correctly

● Cartridge seals are the only design that makes sense if you want to make impeller adjustments
and they are a lot easier to install because you do not need a print, or take any measurements to
get the correct face load.
● Cartridge dual seals should have a pumping ring built in. Use buffer fluid (lower pressure)
between the seals when ever possible to avoid product dilution problems. Avoid any type of oil
as a buffer fluid because of oil's low specific heat and poor conductivity.
● Keep the seal as close to the bearings as possible. There is usually room to move the seal out of
the stuffing box and then use the stuffing box area for a support bushing to help stabilize the
rotating shaft. Depending upon the application you will have to decide if this support bushing has
to be retained axially.
● Split seals make sense in just about any application that does not require dual seals or fugitive
emission sealing (leakage measured in parts per million)
● Split seals are the only design to use on double ended pumps or otherwise you will have to
replace both seals when only one seal has failed. They also allow you to change seals without
having to do a re-alignment with the pump driver.
● Do not lubricate seal faces at installation. Keep solids off the lapped faces. If there is a protective
coating on the seal faces be sure to remove it prior to installation
● Rubber bellows seals require a special lubricant that will cause the bellows to stick to the shaft. It
is normally a petroleum based fluid, but you can check with your supplier to be sure.
● Rubber bellows seals require a shaft finish of no better than 40 RMS, or the rubber will have
difficulty sticking to the shaft.
● In a vertical application, be sure to vent the stuffing box at the seal faces. You may have to install
this vent because the pump manufacturer never provided it. Many cartridge seals have a vent
built in that you can connect to the pump suction or some other low pressure point in the system.

Take care of the seal

● The seal would prefer to be sealing a cool, clean, lubricating liquid. We seldom have one of those
to seal so maybe you can apply an environmental control in the stuffing box area to change your
product into a cool, clean, lubricating liquid:
 ● If you are using a jacketed stuffing box, be sure the jacket is clean. Condensate or steam are the
best fluids to circulate through the jacket. Install a carbon bushing in the end of the stuffing box
to act as a thermal barrier that will help to stabilize the stuffing box temperature.
● Flushing is the ultimate environmental control. It causes product dilution, but if you are using the
correct seal you won't need much flush. Four or five gallons per hour (notice I said hour not
minute) should be enough for that type of seal.
● Keep the fluid moving in the stuffing box to prevent a build up of heat.
● Suction recirculation will remove solids that are heavier than the product you are sealing. Since
that is the most common slurry condition, use suction recirculation as your standard. Learn where
not to use it also.
● Discharge recirculation will allow you to raise the pressure in the stuffing box to prevent a fluid
from vaporizing between the lapped faces. Try not to aim the recirculation line at the lapped
faces, it could injure them. If you are using a metal bellows the recirculation line can act as a
sand blaster and cut the thin bellows plates.
● If the product is too hot, cool the stuffing box area, There are lots of ways to do this. Check other
sections of the Technical Series for ideas.
● It is important to remember that these environmental controls are often more important when the
pump is stopped because soak temperatures and shut down cooling can change the stuffing box
temperature drastically, causing the product to change state.
● Dangerous products will need an A.P.I. type gland if you elect not to use dual seals. The disaster
bushing that is part of the A.P.I. configuration should protect the seal from physical damage if
you should lose a bearing when the pump is running.
● Do not put too much steam or water through the quench connection or it will get into the bearing
case. Leakage out the drain connection is often perceived as a seal failure by operators. Be sure
they know the difference.
● Be sure the connections are made correctly. It is easy to mix up the four ports and get the flush or
recirculation line into the quench port.

Does any one ever do all of these four things? Unfortunately not. If we did eighty five or ninety percent
of our seals would be wearing out rather than the ten or fifteen percent that wear out now. The
prematurely failed seal with plenty of carbon face left continues to be the rule.

The most common excuse we hear to explain our lack of good seal life is that there is never time to do it
right, followed by the cliché, "but there is always time to fix it". Most of us do one or two of the
necessary steps and experience an increase in our seal life. There is nothing wrong with an increase in
seal life, but that is a long way from wearing out seals.

Think about it for a minute. If the seal is lasting a year, how big can the problem be? The temperature
cannot be too high or the pressure too severe. If that were true it wouldn't take a year to fail the seal. The
product can't be too dirty for the same reason.

We often find the problem is as simple as a seal design that is fretting the shaft, causing a leak path
through the damaged sleeve or shaft. Other times we find that the flush that is used to clean the lines
once a year is the culprit, and no one is changing the seal materials to reflect this threat to the seal
components.
Link to Mc Nally home page
 CHARTS AND GRAPHS YOU WILL NEED

● ANSI pump dimensions, inch sizes

● ANSI pump dimensions, metric sizes
● Bearing fit tolerances
● C/R lip seal life chart
● Calculating the friction loss in inch size fittings and valves
❍ Fittings, inch size

❍ Valves, inch size

● Calculating the friction loss in inch size piping

❍ 1.250" and 1.500" pipe

❍ 2.000" and 2.500" pip

❍ 3" pipe

❍ 6" pipe

● Calculating the friction loss in metric pipe and fittings

● Carbon physicals
● Carcinogens list
● Classifying chemicals for sealing
● Cross section of a volute pump showing shaft deflection
● English to metric conversion tables 8-5
● Galvanic series of metals
● Glossary of seal and pump terms
● Mechanical seal hard face materials
● NPSH reducton chart
● O-ring compatibility guide
● OSHA 1910 regulation
● Pump types
❍ The A.N.S.I. pump

❍ The close coupled pump

❍ The closed impeller, end suction, centrifugal pump

● Pump term relationships

● Seal face flatness readings
● Vapor Pressure Charts
❍ Vapor pressure chart -60 to 240°F.

❍ Vapor Pressure chart -180 F. to 60 F.

● Viscosity corrections for centrifugal pumps

● Water properties
Link to the Mc Nally home page
ANSI PUMP DIMENSIONS INCH SIZE
 The Mc Nally Institute
1637 Sand Key Estates Ct. Clearwater, Fl 33767

Link to the Mc Nally home page

ANSI PUMP DIMENSIONS METRIC SIZES
 The Mc Nally Institute
1637 Sand Key Estates Ct. Clearwater, Fl 33767

Link to the Mc Nally home page

 The Mc Nally Institute
1637 Sand Key Estates Ct. Clearwater, Fl 33767

Link to Mc Nally home page

 The Mc Nally Institute
1637 Sand Key Estates Ct. Clearwater, Fl 33767
Link to the Mc Nally home page
The Mc Nally Institute
 1637 Sand Key Estates Ct. Clearwater, Fl 33767

Link to the Mc Nally home page

 TThe Mc Nally Institute
1637 Sand Key Estates Ct. Clearwater, Fl 33767

Link to the Mc Nally home page

 The Mc Nally Institute
1637 Sand Key Estates Ct. Clearwater, Fl 33767
Link to the Mc Nally home page
 The Mc Nally Institute
1637 Sand Key Estates Ct. Clearwater, Fl 33767
Link to the Mc Nally home page
 The Mc Nally Institute
1637 Sand Key Estates Ct. Clearwater, Fl 33767

Link to the Mc Nally home page

 CALCULATING THE FRICTION LOSS IN METRIC SIZE PIPING
SOME NOTES FOR THE METRIC PIPE FRICTION CHART SHOWN BELOW

● The chart is calculated for fresh water at 15°C.

● Use actual bores rather than nominal pipe size.
● For stainless steel pipe multiply the numbers by 1.1.
● For steel pipe multiply the numbers by 1.3
● For cast iron pipe multiply the numbers by 1.7
● The losses are calculated for a fluid viscosity similar to fresh water
THE FOLLOWING CHART WILL LET YOU CALCULATE THE LOSES
THROUGH VARIOUS TYPE VALVES AND FITTINGS.
 The Mc Nally Institute
1637 Sand Key Estates Ct. Clearwater, Fl 33767

Link to Mc Nally home page

 PURE CARBON COMPANY

CARBON GRADE PHYSICALS

The following chart will assist you in selecting the correct grade of carbon/graphite for your mechanical
seal. With the exception of sealing cryogenics and dry running applications, Pure Carbon company's
grade 658RC will probably be your first choice
 The Mc Nally Institute
1637 Sand Key Estates Ct. Clearwater, Fl 33767

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 A LIST OF KNOWN CARCINOGENS
Known carcinogens are defined as "those substances for which the evidence from human studies
indicates that there is a casual relationship between the exposure to the substance and human cancer."

In the following list I have noted some commercial uses for each of the carcinogens shown. As you
would expect, this is a developing subject.

Be sure to use dual seals any time you have to pump these chemicals.

4-Aminobiphenyl...... No commercial use in the United States. Was used as a rubber antioxidant and as a
reagent for detecting sulfates.

Analgesic mixtures containing Phenacetin...... Prescription and over the counter drugs.

Arsenic and certain Arsenic compounds...... Pesticides, wood preservatives, alloying additive, glass and
nonferrous alloys.

Asbestos...... Insulation, gasketing, packing, coatings, plastics, textiles, friction materials.

Azathioprine...... Medical use.

Benzene ... Solvent, gasoline additive.

Benzidine ..... Dyes in textile and paper

Bis(chloromethyl)ether and technical grade Chloromethyl Methyl Ether ..... Synthesis of plastic and ion
exchanger resins

1,4-Butanediol Dimethylsulfonate (Myleran) ..... Medical use.

Chlorambucil ..... Medical use.0Chromium and certain Chromium compounds ..... Stainless steel,
pigment, medical, plating, wood treatment, paint.

Conjugated Estrogens ..... Medical uses.

Cyclophosphamide ..... Medical uses.

Diethylstilbestrol ..... Medical uses.

Melphalan ..... Medical uses.

Methoxsalen with Ultra-violet A Therapy (PUVA) ..... Medical uses.

Mustard Gas ..... Biological studies, weapons.

2-Naphthylamine ..... Dyes, rubber, used only for research purposes.

Thorium Dioxide ..... Nuclear, flame spraying, welding electrodes, high temperature ceramics.

Vinyl Chloride ..... Plastics, wrapping film, phonograph records, credit cards, floor tiles.

In addition to the above chemicals there are substances which may reasonably be anticipated to be
carcinogens. Defined as "those for which there is a limited evidence of carcinogenicity in humans or
sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals".

2-Acetylaminofluorene ..... Medical uses.

Acrylonitrile ..... Synthetic fibers resins, plastics, elastomers .

Adriamycin ..... Medical uses.

Aflatoxins ..... Research.

2-Aminoanthraquinone ..... Dyes, paints plastics, rubber, printing inks.

o-Aminoazotoluene ..... Pigments, coloring oils, wax polishes.

1-Amino-2-methyllanthraquinine ..... Dye for synthetic fibers as well as animal furs.

Amitrole ..... Herbicide, now limited to non-crop applications.

o-Anisidine Hydrochloride ..... Dyes.

Benzotrichloride ..... Plastics, dyes and pigments.

Beryllium and certain Beryllium compounds ..... Alloys for aerospace applications, ceramic additive to
glass and plastic.

Bischloroethyl Nitrousourea ..... Medical uses

1,3-Butadiene ..... Synthetic rubber, tires, nylon carpet backing, latex adhesives.

Cadmium and certain Cadmium compounds ..... Coating and plating.

Carbon Tetrachloride ..... Production of Freon 11 & 12, degreasing, plastic and resin production.

Chlorendic Acid ... Flame retardant, foams.

Chlorinated Parraffins (C12, 60% Chlorine) ..... Lubricant additive, flame retardant, rubber production

1-(2-Chloroethy)-3-cyclohexyl-1-nitrosourea (CCNU) ... Medical uses.

Chloroform ..... Production of fluorocarbon, refrigerant, heat transfer medium in fire extinguishers.

3-Chloro-2-methylpropene ..... Fumigant, textile additive, plastics.

4-Chloro-o-phenylenediamine ..... Hair dye, photographic chemicals.

C.I. Basic Red 9 Monohydrochloride ..... Dye for textiles, leather printing inks, china clay.

p-Cresidine ..... Dyes.

Cupferron ..... A reagent to separate tin from zinc and copper and iron from other metals.

Dacarbazine ... Medical uses.

DDT ..... Insecticide. In the US. it used only under Public Health Service supervision.

2,4-Diaminoanisole Sulfate ..... Fur, acrylic fiber, polyester, wool , cotton and hair dye.

2,4Diaminotoluene ..... Polyurethane, dye.

1,2-Dibromo-3-ch loropropane ..... Soil fumigant.

1,2-Dibromoethane (EDB) ..... Gasoline antiknock additive, pesticide.

1,4-Dichlorobenzene ..... Space deodorant (toilets, rooms) germicide.

3,3'-Dichlorobenzidine and 3,3'-Dichlorobenzidine Dithydrochloride ..... Pigments.

1,2-Dichlorethane ..... Component of leaded fuel, production of vinyl chloride.

Dichloromethane (Methylene Chloride) ..... Solvent in paint removers, manufacture of vitamins,

degreasing agent.

1,3-Dichloropropene (Technical Grade) ..... Pesticides.

Diepoxybutane ..... Curing agent for polymers.

Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate ..... Used to make poly vinyl chloride.

Diethyl Sulfate ..... Surfactants, dyes, agricultural chemicals.

Diglycidyl Resorcinol Ether ..... Liquid epoxy resin.

3,3'-Dimethoxybenzidine ..... Production of azo dyes.

4-Dimethylaminoazobenzene ..... To color polishes and other wax products.

3,3'-Dimethylbenzidine ..... Dye, chlorine test kits.

Dimethylcarbamoyl Chloride ..... Dyes, pesticide.

1,1-Dimethylhydrazine ..... Propellant for liquid fuel rockets.

Dimethyl Sulfate ..... Used to manufacture other chemicals.

Dimethylvinyl Chloride ..... Organic synthesis.

1,4-Dioxane ..... Stabilizer in chlorinated solvents.

Direct Black 38 ..... Dye.

Direct Blue 6 ..... Dye.

Epichlorohydrin ..... Epoxy resins.

Estrogens (Not Conjugated): Estradiol-17ß ..... Medical uses.

Estrogens (Not Conjugated): Estrone ..... Medical uses.

Estrogens (Not Conjugated): Ethinylestradiol ..... Medical uses.

Estrogens (Not Conjugated): Mestranol ..... Medical uses.

Ethyl Acrylate ..... Paper coatings, emulsion based polymers.

Ethylene Oxide ..... Manufacture of ethylene glycol and polyester.

Ethylene Thiourea .... Rubber, O-rings, electroplating.

Formaldehyde (Gas) ..... Adhesives, chemical production, Medical uses.

Hexachlorobenzene ..... Pesticide.

Hexamethylphossphoramide ..... Solvent for polymers, de-icing additive for jet fuels.

Hydrazine and Hydrazine Sulfate ..... Agricultural chemicals, rocket fuel, oxygen scavenger in boiler
feed water.

Hydrazobenzene ..... Dye, additive to motor oil.

Iron Dextran Complex ..... Medical uses.

Kepone® (Chlordecone) ..... Insecticide, no longer used in the US.

Lead Acetate and Lead Phosphate ..... Drier in paints and varnish, colorant in hair dyes.

Lindane and other Hexachlorocyclohexane Isomers ..... Insecticidal treatment for wood, grain and live
stock.

2-Methylaziridine (Proplyleneimine) ..... Paper, textile, rubber.

4,4'-Methylenebis(2-chloroaniline) (MBOCA) ..... Curing agent.

4,4'-Methylenebis(N,N-dimethyl)benzenamine ..... Dye.

4,4'-Methylenedianiline and its Dihydrochloride ..... Manufacture of polyisocynates and isocyanates.

Metronidazole ..... Medical uses.

Michler's Ketone ..... Dyes and pigments.

Mirex ..... Pesticide, fire retardant.

Nickel and certain Nickel compounds ..... Stainless and alloy steel.

Nitrilotriacetic Acid ..... Detergent, water treatment.

5-Nitro-o-Anisidine ..... Dye.

Nitofen ..... No present commercial use. Was a herbicide.

Nitrogen Mustard Hydrochloride ..... Medical uses.

2-Nitropropane ..... Solvent, inks, paints polymers.

N-Nitrosodi-n-butylamine ..... Medical uses.

N-Nitrosodiethanolamine ..... No commercial use.

N-Nitrosodiethylamine ..... Stabilizer in plastics, gasoline and lubricant additive.

N-Nitrosodimethylamine ..... Liquid rocket fuel, solvent.

p-Nitrosodiphenylamine ..... Rubber, dye.

N-Nitrosodi-n-propylamine ..... No commercial use. Used in cancer research.

N-Nitroso-N-ethylurea ..... No commercial use.

N-Nitroso-N-methylurea ..... Medical uses

N-Nitrosomethylvinylamine ..... Research chemical.

N-Nitrosomorpholine ..... No commercial use.

N-Nitrosonornicotine ..... Research chemical.

N-Nitrosopiperidine ..... Epoxy resin.

N-Nitrosopyrrolidine ..... No commercial use.

N-Nitrososarcosine .... No commercial use

Norethisterone ..... Medical uses

4,4'-Oxydianiline ..... Production of polyimide and poly(ester)mide resins.

Oxymetholone ..... Medical uses.

Phenacetin ..... Medical uses.

PhenazopyridineHydrochloride .. .. Medical uses.

Phenoxybenzamine Hydrochloride ..... Medical uses.

Phenytoin ..... Medical uses.

Polybrominated Biphenyls ..... Flame retardant, plastics.

Polychlorinated Biphenyls .... Heat transfer and hydraulic fluids.

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbones, 15 listings .... Coal tar, roofing, creosote, asphalt

● Benza(a)anthracene
● Benzo(b)fluoranthene
● Benzo(j)fluoranthene
● Benzo(k)fluoranthene
● Benzo(a)pyrene
● Dibenz(a,h)acridine
● Dibenz(a,j)acridine
● Dibenz(a,h)anthracene
● 7H-Dibenzo(c,g)carbazole
● Dibenzo(a,e)pyrene
● Dibenzo(a,h)pyrene
● Dibenzo(a,l)pyrene
● Indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene
● 5-Methylchrysene

Procarbazine Hydrochloride ..... Medical uses.

Progesterone ..... Medical uses.

1,3-Propane Sultone ..... Detergents lathering agents.

Propiolactone ..... Medical uses.

Propylene Oxide ..... Coatings and adhesives.

Propylthiouracil ..... Medical uses.

Reserpine ..... Medical uses.

Saccharin ..... Sweetening agent.

Safrole ..... Flavoring agent.

Selenium Sulfide ..... Shampoos.

Streptozotocin ..... Medical uses.

Sulfallate ..... Herbicide.

2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) ..... Research chemical.

Tetrachloroethylene (Perchloroethylene) ..... Dry cleaning and textile production.

Thioacetamide ..... Replacement for hydrogen sulfide in qualitative analysis.

Thiourea ..... Animal glue.

Toluene Diisocyanate ..... Polyurethane foam.

o-Toluidine and o-Toluidine Hydrochloride ..... Dyes and pigments.

Toxaphene ..... Insecticide.

2,4,6-Trichlorophenol ..... Wood preservative, anti mildew.

Tris(1-aziridinyl)phosphine Sulfide ..... Medical uses.

Tris(2,3-dibromopropyl)phosphate ..... No longer used in the US. Was a flame retardant.

Urethane ..... No commercial use because of its toxicity

Occupational exposures associated with a technical process that are known to be carcinogenic

● Coke oven emissions

● Soots, tars and mineral oils

Delisted Chemicals

● Aramite® ..... No US. residents exposed.

● N,N-Bis(2-chloroethy)-2-naphthylamine (Chlornaphazine) ..... No US. residents exposed.
● Cycasin ..... No US. residents exposed.
● Methyl Iodine ..... Re-evaluated by IARC. Now considered to be in group 2: no evidence for
humans, limited evidence for animals.

The Mc Nally Institute

1637 Sand Key Estates Ct. Clearwater, Fl 33767

Link to the Mc Nally home page

 t

SUBJECT: Classifying chemicals for mechanical sealing.

I. Fluids sensitive to small changes in temperature and or pressure. The temperature change can cause
the fluid to:

● Vaporize
● Crystallize
● Become viscous
● Solidify
● Build a film on the seal sliding surfaces
● Increase the corrosion rate of the fluid. A 10°C. increase can double the corrosion rate of most
fluids.

II. Fluids sensitive to agitation (non Newtonian fluids)

● Dilatants increase their viscosity with agitation

● Thixothrophic fluids decrease in viscosity with agitation.
● Plastic fluids release their viscosity suddenly. Catsup is an example.

III. Fluids that need two seals

● Dangerous fluids
● Pollutants
● Carcinogens
● Fluids that emit fugitive emissions
● Expensive fluids
● Any time a premature seal failure would cause an expensive down time.

IV. Slurries

● You must pump the fluid at a velocity of 4 to 7 ft/sec. (1,2 to 2,3 meters / sec. to prevent a bed of
solids in the pipe.
● Slurries are defined as solids in liquid. The number and size of the solids is not important.
● Abrasion becomes a problem when you pump at a velocity greater than 10 Ft./sec. (3 Meters/
sec.). The abrasive fluids can:
❍ Clog internal seal parts

❍ Throw the impeller out of balance

❍ Cause frequent open impeller adjustments

❍ Can cause excessive wear of the metal bellows plates

V. Non Lubricating fluids (in order of difficulty to seal)

● Liquids
 ● Gases
● Dry solids

VI. Fluids that react together to form a solid. Often a mixer or blender application

● Polymers
● Epoxies

VII. Clean lubricating liquids

● Most finished products fall into this category

VIII. Extreme operating conditions. These are non-chemical, but present seal problems.

● The fluid is too hot for a seal component

❍ The O-ring or any elastomer is the most sensitive to high temperature.

❍ Some filled carbon have a low temperature limit.

● The fluid is a cryogenic. It is too cold for a seal component

❍ The O-ring is sensitive to temperature changes

❍ The carbon must be lapped at cryogenic temperature.

● The pressure in the stuffing box (not the discharge pressure) is too high. It is greater than 400 psi
(28 bar)
❍ The load on the seal faces can be too high causing excessive heat.

❍ The elastomer (O-ring) can extrude and become damaged.

❍ The lapped seal faces can deform and go out of flat.

❍ The seal can push off the set screws.

● Hard vacuum. Less than 1 torr

❍ The elastomer (O-ring) will shrink and leak.

● High shaft speed. Greater than 5000 fpm. (25 m/sec.)

● Excessive shaft axial & radial motion
❍ Axial movement causes changes in the seal face loading. Radial movement can separate

the lapped faces.

● Excessive vibration

IX. Not listed in the above categories.

● Polishing liquid
❍ Antimony Peroxide

● Anaerobic fluids
❍ Super glue

The Mc Nally Institute

1637 Sand Key Estates Ct. Clearwater, Fl 33767

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 The Mc Nally Institute
1637 Sand Key Estates Ct. Clearwater, Fl 33767

The Mc Nally Institute

1637 Sand Key Estates Ct. Clearwater, Fl 33767

Link to the Mc Nally home page

SUBJECT: CONVERSION TABLES

VELOCITY

m/s ft/s m/min ft/min km/h mile/h

1 3.281 60 196.85 3.6 2.2369

0.305 1 18.288 60 1.0973 0.6818

0.017 0.055 1 3.281 0.06 0.0373

0.005 0.017 0.305 1 0.0183 0.01136

0.278 0.911 16.667 54.68 1 0.6214

0.447 1.467 26.822 88 1.6093 1

MASS FLOW RATE

kg/s lb/s kg/h lb/h ton/h tonne/h

1 2.205 3600 7936.64 3.5431 3.6

0.454 1 1633 3600 1.607 1.633

2.78 x10-4 6.12 x10-4 1 2.205 9.84 x 10-4 0.001

1.026 x10-4 2.78 x10-4 0.454 1 4.46 x 10-4 4.54 x 10-4

0.282 0.622 1016 2240 1 1.016

0.278 0.612 1000 2204.6 0.9842 1

VOLUMETRIC RATE OF FLOW

 U.S.
L/s L/min m3/h ft3/h ft3/m imperial g/min U.S. barrell/ day petroleum
gal/min

1 60 3.6 127.133 2.1189 13.2 15.85 543.439

0.017 1 0.06 2.1189 0.0353 0.22 0.264 9.057

0.278 16.667 1 35.3147 0.5886 3.666 4.403 150.955

0.008 0.472 0.0283 1 0.0167 0.104 0.125 4.275

0.472 28.317 1.6990 60 1 6.229 7.480 256.475

0.076 4.546 0.2728 9.6326 0.1605 1 1.201 41.175

0.063 3.785 0.2271 8.0209 0.1337 0.833 1 34.286

0.002 0.110 0.0066 0.2339 0.0039 0.024 0.029 1

FORCE

kilogram force
Newton N kilonewton kN pound force lbf
kgf (kilopond kp)

1 0.001 0.102 0.225

1000 1 101.97 224.81

9.807 0.0098 1 2.205

4.448 0.0044 0.454 1

PRESSURE AND LIQUID HEAD

Newton
per
square pound
kilogram
meter force
kilo - force per millimeter inch of
per
pascal square foot of meter of of mercury mercury
bar square
N/M2 or centi-meter water water
inch
kPa mm Hg in Mg
Pascal kgf/cm2
lbf/in2

(Pa)

1.045
1 0.001 1x105 1.02x105 3.35x10-4 1.02x10-4 0.0075 2.95x10-4
x10-4

1000 1 0.01 1.02x10-2 0.145 0.335 0.102 7.5 0.295

100000 100 1 1.02 14.5 33.52 10.2 750.1 29.53

98067 98.07 0.981 1 14.22 32.81 10 735.6 28.96

6895 6.895 0.069 0.0703 1 2.31 0.703 51.72 2.036

2984 2.984 0.03 0.0305 0.433 1 0.305 22.42 0.882

9789 9.789 0.0980. 0.1 1.42 3.28 1 73.42 2.891

133.3 0.133 0.0013 0.0014 0.019 0.045 0.014 1 0.039

3386 3.386 0.0338 0.0345 0.491 1.133 0.345 25.4 1

1 Pascal equals 1 newton per square meter (1Pa = 1N/M2)

1 mm Hg is also called 1 "torr"

The international standard atmosphere (1 atm) = 101325 pascals or 1.01325 bar. This is equal to 1.03323
kgf/cm2 or 14.6959 lbf/in2

1 millibar = 100 pascal (1mb = 100 Pa

ENERGY AND WORK

 foot pound British thermal kilowatt
joule kilojoule megajoule
force unit hour
therm
J kJ MJ
ft lbf B.t.u. kWh

1 0.001 1 X 10-6 0.737 9.48 x 10-4 9.48 x 10-9 2.78 x 10-7

1000 1 0.001 737.56 0.9478 9.48 x 10-6 2.78 x 10-4

1 x 106 1000 1 737562 947.82 9.48 x 10-3 0.2778

1.356 1.36 x 10-3 1.36 x 10-6 1 1.28 x 10-3 1.28 x 10-8 3.77 x 10-7

1055.1 1.0551 1.05 x 10-3 778.17 1 1 x 10-5 2.931 X 10-4

1.0551 x 108 105510 105.51 7.78 x 107 100000 1 29.307

3.6 x 106 3600 3.6 2.65 x 106 3412.1 0.03412 1

1 joule = 1 newton meter

POWER

kilogram force meter per foot pound force per

Watt horsepower
sec. second
metric horsepower
W hp
kgf m/s ft lbf/s

1 0.102 0.00136 0.738 0.0013

9.806 1 0.133 7.233 0.0131

735.5 75 1 542.476 0.9863

1.356 0.138 1.84 x 10-3 1 1.82 x 10-3

745.70 76.04 1.0139 550.0 1

1 watt = 1 joule per sec = 1 newton meter per second

VOLUME

cubic cubic cubic

cubic meter cubic foot cubic yard
millimeter centimeter inch

m3 ft3 yd3
mm3 cm3 in3

1 0.001 1 x 10-9 6.1 x 10-5 3.531 x 10-8 1.3068 x 10-9

1000 1 1 x 10-6 0.061 3.531 x 10-5 1.308 x 10-6

1 x 109 1 x 106 1 61024 35.31 1.308

16387 16.39 1.639 x 10-5 1 5.787 x 10-4 2.143 x 10-5

2.832 x 107 2.832 x 104 0.0283 1728 1 0.0370

7.646 X 108 7.646 x 105 0.7646 46656 27 1

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 GALVANIC SERIES OF METALS AND ALLOYS
CORRODED END ( ANODIC OR LEAST NOBLE)

MAGNESIUM
MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
ZINC
ALUMINUM 5052, 3004, 3003, 1100, 6053
CADMIUM
ALUMINUM 2117, 2017, 2024
MILD STEEL (1018), WROUGHT IRON
CAST IRON, LOW ALLOY HIGH STRENGTH STEEL
CHROME IRON (ACTIVE)
STAINLESS STEEL, 430 SERIES (ACTIVE)
302, 303, 321, 347, 410,416, STAINLESS STEEL (ACTIVE)
NI - RESIST
316, 317, STAINLESS STEEL (ACTIVE)
CARPENTER 20CB-3 STAINLESS (ACTIVE)
ALUMINUM BRONZE (CA 687)
HASTELLOY C (ACTIVE) INCONEL 625 (ACTIVE) TITANIUM (ACTIVE)
LEAD - TIN SOLDERS
LEAD
TIN
INCONEL 600 (ACTIVE)
NICKEL (ACTIVE)
60 NI-15 CR (ACTIVE)
80 NI-20 CR (ACTIVE)
HASTELLOY B (ACTIVE)
BRASSES
COPPER (CA102)
MANGANESE BRONZE (CA 675), TIN BRONZE (CA903, 905)
SILICONE BRONZE
NICKEL SILVER
COPPER - NICKEL ALLOY 90-10
COPPER - NICKEL ALLOY 80-20
430 STAINLESS STEEL
NICKEL, ALUMINUM, BRONZE (CA 630, 632)
MONEL 400, K500
SILVER SOLDER
NICKEL (PASSIVE)
60 NI- 15 CR (PASSIVE)
INCONEL 600 (PASSIVE)
80 NI- 20 CR (PASSIVE)
CHROME IRON (PASSIVE)
302, 303, 304, 321, 347, STAINLESS STEEL (PASSIVE)
316, 317, STAINLESS STEEL (PASSIVE)
CARPENTER 20 CB-3 STAINLESS (PASSIVE), INCOLOY 825NICKEL - MOLYBDEUM -
CHROMIUM - IRON ALLOY (PASSIVE)
SILVER
TITANIUM (PASS.) HASTELLOY C & C276 (PASSIVE), INCONEL 625(PASS.)
GRAPHITE
ZIRCONIUM
GOLD
PLATINUM

PROTECTED END (CATHODIC OR MOST NOBLE)

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1637 Sand Key Estates Ct. Clearwater, Fl 33767

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 GLOSSARY OF PUMP AND SEAL TERMS
A B C D E F

G H I J K L

M N O P Q R

S T U V W X-Z

CLICK ON THE APPROPRIATE BOX TO FIND THE DEFINITION OF YOUR WORD.

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1637 Sand Key Estates Ct. Clearwater, Fl 33767

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 MECHANICAL SEAL HARD FACE MATERIALS

Elastic Coeff.
Hard Face Tensile Thermal Thermal Temperature
Hardness Modulus Density of
Material Strength Expansion Conductivity Limit
E Friction

mg/ vs.
Mohs GN/m2 MN/m2 µm/mK Watts/m°K °C(a)
mm3 Carbon

Gray cast iron 5 100 200 10 45 7.2 200 -

Hastelloy "B" 6 230 1300 18 45 8.9 800 -

M-2 Tool steel 7 200 2000 11 25 8.2 500 -

Niresist 4 100 400 18 15 7.4 500 -

316 Stainless 4 200 600 16 16 8 600 -

440C Stainless 5 200 800 10 25 7.8 600 -

Stellite 7 220 1000 14 15 8.4 1000 -

T/C - Cobalt 8 600 1400 4 100 15 400 0.07

T/C - Nickle 8 600 600 5 90 15 250 0.07

Ceramic 85% 8 200 150 5 12 3.4 1400 0.07

Ceramic 99.5% 8 350 250 7 25 3.9 1700 0.07

SiC Alpha
9.7 400 250 4 130 3.1 1000 0.02
Sintered

Sic Reaction
9.7 400 250 4 150 3.1 1000 0.02
Bonded
(a) Severe
oxidation in
air, or
significant
loss of
hardness, or
changed
microstructure.

Hard Face
Material

Vickers N/mm2 Watts/m°C Gm/cc. °C(a)

Siliconized
graphite

PE-8148 2000 16 50 1.95 232

Reaction
Bonded

PR9242 2400 365 145 3.08 1372

Reaction
Bonded

plus graphite
152 153 2.8 538
PG9723

Alpha sintered

PS-10070 3000 400 130 3.1 1649

PS-10138 3000 407 130 3.1 1649

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Link to Mc Nally home page
 NPSH REDUCTION CHART

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1637 Sand Key Estates Ct. Clearwater, Fl 33767

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 CHEMICAL LISTING GUIDE FOR O-RINGS
This is an alphabetical listing of most of the common chemicals we find in industry. The chart was made
to be used with my technical paper, " Selecting the correct elastomer for your application".

You can learn several things from this listing:

● The preferred O-ring material for the application. Column #2

● If the fluid is soluble in water. Column #3
● If the fluid is hazardous. Column #4

Click any of the following headings to go to the right spot on the list:

A B C D E-H
I-L M-O P Q-S T-Z

Please remember that your chemical is often a mixture of several chemicals that can react with the O-
ring differently than any of the single components of the mixture.

You should additionally be aware that is very common to clean and flush process lines with a solvent or
steam. The O-ring you select must be chemically compatible with these cleaners and solvents.

The last thing to remember is that each O-ring has an upper and lower temperature limit. Do not exceed
these numbers.

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 SUBJECT: O.S.H.A. 1910 REGULATION
The regulation is predictably vague, and presently only applies to pressure vessels, storage tanks,
processing piping, relief and vent systems, fire protection system components, emergency shut down
systems, alarms, interlocks and the part that is important to you, pumps . For the first time Washington is
telling the pump user that he has to now document the training he provides to those people (including
contractors) that will be operating or repairing his pumps. Be sure to pick up a copy of this regulation for
your library.

Here are some of the ingredients you will find in the regulation :

● The chemicals in the O.S.H.A. # 1910 specification are different than those chemicals identified
by the E.P.A. for fugitive emission consideration. The O.S.H.A. list identifies those chemicals
that are considered "extremely hazardous" chemicals. O.S.H.A. feels that the general industry
standards are not sufficient for these chemicals
● Your employer is going to have to create a Process Safety Management audit team (PSM) that
will audit company training programs along with insuring that present and future engineering
practices conform to accepted standards and codes.
● The employer is going to have to identify the codes and standards he relied upon to establish his
engineering practices. If he departs from these codes and standards, he must document that the
design and construction are suitable for the intended purpose.
● The written training programs must be reviewed for adequacy of content, frequency of training,
and the effectiveness of the training in terms of goals and objectives. These training programs
must be revised if after the training the employee is not at the level of skill or knowledge that was
expected.
● Contract employees must also receive updated and current training.
● If an accident occurs, the plant is going to have to prove that their training program was adequate.
● Any mechanical changes made by the maintenance department have to be evaluated to determine
whether operating procedures and practices also need to be changed. The term "Change" includes
all modifications to equipment.
● For existing processes that have been shut down for turnaround or modification, the employer
must ensure that any changes other than "replacement in kind" made to the process during
shutdown go through the management of change procedures.
● Equipment installation jobs need to be properly inspected in the field for use of proper materials
and procedures to insure that qualified workers do the job.
● The employer must ensure that the contractor has the appropriate job skills, knowledge, and
certification.
● The regulations require detailed records of every action taken in maintaining or rebuilding a
pump. The employer must identify which procedures were followed and why he elected to use
those procedures. He must also identify the training that maintenance personnel had on repairing
pumps in that service.
● Equipment used to process, store or handle hazardous chemicals has to be designed, constructed,
installed and maintained to minimize the risk of release of such chemicals.
● The employer must prepare three lines of defense to prevent hazardous chemical from injuring
personnel:
❍ Contain the chemical in the equipment. The use of two mechanical seals and a convection
 tank is a good example of containing the chemical.
❍ Control the release of the chemicals through venting with a seal quench and vent
connection to a scrubber or flare, or to surge or overflow tanks designed to receive such
chemicals. Dikes or designed drainage systems would be another alternative.
❍ A sensible evacuation system is the third line of defense.

If an accident happens and any of the listed chemicals are released to the environment, the employer is
going to have to prove he did every thing he could have to prevent the accident and contain the spill. If
O.S.H.A. does not agree with his assessment, the employer is likely to suffer stiff penalties.

Since you have knowledge that 90% of mechanical seals are failing prematurely (the carbon sacrificial
face is not wearing out) I expect this new regulation should encourage your employer to send more
people to seal and pump schools and enroll his engineering, maintenance, and supervisory people in an
appropriate certification training program.

The Mc Nally Institute

1637 Sand Key Estates Ct. Clearwater, Fl 33767

Link to Mc Nally home page

 The Mc Nally Institute
1637 Sand Key Estates Ct. Clearwater, Fl 33767

The Mc Nally Institute

1637 Sand Key Estates Ct. Clearwater, Fl 33767

Link to the Mc Nally home page

 The Mc Nally Institute
1637 Sand Key Estates Ct. Clearwater, Fl 33767.net

Link to the Mc Nally home page

 The Mc Nally Institute
1637 Sand Key Estates Ct. Clearwater, Fl 33767 k.net

Link to the Mc Nally home page

 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HEAD CAPACITY, HORSEPOWER AND EFFICIENCY

For information on how to use this chart, click here

The Mc Nally Institute

1637 Sand Key Estates Ct. Clearwater, Fl 33767

Link to Mc Nally home page

 SEAL FACE FLATNESS READINGS
The following chart describes the patterns you could observe if you looked through an optical flat at a
lapped mechanical seal face that was illuminated by a monochromatic light source. For an explanation
of how these patterns were formed you can read the paper Reading seal face flatness 6-3 on another page
in this web site.

I have left the white background to assist you in seeing the patterns a bit easier.

1 Helium light band 2 Helium light bands 3 Helium light bands 4 Helium light bands

0.0000116" 0.0000232" 0.0000348" 0.0000464"

 The Mc Nally Institute
1637 Sand Key Estates Ct. Clearwater, Fl 33767

Link to Mc Nally home page

 The Mc Nally Institute
1637 Sand Key Estates Ct. Clearwater, Fl 33767

Link to Mc Nally home page

 The Mc Nally Institute
1637 Sand Key Estates Ct. Clearwater, Fl 33767

The Mc Nally Institute

1637 Sand Key Estates Ct. Clearwater, Fl 33767
Link to the Mc Nally home page
 PROPERTIES OF WATER

The Mc Nally Institute

1637 Sand Key Estates Ct. Clearwater, Fl 33767

Link to Mc Nally home page

 SOME HANDY LINKS TO OTHER WEB PAGES

BEARINGS

● Bearing fits
● Bearing tolerances
● Carborundum
● SKF Bearings
● Timken Bearings
● NASA non-lubricated foil bearings
● NASA Self lubricating composite coatings
● Foil Air Bearings, Jennifer Hooper paper

CHEMICALS AND ELEMENTS

● Abbreviations of chemical compounds

● Chemical resistant chart
● Metals and powdered metals
● Periodic table of the elements, with details
● University of Akron Hazardous chemical database

CHEMICAL AND ENGINEERING BASICS

● Cavitation University of Texas

● Density and specific gravity
● NPSHA tutorial
● Specific Speed of Pumps
● Specific Speed calculator
● Suction Specific Speed calculator
● Affinity Law Calculator
● Hydraulic Power Calculator
● Calculate the tip speed of an impeller
● Horsepower vs. Torque
●

COUPLINGS

● Frontline
● Lovejoy
 ● Rexnord

ENGINEERING SOCIETIES

● National Academy of Engineering

● National Society Of Professional Engineers
● Association For Computing Machinery
● American Institute Of Chemical Engineers
● American Society Of Mechanical Engineers
● American Society For Testing And Materials
● American Nuclear Society
● ASM International
● Society Of Women Engineers

ELASTOMERS AND O-RINGS

● Green Tweed elastomers

● O-Ring information including sizes
● O-ring dimensions
● Static O-ring gland design
● Kalrez o-ring technical information

GOVERNMENT AGENCIES

● BSI (British Standard Institute)

● EPA (Environmental protection agency home page)
● NSF National Science Foundation
● NIST Nat'l Institute of Standards and Technology
● NTIS National Technical Information Service
● OSHA home page
● Smithsonian Institution
● US Federal Government Agencies Comprehensive list

INSTRUCTION

● Applets to make pump calculations

● Centrifugal pumping system tutorial
● Cooling towers. All you need to know.
● Fluid design centrifugal pump tutorial
● Irrigation pumping systems. The basics
● PD pump instruction
● Pump system glossary from Fluid Design
 ● Pump types Different types explained
● Specific Speed primer

LEGISLATION THAT AFFECTS PUMPS AND SEALS

● EPA clean air act

METAL

● Hafnium
● Metals index
● Stainless steel data base

MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS

● Currency converter
● Demonstrated life of pump component from pump practices
● Dial indicator alignment procedures
● Dictionaries 281 available
● Government statistics
● Maintenance information from MAXIMO
● Pump system formulas in Metric
● ZIP codes

PUMP COMPANIES

● Pump Web a link to all pump company home pages

● An explanation of pump types
● British Pump makers Association Members
● Bell and Gossett
● Blackmer
● Carver
● Cat
● Discflo
● Eddy Pump
● Flowserve
● Fybroc
● Gorman-Rupp
● Goulds pump
● Grundfos
● Hayward Gordon
● Jabsco
 ● LaBour/Taber
● Moyno
● Peerless
● Roper
● Seepex
● Sims
● Viking
● Wilfley

PUMP AND SEAL ANCILLARY EQUIPMENT

● Presay Pneumatic seal

● Seal Master Pneumatic seal

SEAL AND PUMP STANDARDS

● A.P.I (American petroleum Institute)

● AIP (Australian Institute Of Petroleum)
● ISO standards
● ISO 9000 in plain english
● Pump Station Standards
● Hawaii well construction and pump installation standards

SEAL COMPANIES

● Chesterton USA
● Flowserve (Durametallic seals)
● Inpro
● John Crane USA

SEAL FACE MATERIALS

● Carborundum
● Morgan advanced materials

TECHNOLOGY APPLICABLE TO PUMPS AND SEALS

● Heat pipe (NASA) technology

● What is a heat pipe?
● Piezoelectric ceramics f.a.q.

TROUBLESHOOTING
Mc Nally home page
 Use
"Back"
Compliments button
to
of: Company Logo
return
to
Table
Page

BEARING FIT TOLERANCE CHART

Shaft Fits (k5) Below Go To Housing Fits (H6)

Shaft Fits (k5)

NOM. SHAFT ROTATING DIAMETER
BASIC
BORE MAXIMUM MINIMIM
NUMBER
(mm) (inches) (inches)
03 17 0.6697 0.6693
04 20 0.7878 0.7875
05 25 0.9847 0.9844
06 30 1.1815 1.1812
07 35 1.3785 1.3781
08 40 1.5753 1.5749
09 45 1.7722 1.7718
10 50 1.9690 1.9686
11 55 2.1660 2.1655
12 60 2.3628 2.3623
13 65 2.5597 2.5592
14 70 2.7565 2.7560
15 75 2.9534 2.9529
16 80 3.1502 3.1497
17 85 3.3472 3.3466
18 90 3.5440 3.5434
19 95 3.7409 3.7403
20 100 3.9377 3.9371
21 105 4.1346 4.1340
22 110 4.3314 4.3308
.
HOUSING FITS (H6)
NOM. STATIONARY HOUSING BORE NOM. STATIONARY HOUSING BORE
BASIC
OD MIN. (in.) MAX. (in.) OD MIN. (in.) MAX. (in.)
NUMBER
(mm) 200 Series (mm) 300 Series
03 40 1.5748 1.5754 47 1.8504 1.8510
04 47 1.8504 1.8510 52 2.0472 2.0479
05 52 2.0472 2.0479 62 2.4409 2.4416
06 62 2.4409 2.4416 72 2.8346 2.8353
07 72 2.8346 2.8353 80 3.1496 3.1503
08 80 3.1496 3.1503 90 3.5433 3.5442
09 85 3.3465 3.3474 100 3.9370 3.9379
10 90 3.5433 3.5442 110 4.3307 4.3316
11 100 3.9370 3.9379 120 4.7244 4.7253
12 110 4.3307 4.3316 130 5.1181 5.1191
13 120 4.7244 4.7253 140 5.5118 5.5128
14 125 4.9213 4.9223 150 5.9055 5.9065
15 130 5.1181 5.1191 160 6.2992 6.3002
16 140 5.5118 5.5128 170 6.6929 6.6939
17 150 5.9055 5.9065 180 7.0866 7.0876
18 160 6.2992 6.3002 190 7.4803 7.4814
19 170 6.6929 6.6939 200 7.8740 7.8751
20 180 7.0866 7.0876 215 8.4646 8.4657
21 190 7.4803 7.4814 225 8.8583 8.8594
22 200 7.8740 7.8751 240 9.4488 9.4499

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Web Site Technical Tables by

Copyright 1999, all rights reserved.

Necessary Disclaimer
Last Revision: 10/15/99
TECHNICAL DATA
TABLE OF CONTENTS

SUFFIXES

TORRINGTON SPHERICAL ROLLER BEARING SUFFIXES

INTERNAL CLEARANCES - DEFINITION

RADIAL INTERNAL CLEARANCES

Single Row Deep Groove Ball Bearings - Cylindrical Bore

Single Row Deep Groove Ball Bearings - Tapered Bore (K)
Self-Aligning Ball Bearings - Cylindrical Bore
Self-Aligning Ball Bearings - Tapered Bore (K)
Cylindrical Roller Bearings - Cylindrical Bore
Cylindrical Roller Bearings -Tapered Bore (K)
Spherical Roller Bearings - Cylindrical Bore
Spherical Roller Bearings - Tapered Bore (K)
Spherical Roller Bearings - Cylindrical Bore -F80
Spherical Roller Bearings - Tapered Bore (K) -F80

AXIAL INTERNAL CLEARANCES

Four-Point Ball Bearings

Angular Contact Ball Bearings - Double Row (5200 & 5300 Series)
Angular Contact Ball Bearings - Double Row - Split Inner Race

BEARING TOLERANCES (METRIC AND INCH) - DEFINITION

Oil Seals (Metric)

Radial Bearings (Metric - Except Tapered Roller Bearings) Inner Ring

Radial Bearings (Metric - Except Tapered Roller Bearings) Outer Ring

Tapered Roller Bearings (Metric) Inner Ring

Tapered Roller Bearings (Metric) Outer Ring

 Thrust Ball and Roller Bearings (Metric)

Radial Bearings (Inch- Except Tapered Roller Bearings)

1600 Series Radial Bearings - Inch

Thrust Ball Bearings - Inch

Roller Thrust Bearings - Inch

INCH - MILLIMETER CONVERSION TABLES

Millimeters to Inches

Fractions to Decimals

General Conversions
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 + Text Only Site
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+ NASA Home + NASA Home > Centers > Glenn Home > About Glenn
+ GRC Home Print This Email This

Creating a Turbomachinery Revolution

Research at Glenn Enables an Oil-Free Turbine Engine

Image right: View of foil air

bearing showing the
nonrotating bearing housing,
top foil, compliant support
structure (bump foil) and
rotating journal shaft. Credit:
NASA

Everyone assumes that

engines need oil for lubrication.
But that has not stopped
researchers at the NASA
Glenn Research Center from
defying traditional concepts of
lubrication. At NASA's lead center for turbomachinery, work is progressing on a revolution in the use of oil-
free bearings that will eliminate the need for an oil-lubrication system in high-temperature, high-speed
rotating machinery. The foremost challenge for this technology is the design of an oil-free turbine engine to
power 21st century aircraft.

Bearings are used between the rotating and stationary parts of turbomachinery. Ball and roller bearings are
commonly used in turbine engines. These bearings require an oil lubrication system that provides a thin film
of oil between the moving parts of the bearing. Without oil, the metal-to-metal contact would cause the
engine to grind to a halt. Use of oil-free bearings removes the need for the oil system thus reducing weight,
maintenance, and complexity of the engine. Studies have shown a potential reduction of 15 percent in
engine weight.

Oil-free operation is attained through the use of foil air bearings. These bearings support a rotating shaft
with two main elements: a top foil and a bump foil. The top foil provides a scuff-resistant start/stop surface
and captures air to support the bearing. The bump foil provides support for the top foil and can be tailored
for the required stiffness of the bearing.

This technology has been used for a number of years in low-temperature applications from magnetic disk
drive read/write heads in PC's to the air cycle machines that maintain the pressure in commercial aircraft
cabins. Recent advances in bearing design, high-temperature surface coatings and computer modeling are
enabling new applications of these bearings.

Riding on Air

Foil air bearings are self-acting hydrodynamic bearings that use ambient air as the lubricant instead of oil.
Both air and oil are fluids that can perform the job of separating moving metal parts. The very high rotational
speeds of turbine engine shafts (>10000 rpm) allow the replacement of oil with air. At these speeds, foil air
bearings maintain the air film between moving parts by actually pumping air between the rotating and
stationary surfaces. Air is drawn in and sticks to the bearing surface, no matter how fast it is moving.

Image right: Diagram showing load-carrying

capacity of early and current designs of the
bump foil. Credit: NASA

The pumping of air between the moving

surfaces creates an air pressure that generates
a load-carrying capacity. The trapped air and its
cushioning effect act just like the air in a car
shock absorber. These bearings provide a stiff,
shock-tolerant support for rotating machinery. At
high speeds, a very thin layer of air, just under
0.001-in. thick, can support hundreds of pounds.

The weight that a bearing can support is

represented by its load capacity. For a foil air
bearing, the maximum load capacity is
dependent on the design of the top and bump
foils, diameter, and length and speed of the
rotating shaft. A faster shaft speed increases the
load capacity by pumping more air between the
top foil and the shaft. Larger bearing size also
increases load capacity by providing a more
bearing supporting area. The foil design has a
different effect. It determines how quickly the
load increases with speed for a particular
bearing. Early designs used a uniform
corrugated bump foil (GEN I). Air leakage at the
edges of the bearing caused it to have a
relatively low maximum load capacity. Current
designs (GEN III) are more intricate with multiple
slits in the foil and changes in the number or
spacing of bumps across the foil. These design features are better at trapping and maintaining the air film
between the shaft and top foil. These refinements have resulted in great improvements in the weight that
can be supported by foil air bearings.

Current designs are capable of supporting a pound of load for each inch of bearing diameter and square
inch of bearing projected area for every 1000-shaft rpm.

Designers must tailor features of the bearing for a specific application. The stiffness of the backing bump
foil is varied to maintain the thin compressed film of air and reduce air leakage out the sides of the foil. This
will set the load-carrying capacity of the bearing. Also, high rotational speeds can make the shaft vibrate
much like having an out of balance tire. These vibrating modes can be predicted with a rotordynamic model.
This computer model is used to predict the forces on the bearing and the motion of the overall shaft-bearing
system. With changes in the shaft-bearing diameter, length, and thickness and the location of the bearing
on the shaft, these vibration modes can be eliminated. Computer models let designers try out the design
without going to the expense of building and testing actual hardware.

Traditional ball and roller bearings have rotational speed limits. At high speeds, the balls and rollers are
forced away from the shaft and place large stresses on the bearing. Foil bearings do not have this limitation
as there are no rotating parts of the bearing except the shaft.

Image left: The PS304 coating is plasma

sprayed on the bearing shaft. Credit:
NASA

Hot and Fast

Until recently, foil air bearings were

relegated to applications under
approximately 400 °F. One obstacle was
the need for a high-temperature coating
on the shaft. During startup and
shutdown, the bearing and shaft make
rubbing contact until sufficient rotational
speeds pump air into the bearings. To
reduce wear, a dry lubricant coating is
applied to the foil and shaft. Most current
foil-bearing applications use a polymer
coating such as Teflon® that is limited to
about 400 °F. NASA Glenn Research
Center pioneered new surface coatings
that have pushed this upper temperature
limit from about 400 °F to over 1200 °F.

These new coatings are applied by plasma spraying the shaft and then finish grinding it to specification.
This results in a hard, wear-resistant coating that meets the life and temperature requirements of the
bearing. With the advent of new bearing designs, foil air bearings are now ready for higher temperature
environments.

To validate these new foil-bearing capabilities, NASA set out to demonstrate the use of foil air bearings. A
150-hp turbocharger was modified to operate using foil air bearings. The turbocharger was run with a 1200 °
F turbine inlet temperature and shaft rotational speeds in excess of 60 000 rpm. This oil-free turbocharger
was able to perform over 100 000 start/stop cycles without a failure.
Foil bearings now excel where high temperature and high rotational speed bearings are needed. The
turbocharger test showed the bearings are candidates for operation in the hot section of turbine engines
without the need for cooling.

Image right: High-temperature,

high-speed foil bearing test rig at
1400 °F. Credit: NASA

Spinning It Up

NASA Glenn Research Center has

developed a patented self-
lubricating bearing material (U.S.
Patent #5866518) capable of a
wide temperature range of -250 to
1650 °F. The PS300 coatings and
PM300 powder metallurgy system
is a series of self-lubricating
composites with a duplex
microstructure consisting of a hard
nickel-chrome/chrome oxide
phase with a soft noble metal and
stable fluoride phases. The
composition of the bearing
material acts as a system in providing lubrication over a wide temperature range. The ratio of hard to soft
phases can be tailored depending on design requirements such as conformability and desired thermal
expansion coefficient and hardness. Glenn has also licensed the coatings for use in powder metallurgy
bearing products.

Leveraging NASA/Industry Successes

NASA Glenn Research Center is working with Williams International to leverage the success of the recently
completed NASA General Aviation Propulsion (GAP) Project. This project resulted in the development of
the Williams FJX-2 turbofan engine. The FJX-2 is a 700-lb thrust engine that weighs under 100 lb with a 14-
in. inlet and only 41-in. long. A derivative of this revolutionary engine, the EJ-22, is being FAA certified and
will be used on the twin engine Eclipse 500 jet.

NASA is currently working with Williams and Mohawk Innovative Technology (a foil bearing manufacturer)
to make a future derivative of the EJ-22 the first oil-free turbine engine by using foil air bearings. Removing
the oil system components will reduce weight and maintenance, resulting in a lower cost engine that will
enable the production of lower cost aircraft.

Image right: Cross-section of PS304

coating. Credit: NASA

Spinning It Off

Turbocharger companies are currently

considering using foil bearings, with the
NASA Glenn high-temperature coatings,
for possible use in automobiles, trucks,
and aircraft engines.

This new foil-bearing technology is also having an effect on the power-generation industry. Many onsite gas-
powered generators use turbine engines to run the electrical generator. Recent events have generated and
increased demand for these independent power sources. While large turbine-based systems rely on
traditional oil-lubricated bearing technology, two companies have developed small oil-free turboalternators.
These small gas-powered turbine generators are already using foil air bearings in their turbines. Research
at NASA Glenn Research Center in developing high-temperature coatings can have a positive effect on
these systems and is under consideration. The electrical power output will get a boost from the higher
turbine operating temperature of the foil bearings.

NASA Glenn Research Center is a world leader in propulsion and power technology. Research is focused
on aerospace industry with spinoffs into other areas. Glenn's leadership role is pushing the frontier of new
technology and its application to products that have a positive effect on the world. This work on oil-free
turbomachinery typifies Glenn's efforts and will enable a turbomachinery revolution.
 Image above: Oil-free foil air bearing shock tolerance demonstrator rig. Credit: NASA

FS-2001-07-014-GRC

[Printer-friendly PDF version]

For more information, visit NASA Glenn's home page at:

http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/oilfree/

Or contact
Information and Publications Office
NASA Glenn Research Center
21000 Brookpark Road, MS 8-1
Cleveland, Ohio 44135
(216) 433-5573

+ Back to Top

+ Freedom of Information Act Editor: David DeFelice

+ Budgets, Strategic Plans and Accountability Reports NASA Official: Brian Dunbar
+ The President's Management Agenda Last Updated: March 17, 2006
+ Contact Glenn
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and Accessibility Certification
+ Inspector General Hotline
+ Equal Employment Opportunity Data Posted
Pursuant to the No Fear Act
+ Information-Dissemination Priorities and Inventories
Great Lakes Industrial Technology Center (GLITeC) and The Edison Materials Technology Center (EMTEC) specialize in bringing the technology of NASA Glenn
Research Center and the United States Air Force to the business sector. This month's featured technology:

PS300: A Novel Self-Lubricating Composite Coating

Technology

NASA Glenn's Oil-Free turbomachinery research team is helping to develop three key technologies: foil air bearings, high-temperature
solid lubricants, and computer-based modeling. Recent breakthroughs in these key technologies now enable the demonstration of
revolutionary Oil-Free gas turbines.

Benefits

Oil-Free technology eliminates turbine engine oil system resulting in 15 percent weight savings.

● Long wear life PS300 shaft coatings provide a maintenance-free bearing system, reducing engine maintenance costs by 50
percent.
● Elimination of ball bearing imposed shaft speed (DN) limits allows engines to run faster producing more power (>20 percent
power density increase)
● NASA patented PS300 coatings have enabled bearing operation to temperatures over 650 °C, reducing or eliminating the need
for coolers and bleed air
● Oil-Free engines enable 50 passenger regional jets to achieve 8 percent cost reduction (DOC)

Commercial Applications

● Oil-Free turbomachinery technology (foil bearings, coatings, modeling) has been commercialized in aircraft air cycle machines
(ACMs) for cabin pressurization and cooling, in cryogenic turbocompressors, and in microturbine electrical generators (<100
kW).
 ● Emerging applications include Oil-Free turbochargers, larger turbine generators, General Aviation (GA), BizJet, unmanned
aerial vehicles (UAVs), and missile engines.
● Future applications are anticipated in auxiliary power units (APUs), regional jet and helicopter engines, revolutionary
aeropropulsion engines, space power systems, and launch vehicle cryogenic turbomachinery.
● PS300 solid-lubricant technology has direct applications to any high-temperature sliding contact. Examples successfully fielded
include steam turbine control valves, oven conveyor bushings and slide plates, automotive exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)
valves, and aircraft bleed air valves. PS300 is available as a thermal spray coating or free-standing powder metallurgy (PM300)
product.

Technology Description

Oil-Free foil air bearings are self-acting hydrodynamic bearings that use ambient air as their working fluid. During operation, the
bearings develop a lubricating air film which separates the shaft from the thin sheet metal foils that make up the bearing. This design
requires no external pressurization. Since air cannot burn like oil, foil air bearings can operate at high temperatures. Foil bearings can
operate at high speeds (no bearing DN limit) and tolerate misalignment and distortion. PS300, a solid lubricant made from a unique
combination of metals, ceramics, and solid lubricant additives, is applied to the bearing shaft and reduces friction and wear during
startup and shutdown when rubbing occurs prior to the development of a lubricating air film in the bearings. PS300 has successfully
lubricated foil air bearings from 25 to 650 °C for over 100,000 start/stop cycles. Lastly, computer-based foil bearing and system
integration modeling technologies allow the prediction of bearing performance and system stability without having to conduct extensive
experimental studies. Oil-Free turbomachinery technologies enable the elimination of ball and roller bearings, filters, sensors, and
plumbing associated with traditional oil-lubricated rotating systems.

Options for Commercialization

Industry sources for foil air bearings exist and are capable of engineering this technology into rotating hardware. NASA holds a patent
(#5866518) on the PS300 solid lubricant and has awarded nonexclusive licenses for raw materials production, powder metallurgy
processing, and thermal spray coating desposition. Additional nonexclusive licensees are sought. Technical assistance for technology
application is available from NASA technical and commercialization staff.

Contact

Priscilla Diem
216-898-6400

References

LEW 16183–1, NASA/TM–1999-209187,

NASA/TM–107332, NASA/TM–2000-209782
U.S. Patent 5866518

Key Words

Oil-Free Turbomachinery
Solid lubricants
Coatings
EMTEC Home page GLITEC Home Page
 Jennifer Hoover
Air Foil Bearings

Foil Air Bearing

Jennifer A Hoover
Project 4
27 April 2004
 Jennifer Hoover
Air Foil Bearings

Table of Contents

Introduction 4
Discussion of Foil Coatings 4
Discussion of Bearing Coatings 6
Conclusion 7

Table of Figures
Figure1. Comparison of Foil vs Regular Bearing 3

List of Tables
Table 1. Physical Characteristics of Coated and Uncoated Top Foils 4
Table 2. Bearing Tribological Properties 5
 Jennifer Hoover
Air Foil Bearings
Introduction

Foil air bearings have proved very useful in applications including turbochargers,
generators, air cycle machines, aircraft and automobile engines. Their low maintenance
characteristics, as well as their light weight and low complexity make them ideal for
engines. Their cleanliness, from not using oil, makes them ideal for air cycle machines.
The differences between a standard oil bearing and an air foil bearing are shown below in
Figure 1.

Figure 1. Schematic representation of systems approach to bearing lubrication. a.

conventional oil lubricated bearing, and . b. multilevel solid gas lubricated foil air
bearing.1

Discussion of Foil Coatings

As seen in the Figure 1, there are 2 characteristic parts to the air bearing, the top foil and
the bump foil. The top foil provides a scuff-resistant stop-start surface and captures air to
support the bearing. The bump foil provides support for the top foil and can be tailored
for the required stiffness of the bearing.2 It is the air layer that lubricates and sticks to the
surface of the bearing, and bears the load capacity. At the elevated rotational speeds
0.0001 in. can carry hundreds of pounds. Optimal load capacity and acceleration are
determined by the foil design.

1
A Systems Approach to the Solid Lubrication of Foil Air Bearings for Oil-Free Turbomachinery p206
2
Creating a Turbomachinery Revolution
 Jennifer Hoover
Air Foil Bearings
Air foil bearings use ambient air as a lubricant when they once they attain their
standard speed, but during start-up and shut-down, at low rpm levels, the shaft and top
foil experiences sliding wear. In this test the bearings were tested for more than 30,000
start-stop cycles. Full rotational speed was achieved at 14,000 rpm, the hydrodynamic air
film was not formed until the bearing had reached a speed of 4,000rpm.Solid lubricants
must be used to avoid this type of damage. Cathodic arc coating of Cu-4Al, a copper
alloy, has been shown to be an effective foil coating in guarding against this type of wear.
However, this deposition technique has a high likelihood of achieving a high surface
roughness on the foil, leading to galling wear. Other types of application techniques may
have lower surface roughness values, but do not have very effective surface adhesion.
To test the effectiveness of the Cu-4Al, bearings were coated with an ion
diffusion technique with the copper alloy and compared to bearings that were uncoated
and cathodic arc coated. Material inconel X-750 coupons were also coated with the ion
diffusion technique so detailed coating analysis could be performed. The ion diffusing
technique infuses the copper alloy into the foil substrate, which differs from conventional
coating techniques, like cathodic arc deposition, which applies coating material to the
substrate surface.3
Surface roughness was tested on the material coupons to determine the resistance
to wear and coating adhesion. The testing was conducted using a stylus-type
profilometer.

Table 1. Physical Characteristics of Coated and Uncoated Top Foils4

Surface Roughness, µm
Average
roughness, Roughness Maximum scratch
Condition Ra depth, Rz channel width, µm
Uncoated Inconel
X-750 foil 0.10 ± 0.01 0.91 ± 0.27 222 ± 6
Foil with ion
diffusion coating 0.51 ± 0.15 6.12 ± 1.13 219 ± 8
Foil with as-
deposited cathodic
arc deposited
coating 4.26 ± 1.09 2.84 ± 1.32 300 ± 0
Foil with ground
cathodic arc
deposited coating 0.46 ± 0.41 2.53 ± 1.04 235 ± 9

It can be determined using Table 1, that the surface roughness using the ion diffusion
technique was approximately five times greater than that of the uncoated foil. However,
the ion diffusion technique is about seven times less than that of the standard cathodic arc
coating. During testing the surfaces were exposed to sliding contact with the journal,
causing their surface roughness to decrease.
The start-stop torque required is higher than what was required for normal
operation because of the contact between the journal and foil. The amount of torque

3
Friction and Wear Characteristics of CU-4Al Foil Bearing Coating at 25°C and 650°C page 5
4
Friction and Wear Characteristics of CU-4Al Foil Bearing Coating at 25°C and 650°C page 6
 Jennifer Hoover
Air Foil Bearings
required was recorded and averaged over a 5 cycles, to allow for the amount of friction
between the journal and the bearing to be determined. The coefficients of friction for the
coated and uncoated foils are shown below in Table 2.

Table 2. Bearing tribological properties5

Test condition Coefficient of friction*
Uncoated foil/25 °C 0.43
Cu-4Al coated foil/25 °C 0.36
Uncoated foil/650 °C 0.32
Cu-4Al coated foil/650 °C 0.37
* Measured at loads ranging from 10.3 to 30.6kPa; the correlation
coefficient (R2) ranged from 0.94 to 0.99

The coefficient of friction for the copper alloy coated foil was 16% lower at room
temperature than the uncoated foil, however at elevated temperatures this phenomenon
reversed; with the uncoated foil have a coefficient of friction 19% lower. This data also
shows that the coefficient of friction of the Cu-4Al remains relatively constant throughout
the temperature range. This paper suggests that further research be conducted into
different concentrations of aluminum and copper in the alloy.
Bearing coatings and materials are being developed to help reduce wear at low
rpm levels. NASA Glenn has developed a self-lubricating material composed of nickel
and chromium capable of a wide temperature range of -250°F to 1650°F.6 This coating
can be designed to meet specific hardness constraints and to match coefficients of
thermal expansion. The wide temperature range will enable to be used under almost any
circumstance.

Bearing Coatings

Research is also being conducted into possible shaft coatings such as PS304,
MoS2 , and other plasma sprayed coatings, to reduce frictional wear at lower rpm levels.
The goal of this development effort is to create a coating that will reduce wear during the
initial ‘break-in’ period of the bearing and then harmless deteriorate as the bearing – foil
surface interface is smoothed from use. Through much testing it has been determined
that PS304 has the potential to degrade leaving behind debris, increasing friction, while
MoS2 seems to work degrade harmlessly in this capacity.
The differences between two different types of application techniques of Cu-4Al
were assessed and compared them to uncoated foil on air bearings. Ion diffusion of Cu-
4Al showed better surface roughness characteristics of than those produced by the
cathodic arc coating. Frictional characteristics of the coated bearings, although better at
low temperatures, where they are needed were shown to be worse at higher, general
engine operating temperatures. Further investigation into different copper aluminum
alloys is needed to perfect the coating. Different types of bearing materials as well as

5
Friction and Wear Characteristics of CU-4Al Foil Bearing Coating at 25°C and 650°C page 7
6
Creating a Turbomachinery Revolution
 Jennifer Hoover
Air Foil Bearings
coatings are being created to help further reduce friction and wear at lower rotational
speeds.

Conclusion

Foil air bearings hold many options for the future of turbomachinery. With their
use it will be possible to create new, light weight low cost engine options in not only the
aerospace industry, but in automobiles and generators for the common public. Someday,
car engines may no longer need an oil change, and may be able to achieve even higher
speeds.
 Jennifer Hoover
Air Foil Bearings
References
DellaCorte, Christopher, Zaldana, Antonio Zaldana R., Radil, Kevin C. Journal of
Tribology. “A Systems Approach to the Solid Lubrication of Foil Air Bearings for Oil-
Free Turbomachinery.” Jan 2004 ASME p200-207

Creating a Turbomachinery Revolution NASA Facts July 2001

Stanford, Malcolm K., DellaCorte, Christopher. Friction and Wear Characteristics fo CU-
4Al Foil Bearing Coating at 25 and 650°C March 2004
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Acetaldehyde
A A A - B A A D - - C D D A - A A D C B A A A - A B B D B C A
5
Acetamide - B A - - - - - - - C - - - - B - - - - - - A - A A - A A D A
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Glacial 1
Acetic Acid
- - A - - A A - C - - B - A A - D - - A A - A - D C - C - - B
20%
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- - A - - A A - C - - D - A B - D - - B - - A - D C - D - - B
80%
Acetic Acid - B A B B A A C C D C A B A A D D C B A A A A - C C - C B C A
Acetic
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Anhydride
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Acetyl
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Chloride
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Acrylonitrile A A C - B - B A - C - - - - - B - D - B A A A - C D - D D - A
 ALCOHOLS
Amyl A A A - C A A A B C C A B A C A A B B B A A A - A A D A A C A
Benzyl - A A - B A A A C - - D B - A A A D D A - A A - A D - B B D A
Butyl A A A - B B A B C C C A B A A A A - B B A A A - A A D A A A A
Diacetone 2 - A A - A A A A C - A D - - A A A - - D - A A - D D - D A D A
Ethyl - A A A B A A A C A A A C - A B A B B A - A A A A A B A B A A
Hexyl - A A - A A A A C - A A - - A A A - - A - A A - A A D B A A A
Isobutyl - A A - B A A A C - A - - - A A A B - - - A A - A C B A A A A
Isopropyl - A A - B A A A C C A - - - A A A - - A - A A - A C C B A A A
Methyl 6 - A A A B A A A C A A B - A A C A D B A - A A A C B - A A A A
Octyl - A A - A A A A C - A - - - A A A - - - - A A - A B - B A C A
Propyl - A A - A A A A - - A A - A A A A - - A - A A - A A B A A A A
Aluminum
- D C D B A A D - D A A B - A C A - B A A A A - A A - A A A A
Chloride 20%
Aluminum
C D C - D C A C - D B A A A A - D - - A A A A - A A C A - - A
Chloride
Aluminum
- D C D - D B - - - A A - A A C D - B A - A - - A A C A - C A
Flouride
Aluminun
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Hydroxide 6
Alum
Potassium
- A - - A - B - - D A A - A - - A - A - - A A - A - - A - A A
Sulfate
(ALUM),10%
Alum
Potassium
- D A B B - B C - - A A B A A C D - B A - A A - A A - A - A A
Sulfate
(ALUM) 100%
Aluminum
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Sulfate
Amines A A A - A B A B - A B C A A B D A - - - - A A - D D C B B C A
Ammonia 10% - - A - - A A - - - - A - A A - A - - A A - A - A D - A - - B
Ammonia
A B A A B B A D - D B A B A A D A - B A B C A - D B B A A D A
Anhydrous
Ammonia,
- A A A D - B D - A A A B A A D - - D A - A A - D B B A A D A
Liquids
Ammonia,
- A A A C - - D - - A B B - A C - - - A - A A - - A - C - - A
Nitrate
Ammonium
- C A - D - B - - - - A - - A D - - - A - - A - A A - A - - A
Bifluoride
Ammonium
B A A A C A B B - C B A B A A D A - - A - A A - B D C A A - A
Carbonate
Ammonium
- - A - - - - - - - - - - - A D - - - - - - - - - - - A - - A
Casenite
Ammonium
C A C A C A A D C D D A B A A B A - B A A A A - A A C A A A A
Chloride
Ammonium
A A A A C A A D D A C A B A A D A B B A A A A - B B B A A C A
Hydroxide
Ammonium
A A A A B A A D D A D A B A A C D - B A A A A - A A C A A A A
Nitrate
 Ammonium
- A A A - - A - - - A - - - - B - - - - - A - - - A - A - - A
Oxalate
Ammonium
- A A A C A A A - D A A - A A D D - - A - A A - C A - A A A A
Persulfate
Ammonium
Phosphate, B A A A B A A C - - D A - A A B A - B A - A A - A A B A A A A
Dibasic
Ammonium
Phosphate, - A A A B A A D - - A A A A A B A - B A - A A - A A B A A A A
Monobasic
Ammonium
Phosphate, B A A A B A A C - C D A - A A B A - B A - A A - A A B A A A A
Tribasic
Ammonium
C A B A B A A B C C C A D A A B D - B A A A A - D A B A A A A
Sulfate
Ammonium
- - A - - A - - - D A - - - - B - - - - - A A - - A - A - - A
Thio-Sulfate
Amyl-Acetate B A A C B A A C - - C D D A D A B - D D A A A - D D D D A D A
Amyl Alcohol - A A - B A A A - - A A B A C A A - B A - A A - B B D A A C A
Amyl Chloride - C B - D - A A - - A D C A D A C - D D - A A - A D - D D D A
Aniline B A A A C C B C - - C D D A D D C D C B A A A - D D C D B D A
Anti-Freeze - A A - A - A B B B C A B A A A A B B A A A A A A A C A A A A
Antimony
- D D - D - A - - - - A A A - - D - A - - - A - - - - C - A A
Trichloride
Aqua Regia
(80%, HCI, - D D - D A D D - - - D D A D D D - D C - - D - C D C D D D D
20%, HNO)
Arochlor 1248 - - - - - - - - - - A - - - D - - - - - - A - - A D - D B D A
Aromatic
- - A - A - - A - A A D - - D A - - C - - A - - A D - D D D A
Hydrocarbons
Arsenic Acid B A A - D - - D B D D A B A A D A - B A - A A - A A - A - C A
Asphalt - B A - C - - A - C - A - - - A A - - A A - A A A B C B D D A
Barium
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Carbonate
Barium
C A A A D A A B - N C A B A A A B - B A A A A - A A B A A A A
Chloride
Barium
- - A - - - - C - - A - - - - B - - B - - A - - A C - A A - A
Cyanide
Barium
B C A A D B B B - C C A - A A D A - B A A A A A A A C A A A A
Hydroxide
Barium Nitrate - A A - - A - D - A A B - - A A - - - - - A A - A A - A A - B
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Beer 2 A A A - A A A A B D D A - A A B D B B D - A A - A D C A A A A
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3
Benzene 2 B A A A B A B B A B C D C A D A A D D D A A A A A D - D D D A
Benzoic Acid 2 B A A A B A A B - D - A B A A B D - B D - A B - A D - D D D A
Benzol - A A - B A A B A - - D - A D A A - - A - A A A D D - D - - A
 Borax
(Sodium - A A A C - A A B A C A A A A A A - B A A A A A A B C A A C A
Borate)
Boric Acid B A A A B A A B C D - A B A A A A - B A - A A A A A - A A A A
Brewery Slop - - A - - - - A - A - - - - - A - - - - - A A - A A - A - - A
Bromine 2
D D D D D A A C - D D B B A D D D D D D D D A D A D D D D D C
(Wet)
Butadiene A A A - A - - C A C C A - A - A A - - - B A A - A A - B A - A
Butanes 2 1 A A A - A - - A A C C A C A D A A B C D A A A - A A D B D D A
Butanol - A A - A - A A - - - - - A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Butter B B A - A - - D - D - - B - B A - B - - - A A - A A - B A D A
Buttermilk C A A A A - - D - D - - B A A A A B - - - A A - A A - A - D A
Butylene - - A - A - - A A A A B - A - A - - - - A A A - A B - - D D A
Butyl Acetate
- - C - A - A A - - A D D A D A - - C D A A A - D B D D B D A
1
Butyric Acid 1 B B A A B A A C - D - B - A A C D D - A - A D - D D - D B - A
Calcium
C D A - D - - D D D - A A A - - A - - - - - - - A A C C - A A
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Calcium
- - B - C A A C - - - A - A A D A - B A - A A - A A - A D - A
Bisulfide
Calcium
- D A - C A A C - - - A - A A - A - - A - - A - A A - A - A -
Bisufite
Calcium
B A A A C A A C - D - A A A A A A - B A - A A - A A - A - A A
Carbonate
Calcium
- C A - - - B C - - - A A A - - A - A - - A - - A - - A - A A
Chlorate
Calcium
C A D C C A A B - C - A A A A D A B B A A A A B A A B D A A A
Chloride
Calcium
B A A - C A A B - - - A A A A B A - B A - A A A A A C A A A A
Hydroxide
Calcium
D A C C C A B D - D - D - A A D D - B A - A A - A B C D A C A
Hypochlorite
Calcium
B A A A B A B B - - - A A A A A A C B A A A A - A A - D - C A
Sulfate
Calgon - A A - - - - C - D - - - - A B - - - A - A A - A A - A - - A
Cane Juice 2 - A A - B - - B C A - A - - - A A - - D - A A - - A - A - A A
Carbolic Acid
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
(See Phenol)
Carbon
B A A A A - - C - B - D D - - A A - - D - A A A A D - D D D A
Bisulfide 2
Carbon
- A A - C - A C C C - - - A - - - - - - - A A - - - - - - - -
Dioxide (Wet)
Carbon
- B A - C - - C C B C D C A D A A - D D A A B - A D - D D D A
Disulfide 2
Carbon
- A A - A - - - - - - A - - B A A - B A - A A - A A B B A C A
Monoxide
Carbon
Tetrachloride B C B A C A A C A C D C C A D A A D D D C A A A A C C D - D C
21
Carbonated
B A A A A - - B - D - A - - A A A - - A - A A - A A - A A - A
Water
 Carbonic B A B A A - A B - D - A - A A A A - B A - A A - A B B A A A A
Catsup - A A A D - - C - D - A - - A B A B - A - A A - A A - C - - A
Chloracetic
D D D D C A A D - D - A D A - D D - D D - A A - A D - D B D B
Acid 2
Chloric Acid - D D - - - - - - - - D - A - - - - - - - - - - - D - D - - D
Chlorinated
- A A - D - - C - D - - - - C - C D - - - - A - A C - D B D A
Glue
Chlorine,
Anhydrous - D D D D D A D - C - D B A A D D - D D C A D - A D - D B D B
Liquid
Chlorine (Dry) B A A - D D A A B A - - - A - - - - - - C A A - D - - D - D D
Chlorine Water D - D - D A B D D D - A - A C - D - - D C C A - A D C D - - -
Chlorobenzene
A A A - B - A B - B C D D A D A A D D D A A A - A D - D D D A
(Mono)
Chlorosulfonic
D D - D D A B D - - D C C A D D D - D D D - C - D D D D D D C
Acid 1
Chlorox
- A A - C - A A - D C A B A A D D B - D C A A - A C - B B D A
(Bleach)
Chocolate
- A A - A - - - - D - - - - A A A - - A - - A - A A - A - D A
Syrup
Chromic Acid
- A A B C A A D D D - A B - C D D B B A A D C - A D C D A B B
5%
Chromic Acid
- B - - - A A - D - - A - A A - D - - A - - A - A D - D - - C
10%
Chromic Acid
- B - - - A A - D - - A - A D - D - - A - - A - A D - D - - D
30%
Chromic Acid
C B B - C A A D D D - B B A D D D C C B B D A - A D - D A D C
50%

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www.tpub.com Density and Specific Gravity

Home The density of a substance is its weight per unit volume. The
unit volume in the English system of measurement is 1 cubic
Information Categories foot. In the metric system it is the cubic centimeter; therefore,
Administration density is expressed in pounds per cubic foot or in grams per
Advancement cubic centimeter.
Aerographer
Automotive To find the density of a substance, you must know its weight
Aviation and volume. You then divide its weight by its volume to find the
Combat weight per unit volume. In equation form, this is written as
Construction
Diving
Draftsman Equation 2-4.
.... Engineering
Electronics EXAMPLE: The liquid that fills a certain container weighs
1,497.6 pounds. The container is 4 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 2
Food and Cooking
feet deep. Its volume is 24 cubic feet (4 ft x 3 ft x 2 ft). If 24
Math
cubic feet of this liquid weighs 1,497.6 pounds, then 1 cubic
Medical
foot weighs
Music
Nuclear Fundamentals
Photography
Religion
USMC or 62.4 pounds. Therefore, the density of the liquid is 62.4
pounds per cubic foot. This is the density of water at 4°C and is
Products usually used as the standard for comparing densities of other
substances. The temperature of 4°C was selected because water
Educational CD- has its maximum density at this temperature. In the metric
ROM's system, the density of water is 1 gram per cubic centimeter. The
Printed Manuals standard temperature of 4°C is used whenever the density of
Downloadable Books liquids and solids is measured. Changes in temperature will not
change the weight of a substance but will change the volume of
the substance by expansion or contraction, thus changing the
weight per unit volume.

In physics, the word specific implies a ratio. Weight is the

measure of the earth’s attraction for a body. The earth’s
attraction for a body is called gravity. Thus, the ratio of the
weight of a unit volume of some substance to the weight of an
equal volume of a standard substance, measured under standard
pressure and temperature con-ditions, is called specific gravity.
The terms specific weight and specific density are sometimes
used to express this ratio.

The following formulas are used to find the specific gravity (sp
gr) of solids and liquids, with water used as the standard
substance.

or,

The same formulas are used to find the specific gravity of gases
by substituting air, oxygen, or hydrogen for water.

If a cubic foot of a certain liquid weighs 68.64 pounds, then its

specific gravity is 1.1,

Thus, the specific gravity of the liquid is the ratio of its density
to the density of water. If the specific gravity of a liquid or solid
is known, the density of the liquid or solid maybe obtained by
multiplying its specific gravity by the density of water. For
example, if a certain hydraulic liquid has a specific gravity of
0.8, 1 cubic foot of the liquid weighs 0.8 times as much as a
cubic foot of water—0.8 times 62.4, or 49.92 pounds. In the
metric system, 1 cubic centimeter of a substance with a specific
gravity of 0.8 weighs 1 times 0.8, or 0.8 grams. (Note that in the
metric system the specific gravity of a liquid or solid has the
same numerical value as its density, because water weighs 1
gram per cubic centimeter.)

Specific gravity and density are independent of the size of the

sample under consideration and depend only on the substance of
which it is made. A device called a hydrometer is used for
measuring the specific gravity of liquids.

Pascal’s Law

Recall from chapter 1 that the foundation of modern hydraulics

was established when Pascal discovered that pressure in a fluid
acts equally in all directions. This pressure acts at right angles to
the containing surfaces. If some type of pressure gauge, with an
exposed face, is placed beneath the surface of a liquid (fig. 2-6)
at a specific depth and pointed in different directions, the
pressure will read the same. Thus, we can say that pressure in a
liquid is independent of direction.

Pressure due to the weight of a liquid, at any level, depends on

the depth of the fluid from the surface. If the exposed face of the
pressure gauges, figure 2-6, are moved closer to the surface of
the liquid, the indicated pressure will be less. When the depth is
doubled, the indicated pressure is doubled. Thus the pressure in
a liquid is directly proportional to the depth.

Consider a container with vertical sides (fig. 2-7) that is 1 foot

long and 1 foot wide. Let it be filled with water 1 foot deep,
providing 1 cubic foot of water. We learned earlier in this
chapter that 1 cubic foot of water weighs 62.4 pounds. Using
this information and equation 2-2, P = F/A, we can calculate the
pressure on the bottom of the container.

Since there are 144 square inches in 1 square foot,

This can be stated as follows: the weight of a column of water 1
foot high, having a cross-sectional area of 1 square inch, is
0.433 pound. If the depth of the column is tripled, the weight of
the column will be 3 x 0.433, or 1.299 pounds, and the pressure
2
at the bottom will be 1.299 lb/in (psi), since pressure equals the
force divided by the area. Thus, the pressure at any depth in a
liquid is equal to the weight of the column of liquid at that depth
divided by the

Figure 2-6.—Pressure of a liquid is independent of direction.

cross-sectional area of the column at that depth. The volume of a

liquid that produces the pressure is referred to as the fluid head
of the liquid. The pressure of a liquid due to its fluid head is also
dependent on the density of the liquid.

If we let A equal any cross-sectional area of a liquid column and

h equal the depth of the column, the volume becomes Ah. Using
equation 2-4, D = W/V, the weight of the liquid above area A is
equal to AhD.
 Figure 2-7.—Water pressure in a 1-cubic-foot container.

Since pressure is equal to the force per unit area, set A equal to
1. Then the formula pressure becomes

P =hD Equation 2-5.

It is essential that h and D be expressed in similar units. That is,

if D is expressed in pounds per cubic foot, the value of h must
be expressed in feet. If the desired pressure is to be expressed in
pounds per square inch, the pressure formula, equation 2-5,
becomes

Equation 2-6.

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 TUTORIAL

NPSHA for those who hate that stuffy word

by Jacques Chaurette p. eng.

Fluide Design Inc.

 copyright 2006
 page….2

NPSHA for those who hate that stuffy word

This article follows the same approach as the pump tutorial and if you are just starting in
this field I recommend you read it first.

The dreaded term NPSHA means Net Positive Suction Head Available. It`s a term that
most people find difficult to relate to in part because they have no idea what value it
should have. Before we discuss values and the exact definition of NPSHA, let`s get an
intuitive understanding of NPSHA. NPSHA is a measure that corresponds to the level of
pressure at the pump suction. The higher the pressure, the higher the NPSHA and the
better the pump will operate. Normally we measure pressure with a gauge that is
calibrated in psig (pound per square inch gauge) or kPa in the metric system. This
pressure scale is set at zero when there is no pressure or the pressure is equal to
atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric pressure at sea level as measured on an
absolute scale such as psia (pounds per square inch absolute) is 14.7 psia. In the
absolute scale, pressure starts at zero which is the lowest possible pressure and means
that there is no molecules of matter in the environment that can create pressure such as
in outer space. It then can have any value corresponding to a high pressure
environment.

The term head in NPSHA has been well explained in the pump tutorial, the head
component that we are most interested in here is the static head or the level of fluid
above the pump suction. Head is measured in feet in North America and in meters just
about everywhere else. The value of NPSHA will vary between the lowest value of 0
feet, up to the value of the local atmospheric pressure head 34 feet plus the suction
static head minus a small quantity which we will get to shortly. 34 feet is the value of
atmospheric pressure at sea level expressed in terms of pressure head. If your tank has
10 feet of suction head, the NPSHA may be 34 + 10 = 44 feet which is ample. One
should start to worry when the value of NPSHA falls below 20 feet.

How can the value of NPSHA drop below 33 feet? This is possible if there is allot of
friction or plugging which increases friction in the suction line. Sometimes these two
occur together, when the level is low in the suction tank due to physical constraints or
poor level control or other reasons, this decreases the overall NPSHA and a further
decrease occurs due to friction.

How will you know if the NPSHA is adequate? The manufacturer tests the pump under
various suction head conditions and provides a requirement or NPSHR for each flow
condition on the characteristic curve of the pump. It is then a matter of checking this
value against the NPSH available and making sure that the NPSHA is higher.

Why do you have to worry about atmospheric pressure, after all atmospheric pressure is
everywhere, how could the operation of the pump be influenced by its value? Because
atmospheric pressure depends on the elevation, the pressure varies significantly
depending on the elevation above sea level. Atmospheric pressure gets added to the
pressure provided by the static head and if you are at a high elevation atmospheric
pressure will be less and therefore the suction pressure will be less.

ã Copyright Fluide Design Inc. 2006 www.fluidedesign.com Revised January 5, 2006

 page….3

Figure 1 Variation of atmospheric pressure with elevation.

To measure suction pressure two units are typically used, the psia or the inch of
mercury. Pressure gauges can be purchased that have scales with either one of these
two units in North America.

The following figure shows how these two scales can be used.

ã Copyright Fluide Design Inc. 2006 www.fluidedesign.com Revised January 5, 2006

 page….4

Figure 2 Relationship between pressure

measurements in psig, psia and inch of mercury.

Most pumps can operate with a suction pressure that is below atmospheric pressure. A
pressure that is below atmospheric pressure is referred to as a vacuum. That is why a
value of 20 feet for NPSHA can be quite acceptable. This is also how it is possible for a
normal centrifugal pump to lift fluid from an elevation that is below the suction.

Figure 3 A pump can operate with low pressure or

vacuum at the suction.

A pump that operates in this fashion will require a foot valve to keep the liquid in the
suction pipe to avoid having to re-prime the pump when it is stopped.

ã Copyright Fluide Design Inc. 2006 www.fluidedesign.com Revised January 5, 2006

 page….5

We can calculate or we can measure NPSHA, let’s start with measuring NPSHA. The
main measurement we need is the pressure close to the pump suction. But first a
digression on what the pressure measurement we take will mean. What happens to the
flow and pressure within the pump past the point of measurement.

Figure 4 shows that the pressure drops considerably as the fluid enters the eye of the
pump. This happens for two main reasons: the velocity as the fluid approaches the eye
increases which decreases pressure also friction and turbulence further decreases
pressure. The pressure can be low enough that the liquid will start to boil at this low
pressure. What do you mean the liquid will boil at low pressure?

Figure 4 Pressure profile at the pump entrance.

There are two ways to boil a liquid. One way is to increase the temperature while
keeping the pressure constant until the temperature is high enough to produce vapor
bubbles. In Figure 5 this is what happens if you take one point in the liquid phase
and you move horizontally (that is at constant pressure) by increasing the
temperature. Eventually you hit the vaporization line of the particular fluid and the
fluid starts to boil or produce vapor bubbles. We do the same thing every day when
we boil water in a pot.

ã Copyright Fluide Design Inc. 2006 www.fluidedesign.com Revised January 5, 2006

 page….6

Figure 5 Vapor pressure vs. temperature.

The other way to boil a liquid is to lower the pressure. If you keep the temperature
constant and lower the pressure the liquid will also boil. In Figure 5 this is what
happens if you take one point in the liquid phase and you move vertically (that is at
constant temperature) by decreasing the pressure. Again you hit the vaporization line
of the particular fluid and the fluid starts to boil or produce vapor bubbles.

If the pot were covered and you had a source of vacuum (see Figure 6) by lowering
the pressure in the pot you would be able to make the water boil at a lower
temperature. When the pressure is 7.5 psia or (14.7 – 7.5 = 7.2) or 7.2 psi less than
the atmospheric pressure the water will boil at a temperature of 180 °F and when the
pressure is 1.5 psia the water will boil at 120 °F. This is what happens at the pump
suction when the pressure is low enough to make the fluid boil or vaporize.

It is not unusual for industrial processes to operate at temperatures that are close or
higher than 120 F. Therefore if the temperature is high and the pressure drops as the
fluid enters the pump, it will be easier to produce cavitation because the pressure drop
produced by the pump will have to be smaller to match a higher vapor pressure. If
cavitation is occurring or suspected, two possible solutions are: to increase the pressure
at the pump inlet or decrease the fluid temperature.

Figure 6 Making a liquid boil under low pressure.

ã Copyright Fluide Design Inc. 2006 www.fluidedesign.com Revised January 5, 2006

 page….7

The pressure at which the liquid vaporizes is known as the vapor pressure and is
always specified for a given temperature. If the temperature changes, the vapor
pressure changes.

Why is vapor pressure an issue? If the pressure in the pump eye drops below the vapor
pressure, cavitation will occur. Cavitation begins as the formation of vapor bubbles at the
impeller eye due to low pressure. The bubbles form at the position of lowest pressure at
the pump inlet (see Figure 4), which is just prior to the fluid being acted upon by the
impeller vanes, they are then rapidly compressed. The compression of the vapor
bubbles produces a small shock wave that impacts the impeller surface and pits away at
the metal creating over time large eroded areas and subsequent failure.

Figure 7 Vapor bubble implosion.

The sound of cavitation is very characteristic and resembles the sound of gravel in a
concrete mixer. You can hear this sound at this web address
http://fluidedesign.com/images/cavitation.wav.

ã Copyright Fluide Design Inc. 2006 www.fluidedesign.com Revised January 5, 2006

 page….8

Figure 8 Impeller damaged by cavitation.

The formula for NPSHA based on a pressure measurement at the pump suction is:

p GS ( psi) v S ( ft / s) 2 ( p A ( psia) - p va ( psia)) [1]

NPSH avail ( ft fluid absol. ) = 2.31 + 2
+ z GS ( ft) + 2.31
SG 2 g ( ft / s ) SG

Figure 10 Typical pump suction pressure measurement for

NPSHA.

ã Copyright Fluide Design Inc. 2006 www.fluidedesign.com Revised January 5, 2006

 page….9

where

pGS: pressure in psig at the pump suction (this pressure can be negative
zGS : is the difference between the gauge height and the pump suction, this is
necessary to correct for an erroneous reading due to the gauge height.
vS: the velocity of the liquid at the suction in ft/s
pA: atmospheric pressure in the local environment
pva: vapor pressure of the liquid at the operating temperature.
g: the acceleration due to gravity equal to 32.17 ft/s2
SG: specific gravity of the liquid.

If we are designing a system then it is not possible to measure the pump suction
pressure and therefore we have to calculate it.

The pressure head at the pump suction is given by:

vS
2 [2]
HS ( ft fluid ) = - HF - + z
2g
where

HS: pressure head corresponding to the pressure measurement pGS

z: the height between the free surface of the suction tank and the pump suction
centerline.
HF: the friction head loss in the suction line.

HS is related to PGS by the static head relationship seen in the pump tutorial.

2 . 31 [3]
H S ( ft fluid ) = ´ p GS ( psia )
SG

If we replace the value of pGS in equation [3] into equation [1] and considering that there
is no correction for pressure gauge height required then the term zGS disappears, we
obtain:

( p A ( psia) - p va ( psia)) [4]

NPSH avail ( ft fluid absol . ) = - H F ( ft ) + z( ft ) + 2.31
SG

ã Copyright Fluide Design Inc. 2006 www.fluidedesign.com Revised January 5, 2006

 page….10

Figure 11 Typical pump suction variables.

Therefore to calculate NPSHA, we use equation[1] when we have an existing system

and we can measure the pressure at the pump suction. And we use equation [4] when
we are designing a pump system.

Let’s try an example. The pump system used in the pump tutorial is a good start. We will
use equation [4] to calculate the NPSHA. The value of z which is the suction static head
is 15 feet. In the pump tutorial we calculated the friction loss in the suction to be 3.1 feet.
The velocity head or term vs2/2g is often quite small, of the order of 1 foot or less and this
is no exception so we will therefore neglect it. The atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psia.
The vapor pressure for water at 60F is 0.5 psia. Values for vapor pressure of other fluids
at various temperatures is available in the pump glossary. The specific gravity of water is
1.0.

Figure 12 Typical domestic water system.

ã Copyright Fluide Design Inc. 2006 www.fluidedesign.com Revised January 5, 2006

 page….11

The value of NPSHA is then:

(14.7 - 0.5) [4]

NPSH avail ( ft fluid absol . ) = - 3.1 - 15 + 2.31 = 14.7
1.0

This value is a bit on the low side and I would normally check the pump curves to ensure
that I have sufficient NPSHA at the required flow rate. However in this case, we know we
are using a jet pump which is specifically designed for this type of application so I
wouldn’t worry about it.

ã Copyright Fluide Design Inc. 2006 www.fluidedesign.com Revised January 5, 2006

HomeNewsPricesEngineering GuidesMaterial PropertiesWhats NewJobsLinksContactSearch
Mon, 23 October 2006
Specific Speed of Pumps SUGAR PRICE
Pumps (and fans) can be characterised by various dimensionless parameters.
19 Oct 2006
White
● Specific Speed, Ns
$/
400.00
● Flow parameter, φ tonne

● Pressure parameter, ψ 19 Oct 2006

● Power parameter, Π Raw
¢/lb 11.59
● Diameter parameter ∆

The most important of these is the specific speed

Pump Selection
These dimensionless parameters can be used calculate how similar pumps operate under
differing conditions (the similarty laws). These similarty laws (detailed below) can be used to
select a pump given a duty point.

Specific Speed
The specific speed, Ns is given by;

Ns = Q0.5·n/(g·H)0.75

Specific speed can also be calculated as follows where φ and ψ are defined below

Ns = f0.5/y0.75

The specific speed of a pump is associated with the impeller shape

Low Specific Speed Ns=0.05

Medium Specific Speed Ns=0.10

High Specific Speed Ns=0.20
Flow Parameter
The flow parameter, φ is given by;

f = Q/n/D3

Pressure Parameter
The pressure parameter, ψ is given by;

y = g·H/n2/D2

Power Parameter
The power parameter, Π is given by;

P = f·y·h

Diameter Parameter
The diameter parameter, ∆ is given by;
D = y0.25/f0.5
Impeller Specific Speed (Ns)
The term impeller specific speed is used to classify impellers of
various types based on their performance. Specific speed is defined
as that speed at which a geometrically similar pump would deliver
one unit of flow to one unit of head.
Input values for Flow and Head that correspond to the the pump
Hydraulic Power
performance at optimum (or best) efficiency point. In this example,
Specific Speed
calculate the specific speed in either Metric or US units.
Spec. Suct. Speed
See below for sections through various impellers with their respective
specific speeds Affinity Correction
Tip Speed

Flow Rate Head Speed Specific Speed

l/sec m (RPM)

Compute Clear Fields

Suction Specific Speed (S)
Suction Specific Speed (S) like Impeller Specific Speed (Ns) is a
parameter, or index of hydraulic design describing the suction
capabilities and characteristics of a given first stage impeller.
Input values for Flow and NPSHR that correspond to the the pump
performance at optimum (or best) efficiency point. In this example,
Hydraulic Power
calculate the suction specific speed in either Metric or US units.
Specific Speed
Spec. Suct. Speed
Flow Rate NPSHR Speed Suction Specific Speed Affinity Correction
Tip Speed

l/sec m (RPM)

Compute Clear Fields

Affinity Laws Calculation
In this example, calculate the effect of a change of speed or impeller diameter on
flow rate, head, power and NPSH.

Speed Flow Head Power NPSH

Hydraulic Power
Specific Speed
#1 Spec. Suct. Speed
Affinity Correction
Tip Speed
#2

Clear Fields Calculate

Hydraulic Power Calculation
In this example, calculate power absorbed by a pump. Enter the
flow rate, head and efficiency of the pump.

Flow Rate Head Efficiency SG Power

Hydraulic Power
Specific Speed
m^3/hr m (%) KW Spec. Suct. Speed
Affinity Correction
Tip Speed
1

Compute Clear Fields

Impeller Tip Speed Calculation
In this example, calculate the tip speed of an impeller

Impeller Motor
Tip Speed
Diameter Speed
Hydraulic Power
Specific Speed
mm RPM m/s Spec. Suct. Speed
Affinity Correction
Tip Speed

Calculate Clear Fields

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the crank axis in one minute multiplied by engine speed
(rpm) and known torque to arrive at the formula for Cylinder bores must have a cross-
horsepower: hatch pattern rough enough to seat
the rings, but smooth enough to avoid
Because torque and rpm are divided by 5252, torque and excessive friction. Most high-
horsepower are always equal at 5252 rpm. If you solve performance engines fitted with moly
rings require a 400-grit honing stone,
the equation at 5252 rpm, the rpm value cancels out,
while race engines are typically
leaving horsepower equal to torque. If you plot torque finished with near-mirror finishes
and horsepower curves on a graph, the lines will always produced with cork-bonded stones or
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Torque is the static measurement of how much work an
Your E-mail engine does, while power is a measure of how fast the
work is being done. Since horsepower is calculated from
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torque curve.

Increased displacement is the easiest way to achieve

increased torque. Very large cylinders and a long stroke
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for the fuel charge to push against the crankshaft or
lever, if you will. Stationary industrial engines that
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This leaves us searching for ways to increase torque in

smaller engines by increasing efficiency through the
manipulation of mechanical components, gas dynamics Typical torque and horsepower curves
and thermodynamics (to increase and harness cylinder show torque increasing rapidly at
pressure). There are many ways to do this, but most lower engine speeds and peaking
involve some sort of tradeoff somewhere in the power somewhere between 4500 and 5500
curve. To a great degree, we are forced to build engines rpm, while horsepower starts slowly
for greater efficiency within a chosen engine speed and climbs steadily before falling off
range. Some combinations will function very well at low well beyond the torque curve. Don’t
speeds, others will be strong in the mid-range, and still believe in curves that you see if the
others will only run hard at a high rpm. The key is torque and power curves don’t cross
at 5250 rpm.
selecting the combination of components that will stretch
and fatten the torque curve (improve efficiency) as much
as possible in the driving range we prefer. Our saving
grace is the relatively forgiving nature of internal
combustion engines wherein torque dissipates gradually
as engine speed increases. As long as the induction
system can carry the airflow demand created by the
cylinders at high engine speeds, the torque curve will
remain broad. This allows engine speed and horsepower
to carry the engine farther in the rpm range before the net
effect of induction restrictions at high engine speeds
chokes off efficiency. The following are some basic
Maximum torque requires optimum
methods for increasing torque and, thus, horsepower
cylinder sealing with minimal friction.
across the typical range of modern-performance engine Piston rings must fit the ring land with
speeds. minimum possible side clearance to
ensure a stable ring package. The ring
Mechanical Efficiency must be able to move, but not very
much. Use manufacturer’s
recommended specifications for side
Friction robs a great deal of power from an engine. The clearance.
greatest friction losses are caused by the pistons and
piston rings. We overcome this with meticulous cylinder
wall and piston preparation. Cylinder blocks that are
bored and honed with a torque plate in place always
contribute to a reduction in friction. This practice reduces
cylinder-wall distortion caused by head-bolt clamping
forces. Thus, the piston travels in the same properly
sized bore throughout its stroke, and the piston rings are
not subjected to changes in tension due to wall distortion.
The piston manufacturer's recommended skirt clearances
should be followed in most cases, because they have
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the piston and the ring pack in the bore with minimal
friction.

A smooth bore generally improves ring seal and reduces

friction. The best honing finish depends on the type of
rings and the final application. The piston-ring
manufacturer's recommendations are your best bet.
Rings should be hand-fit with ring gaps set to the
minimum recommended clearance. Piston rings should
also be very carefully checked in each individual piston to
Ring endgap is also critical to
ensure the minimum recommended side clearance. If a producing maximum torque. High-
ring is sticking due to too little side clearance, friction will performance engines should always
soar. If a ring is too loose, it may flutter and drag be built with ring sets that have to be
intermittently while bleeding off precious cylinder hand-fit for minimum endgap
pressure. clearance. This ensures the best
possible cylinder sealing. Rings that
are end-gapped too tight will cause
One way to improve mechanical efficiency that most
friction to soar and are likely to fail
people ignore is through the use of special antifriction early, even if they don’t directly butt.
coatings for pistons, rings and bearings. These coatings
are available in do-it-yourself kits from mail-order houses
such as Summit Racing. When properly applied, the
coating can get you another 10 horsepower or so. The
ideal application would use coated components with
optimized clearances and a good synthetic oil for
maximum friction reduction. Altogether, there may be as
much as 20 horsepower available with the right
combination of friction-reducing ingredients.

Another component of friction reduction is the preparation

of the cylinder-block bearing saddles and the crankshaft. Combustion chamber efficiency has
Cylinder blocks should be align-honed to minimize tremendous influence on an engine’s
ability to make torque. Large
frictional losses. This gives the crankshaft a straight set
unshrouded valves will help with
of bearings on which to run. Likewise, the crankshaft cylinder filling, and a tight quench area
must be straightened to eliminate runout, and the entire will promote the turbulence necessary
reciprocating assembly must be properly balanced to for a fast burn and complete
minimize drag created by uneven forces. combustion.

More torque may be gained if you use a well-designed oil

pan with an effective oil scraper and aerodynamic
shaping of the crank-throw leading edges. Small-block
Chevy builders should avoid the temptation to use a big-
block-style oil pump. Use a properly clearanced small-
block pump, and set it to deliver only the pressure
necessary to provide optimum lubrication. Most small
blocks never need more than about 60 psi, even at a high
rpm. Excessive oil pressure or a bigger pump with taller
gears robs power throughout the entire rpm range. Also
consider the pumping losses caused by the induction and
exhaust system. This should lead you to careful
consideration of each system, because the engine's Because frictional losses have such a
ability to work efficiently is largely controlled by these dramatic effect on torque, you should
systems. See the accompanying sections for further also look closely at the engine
bearings. Cylinder blocks should be
discussion of these subjects.
align-honed to provide a straight set of
bearing saddles in which the
Thermodynamic Efficiency crankshaft can rotate.

This is really combustion efficiency, and it all has to do

with getting the correct air-fuel mixture in a well-sealed,
active combustion chamber with a properly timed high-
energy spark. Spark timing and chamber shape influence
this tremendously, but most engines make optimum
power at wide-open throttle with a 13.1:1 air-fuel ratio.
You want your carburetor or fuel injection system to
optimize this air-fuel ratio as fast as possible when you
go WOT, and you want them to maintain that fuel curve
throughout the rpm range. This can be no small trick with
a carburetor and is certainly easier with electronic fuel
injection, in which oxygen-sensor monitoring of the Bearing clearances should be set to
exhaust gas allows the computer to continuously adjust the loose side of the recommended
the fuel ratio. tolerance to help reduce friction.

Engines with a large quench area and a smaller

combustion chamber are generally more combustion-
efficient. The quench area is the flat, top portion of the
piston adjacent to the valve reliefs. The flat portion of the
piston deck corresponds to the flat portion of the cylinder-
head chamber roof. When the piston approaches the
cylinder head at high speed, this area squashes the
charge toward the ignition source or spark plug to
promote turbulence and a faster burn. Some studies
suggest that you can have too much quench, but most
engine builders feel that optimizing combustion-chamber
quench is a proven path to power. On many steel-rod
engines, you can juggle the head-gasket thickness and
With any engine combination, it’s the
the piston deck height to maximize quench. Steel rods
total package that determines the
allow the quench clearance to be set as tight as 0.030 overall power curve. All of the engine
inch, or slightly less in some cases. This promotes components have to be well matched
maximum charge activity to increase combustion to the intended application if an engine
efficiency. is going to produce a broad torque
curve and strong top-end power.
If you have the luxury of custom pistons, your piston
manufacturer can also move the ring package higher on
the piston to provide greater piston stability. A higher ring
package will also reduce the very small area between the
piston and the cylinder wall above the top ring. Because
all pistons experience some small degree of rocking as
they reverse directions, the piston is generally machined
smaller or tapered above the top ring land to keep it from
hitting the cylinder wall during this rocking. The space
created here is very tight and can collect unburned or
partially burned gases; these intermittently mix with the
fresh, incoming charge and contaminate the mixture or Even if you have all your ports sized
alter the air/fuel ratio ever so slightly. Paying close and shaped correctly, the wrong
attention to these kinds of details can add up to a camshaft can eliminate most torque
significant torque bonus. When you add up all the small gains. In general, it is beneficial if you
amounts of torque that you gain from these details, you'll can open the intake valve a little
be surprised at how much total power you have really sooner than normal and open the
gained. exhaust valve a little later than normal.
Your cam grinder’s recommendations
will be pretty good if you can tell the
Compression Ratio grinder exactly what your application is.

Much like increased engine displacement, higher

compression ratios are a sure path to increased torque.
The overriding factor is, of course, fuel quality and
detonation. There are numerous factors to consider here.
Finer atomization of the fuel and more precise control of
air/fuel ratios via electronic fuel injection has allowed O.E.
M. manufacturers to increase compression ratios above
10:1 in some late-model, high-performance cars. The
very latest LT4 Corvette engines are actually sneaking up
on 11:1 compression ratios again because of the inherent
efficiency of electronic controls and the combustion-
efficiency gains made in the cylinder heads and induction
system. Carburetors are less precise, but there are other
ways to increase torque with higher compression in
carbureted engines running 92-octane gasoline. Many
street engine combinations running a big cam for top-end
power experience a significant loss of low-end torque.
This occurs because the intake valves close much later
when the piston is farther up the bore. Thus, the dynamic
compression ratio is less than the theoretical
compression ratio that assumes full-stroke piston travel. If Large displacement is the quickest
you are going to run a big cam, one of the bonuses is that path to torque and horsepower.
you can increase the compression ratio slightly without Current mountain-motor big-blocks
incurring a detonation penalty. The increased displacing up to 800 cubic inches
compression will boost the low-end torque and extend the allow cars to run speeds unattainable
top-end power range. Experienced engine builders have by small-block engines, even with the
found that 9:1 compression engines require at least a assistance of nitrous oxide injection
270-degree (advertised duration) cam. On the other and/or forced induction.
hand, 10:1 engines are happy with a 280-degree cam,
and a 290-degree cam will allow you to run nearly 11:1
compression. Depending on other engine variables, such
as combustion-chamber shape, bore diameter and
ignition timing, some engines will detonate under these
conditions. In these cases you need to go to a smaller
cam or run slightly less total timing. In any event, the idea
is to use as much compression as possible relative to the
cam profile in order to gain low-end torque without
detonating.

Camshaft Timing

When you consider valve-timing events, you also have to

consider all the other elements acting on the fuel charge
and combustion gases in the cylinders. An earlier-closing
intake valve starts building cylinder pressure sooner. This
increases low-speed torque due to greater cylinder
pressures, but it means that the engine is having to work
harder to compress the charge. As previously explained,
a later-closing intake can enhance top-end torque at the Another way to increase torque and
expense of low-end torque, but you can get most of the horsepower dramatically is to force-
torque back on the low end with an increased feed the engine with a supercharger.
compression ratio. What you look for is a cam profile that In this case you must still get the cam
promotes increased cylinder filling with earlier intake timing, ignition timing and other factors
opening so that the valve is farther off the seat during the correct to take maximum advantage of
early portion of the intake stroke. Then you want to delay the supercharger’s boost capacity.
the exhaust-valve opening as much as possible to take
advantage of all the energy you can from the combustion
process before you blow down the cylinder. A quick-
opening exhaust valve is helpful here, but, again, there
are trade-offs.

This combination builds good torque but tends to

increase valve overlap at TDC. This is where the cam
lobe separation angle takes control. The lobe separation
angle is the angle between the peak of the intake lobe
and the peak of the exhaust lobe expressed in cam
degrees. Tighter lobe separation angles (less than 110
degrees) make more torque and horsepower, but, with
more overlap, the engine experiences poor idle quality
Improper ignition timing can kill all
and high fuel consumption. Opening up the lobe your efforts, but a properly set
separation angles (more than 110 degrees) broadens the advance curve can really pump up the
power band while improving idle and part throttle torque down low, without hurting high-
characteristics. With these wider lobe separation angles, speed horsepower.
peak torque and power are generally reduced, but the
engine becomes very smooth and drivable.

Most street and high-performance engines will perform

best when overlap is between 35 and 70 degrees
(measured from intake-valve opening to exhaust-valve
closing) with the duration as short as possible within the
overlap guidelines. If you choose 50 degrees as a middle-
of-the-road overlap figure for a pretty hot street machine,
the shortest possible duration with this overlap will
produce the most torque. You could make more torque
with a bigger cam--but only at the expense of driveability
and economy.
Cylinder Head Selection
Cylinder heads are where the power is, but there are
limitations. You are generally limited to what's available,
and, for most people, porting is a luxury. Increased
airflow always means more top end power. For the most
part, it is better to run a larger valve, if possible, and a
shorter camshaft. This allows the larger valve opening to
do the work of filling the cylinder while the cam remains
relatively mild. Torque will be increased. Bigger valve
heads may give you more overall torque than a simple
cam swap. If your heads have stock-sized valves and you
put in a larger cam, you will have to spin the engine faster
to make the same torque and power.
The carburetor’s metering ability is
largely related to engine speed versus
venturi diameter and booster
sensitivity. Displacement, engine
speed, cam timing and intake-runner
length and configuration all dictate a
booster’s effectiveness. Dogleg and
stepped boosters, as shown here,
make good top-end power, but they
don’t meter as effectively on the low
end. Annular discharge boosters are
far more sensitive at low engine
speeds. Hence, they can provide
torque gains where you need them.
However, if you run them at very high
engine speeds, you will need a
carburetor modified with removable air
bleeds so that you can tune out the
excessive fuel flow at a high rpm.

That's the simplified version, but there are other

considerations. The length, area and volume of the intake
system all affect the engine's output. Most hot street
engines will benefit from bowl porting and a good valve
job, but you should avoid significantly enlarging the ports.
The minute you start enlarging the port, you are bleeding
off potential torque. Unless your engine will spend a lot of
time at elevated engine speeds, don't start hogging out
those ports.
If you have the ability to modify heads, you can extract
more torque and horsepower by porting for efficiency, but
the process is tedious at best. Street enthusiasts aren't
generally in a position to flow heads and check port
dimensions. If you are, the intake port area should be
about 80 percent of the valve area, and the port should
enlarge at a 2- to 4-degree taper out to the plenum. This
is pretty standard on most available heads.

Exhaust ports should not be enlarged significantly unless
you're running nitrous oxide, which produces a greater
exhaust requirement. Most good aftermarket headers
have been sized and built to create a negative pressure
at the exhaust valve during overlap. This ensures good
cylinder scavenging and reduces the potential for exhaust
reversion: Exhaust gas speed remains high, and the
pulse waves are tuned to aid the exiting exhaust charge.
The trend is to remain conservative on
carburetor size and use vacuum
secondaries for sharp throttle
response on street applications. If you
have a light car, you can use a slightly
bigger carburetor to enhance high-
speed breathing, while tuning the
boosters and air bleeds to optimize the
fuel curve.

Exhaust Systems

Much of your cylinder head work is diminished if you are

running stock exhaust manifolds and mufflers. Exhaust
headers are louder and require more attention than cast
iron manifolds, but they offer substantial power
advantages. While most aftermarket performance
headers are of the standard four-into-one collector
design, many street applications could make better use of
the old four-into-two-into-one Tri-Y design, which
broadens the torque curve and is still capable of making Dual-plane intake manifolds have long
power up to about 6000 rpm. These headers are more been a staple of the low-rpm, high-
expensive and time consuming to produce; hence, they torque environment. Some of these
manifolds can hang on to 6000 rpm
are only available from a few manufacturers.
and a little higher, but they are
generally more effective at making
One of the biggest mistakes made in exhaust-header torque in the 2000- to 5500-rpm range.
application is the selection of primary tubes that are too
large. Big primary tubes are only necessary to carry the
gas volume generated at high engine speeds. Most
headers with 1-1/2-inch primary tubes will carry an
engine well into the 300hp range, while 1-5/8-inch
headers can support up to 400 horsepower, and a little
beyond in some cases. This depends a great deal on
displacement and engine speed. We have seen 1-3/4
headers support up to 550 horsepower without affecting
power on a single four-barrel 350 Chevy running at 7500
rpm. Meanwhile, a 480hp, twin carburetor 302 Ford
running at 8000 rpm gained 13 horsepower by switching
to 1-7/8-inch primaries. It is usually better to err on the
Bigger ports do not necessarily make
small side for a street engine so that torque remains
more power, and they almost always
strong. Pipes that are too large generally hurt the bottom
kill torque. Because the intake port
end more than small pipes hurt the top end. length is fixed by the head, you can
only deal with port shape, taper, area
Exhaust-system backpressure--as a result of restrictive and volume. Keep it conservative if
mufflers, catalytic converters and multiple sharp bends in you are looking for torque.
the exhaust system--can be severely detrimental to good
torque and power. Exhaust-pumping losses caused by
restrictive exhaust backpressure can be substantial in
some applications, and the problem increases
dramatically with engine speed. Performance camshafts
are also rendered less effective because backpressure
typically negates any improved cylinder scavenging
during the overlap period. The Catch 22 with exhaust
systems is your own personal comfort with the sound
level of the mufflers. You can run mufflers with virtually
no restriction, but the drone may drive you crazy the first
time you take a 100-mile trip. The best approach for most
street engines is to complement all the other torque-
building efforts you have applied by using a Tri-Y header
Exhaust ports can help boost torque if
with at least 2.5-inch diameter exhaust pipes and the they are properly shaped and sized to
least restrictive muffler you can stand relative to sound provide efficient cylinder scavenging
levels. A crossover tube to balance the pulses from each with your chosen exhaust system. It is
cylinder bank can help smooth the sound a bit, and it may okay to enlarge exhaust ports, but the
add a very slight amount of torque depending on the rest port area next to the valve should
of the application. It is usually worthwhile. remain relatively untouched in order to
maintain high-exit velocity near the
 end of the exhaust stroke so that
Ignition Timing reversion is minimized.

Incorrect ignition timing has the potential to stall most of

your efforts to improve torque and horsepower. Cylinder
pressure or best combustion pressure provides its
maximum effect at about 12 to 18 degrees after the
piston has passed TDC (top dead center). A faster
burning charge will require less timing, while a slower
burning charge needs more timing. If you have
concentrated all your engine building and tuning efforts
toward building maximum cylinder pressure (relative to
fuel quality and detonation resistance), at the end of the
compression stroke you will have a fast-moving flame Tri-Y headers are a good choice for
front that needs less timing. If you have compromised low-end torque production. They
cylinder pressure in some way, the charge will burn more typically use small-diameter primary
slowly and require more timing. If you have done your job tubes, which favor torque.
well by increasing breathing efficiency and the
compression ratio, you will need less overall timing.

In most cases you will have selected a big cam to

complement your desired power combination. This
usually reduces breathing efficiency at low engine
speeds, while enhancing it at high engine speeds. To
make this work to its best advantage, you should alter
spark advance to fire the plug sooner at low engine
speeds. A competent distributor shop or tune-up shop
can set your advance curve to take maximum advantage
of your combination. This is absolutely critical to taking
full advantage of all your other modifications.

Carburetor Sizing

Carburetor selection is frequently an afterthought based

on what a friend is running or what is available for the Late-model emission-controlled cars
make good torque with aftermarket
cheapest price. Carburetors are typically chosen
headers and aftermarket cat-back
according to an engine's displacement and rpm range. To exhaust systems.
some degree, this has made 750-cfm Holleys the default
carburetor for all applications. This only works because
the carburetor has the ability to meter fuel over a broad
range, but carburetor sizing plays an important roll in
building optimum torque and horsepower. Smaller
carburetors are commonly suggested for building torque,
because their smaller venturis keep air velocity high to
promote good fuel atomization. If you want to broaden
the power band to retain good torque at the low end and
extend power at the top end, you can make a case for a
larger carburetor if it is teamed with the appropriate mix
of components. The primary reason for keeping venturi
size small is to maintain air speed through the boosters.
This is especially critical with single-plane manifolds and
larger cams, which generate weak booster signals at low
rpm and the resulting loss of atomization quality and
metering accuracy. This results in reduced torque output
and poor driveability, but correcting it with smaller high-
speed venturis may limit power at the high end.

Holley's annular discharge boosters offer the increased

sensitivity to deliver low-speed booster sensitivity in a
larger venturi bore while allowing greater airflow at high
engine speeds. Different variations of these boosters
must be properly applied to get the greatest gain, so the
carburetor has to be custom-built in the aftermarket to
match your application.

Cold Air Efficiency

Finally, anything you can do to enhance cool air flow into

the engine will be good for torque and horsepower across
the entire rpm band. Remotely sourced inlet air is almost
always cleaner and cooler than engine compartment air.
Use an aluminum intake manifold with the carburetor
exhaust heat passage blocked off. Manifolds with the
runners separated from the valley keep the charge
cooler. Duct your inlet air from outside the car and keep
the ducting insulated from engine compartment heat.
Make your inlet ducting at least 4 inches or larger in
diameter, and keep the path as short and unrestricted as
possible. Be sure to duct the air through a high-flow air
filter prior to entering the carburetor or throttle body.
These simple modifications can increase torque from 3 to
5 percent, and they will also increase power at high
engine speeds due to unrestricted airflow and a cooler
charge.

Your engine is a delicately balanced system that depends

on more variables than you can shake a camshaft at. By
carefully considering all your options and being totally
honest about your expectations and the way you will use
your car, you can blend a power recipe that will tear your
head off with torque and catapult you into the next county
with horsepower. There's no smoke and mirrors--just
mechanical teamwork and efficiency.

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Vacuum
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● Overview
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● Diffusion Pumps Viton® Metric O-Rings
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● O-Rings Kalrez®
By Material Gold, Platinum, Silver/Tin
❍ Viton®
0, 1, 2, 3, Material for O-Rings
M
❍ Buna-N ● Gold Foil and Gasket Material
0, 1, 2, 3 ● Viton, PTFE and Silicone Sheet Material
❍ Silicone
0, 1, 2, 3
❍ PTFE
O-Ring Types Available
0, 1, 2, 3
❍ Kalrez® O-Rings are available in five different
0, 1, 2, 3 polymer materials as well as Gold and
❍ Gold, Platinum from Scientific Instrument
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Silver/Tin of each of the types, select the type of
Special material listed above.
❍ Metric O-
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Material for O-
Availability Charts
Rings
❍ Gold Foil O-Rings are available in sizes (sizes 0,
and Gasket 1, 2 and 3) which correspond to the
 Material diameter of the cross section of the O-Ring. Within these groups the O-
❍ Viton, Rings are classified according to their inside diameter. In addition O-Ring
PTFE and Kits of the most popular sizes of O-Rings are available in both Buna and
Silicone Viton®. If the size you require is not listed, it may still be available.
Sheet Contact us with your requirements.
Material
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Controllers Inside Inside

● Traps
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● Repair

SIS Catalog Online Size - 0 0.04 to 0.07 0.031 5.25

See also the following
section of our catalog: Size - 1 1/16 (0.063) 0.0625 9.75

● F. Vacuum Size - 2 1/8 (0.125) 0.1875 18

Supplies
Size - 3 3/16 (0.188) 0.4375 11.5

Comparision of O Materials Used in the Construction of O-

Rings

Each type has its advantages and disadvantages as listed in the chart
below, and the type required depends on the O-Ring application. Of the
various types of O-Rings available from SIS, Viton® is the most popular
for mass spectrometers and other laboratory instruments. This is due to
Viton®'s high temperature stability and good resistance to chemicals and
ozone. Gold gaskets are used to make high vacuum and high temperature
seals on vacuum flanges.

Buna-
Property Viton® Silicone PTFE Kalrez®
N
Part No. Prefix B- V- S- T- K-
Tear Resistance Good Good Poor Excellent Good
Abrasive
Good Good Poor Excellent Good
Resistance
Ozone
Poor Excellent Excellent Good Excellent
Resistance
Weather
Fair Excellent Excellent Good Excellent
Resistance
Heat
Fair Excellent Excellent Good Excellent
Resistance
Chemical
Fair Excellent Good Excellent Excellent
Resistance
Oil Resistance Poor Excellent Poor Good Excellent
 Acid Resistance Fair Excellent Good Excellent Excellent
Alkali
Good Good Fair Excellent Excellent
Resistance
Steam
Fair Fair Poor Good Excellent
Resistance
-65 -65 deg -110
-120 deg
deg F F deg F -35 deg F
F
Minimum
Usable Temp -54 -54 deg -79 deg -37 deg C
-85 Deg C
deg C C C

300 500 deg 500 deg

450 deg 550 deg
deg F F F
F F
Maximum
Usable Temp 150 260 deg 260 deg
232 deg C 288 deg C
deg C C C

Color Black Black Red White Black

Impermeability Fair Good Poor Excellent Good
Tensile
Good Good Poor Excellent Good
Strength

Kalrez® and Viton® are registered trademarks of E. I. DuPont de Nemours

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 O-Ring Gland Dimensions
Face Gland Seals
All Dimensions in Inches

W G
L Squeeze R
Cross Section Groove Width
Gland Groove
Vacuum
Nominal Actual Depth Actual Percent Liquids Radius
and Gases

1/16 .070 +/- .003 .050 to .054 .013 to .023 19 to 32 .101 to .107 .083 to .088 .005 to .015

3/32 .103 +/- .003 .074 to .080 .020 to .032 20 to 30 .136 to .142 .118 to .123 .005 to .015

1/8 .139 +/- .004 .101 to .107 .028 to .042 20 to 30 .177 to .187 .157 to .163 .010 to .025

3/16 .210 +/- .005 .152 to .162 .043 to .063 21 to 30 .270 to .142 .236 to .241 .020 to .035

1/4 .275 +/- .006 .201 to .211 .058 to .080 21 to 29 .342 to .362 .305 to .310 .020 to .035

3/8 .375 +/- .007 .276 to .286 .082 to .108 22 to 28 .475 to .485 .419 to .424 .030 to .045

1/2 .500 +/- .008 .370 to .380 .112 to .138 22 to 27 .638 to .645 .560 to .565 .030 to .045
 Static Glands - Axial (Face Seal)
Back to O-Ring Gland Design

O-Ring Size O-Ring Gland Actual % Groove Width Groove

AS568A- Cross Section Depth Squeeze Squeeze Liquids Gas/Vacuum Radius
004 to 050 .070" +/-.003 .050 to .054 .013 to .023 19 to 32 .101 to .107 .084 to .089 .005 to .015
102 to 178 .103" +/-.003 .074 to .080 .020 to .032 20 to 30 .136 to .142 .120 to .125 .005 to .015
201 to 284 .139" +/-.004 .101 to .107 .028 to .042 20 to 30 .177 to .187 .158 to .164 .010 to .025
309 to 395 .210" +/-.005 .152 to .162 .043 to .063 21 to 30 .270 to .290 .239 to .244 .020 to .035
410 to 475 .275" +/-.006 .201 to .211 .058 to .080 21 to 29 .342 to .362 .309 to .314 .020 to .035

Note: The above chart and information is intended for reference use only.
Gland design has many variables to consider such as temperature, pressure, range, performance requirements..

Back to O-Ring Gland Design

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Home Home > Kalrez® > Comparison Chart

Viton® o-rings, seals

Kalrez® o-rings, seals Kalrez® O-Rings and Seals

Critical properties
Comparison chart Elastomer Comparison Chart
Availability of parts
Kalrez® industries
Kalrez® perfluoroelastomer o-rings and seals last longer and seal more effectively
Chemical process. than o-rings and seals from other elastomers due to their exceptional chemical
Semiconductor resistance and thermal stability.
Ultrapure™ clean
TriLobe™ seal
Kalrez® o-rings and seals can withstand attack by more than 1,800 chemicals,
Pharma and food including many acids and amines that cause other elastomers to fail due to excessive
Sanitary seals swelling. Even after long-term exposure to temperatures up to 316°C (600°F),
FDA compliance Kalrez® retains its elasticity and recovery properties better than other high-
Aerospace temperature elastomers.
Oil and gas

Buna-
Simriz® o-rings, seals Ethylene Fluoro- Fluoro- Perfluoro-
N
Elastomers Neoprene propylene silicone elastomer elastomer
nitrile
Elastomer properties
FKM FFKM
Seal design ASTM Code CR EPM NBR FVMQ
(Viton®) (Kalrez)
Seal failure
Fluid compatibility Hardness
40 to
AS568A sizes durometer 20 to 90 40 to 80 40 to 80 55 to 95 65 to 95
95
Industries (Shore A)
Products Tensile
Problems solved strength (lb/ 3,000 2,500 2,500 900 2,500 2,000
Viton® news 2 in 2)
Viton® news 1
Wear
Kalrez® news 2 G G G N G G
resistance
Kalrez® news 1
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at
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Compression
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set
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APPLETS OR INSTANT WEB SOFTWARE
This page contains many applets that can help you do calculations and diagnose problems with your centrifugal pumps to
SAVE YOU TIME. All these applets have integrated help menus, they can be used in French or English and often in metric or
US units. APPLETS ON THIS PAGE

To run these applets you need to install on your computer the Java 2 Runtime Environment SE 1.4 available from Sun
Microsystems and allow the Java Plug-in to be installed. You should also have Internet Explorer version 6 installed and you
may have to disable any pop-up blocker software. If you only see a grey box, the applet is not running, it is possible that
you
HOMEdo not have the right java software. Some companies will not allow pure java software to run on their computers which
will stop these
CONTACT USapplets from loading.
SERVICES
PRODUCTS
see DISCLAIMER at bottom of page
REFERENCE
TUTORIALS
GLOSSARY
What can I do
on this site?
1. Calculate N.P.S.H.A.
ON-LINE
CALCULATIONS
This applet will help you
DOWNLOADS
calculate
LINKS the N.P.S.H.A. (Net This image and others below in the same style come from a wonderful book called Slurry Pump Basic
Positive Suction Head
DISCUSSION published by Svedala, a major pump manufacturer
Available)
TROUBLEto your pump. You
can then check the pump
SHOOTING
performance
FRANÇAIS curve to see if it
is sufficient for your pump to
operate properly. There are
two ways to do this
calculation, one involves
knowing the tank level and the
friction loss in the suction
piping and the other requires a
pressure measurement at the
pump inlet.

View this applet's Help file.

ENJOY! Click on the image to

start.

Want to hear the sound of

cavitation.....!

This is a video of a cavitating

pump, not much to see but it
does confirm that the sound
comes from a pump. Be aware
that it is a large 60 Meg avi

file.
2. Predict Cavitation

This applet is based on

experimental trials done by Dr.
D. Thoma that were designed
to investigate the conditions
that produce cavitation.
Cavitation depends on the
specific speed and the suction
specific speed, these in turn
depend on the flow, the head
and the rpm of the pump. All
the calculations are done for
you. Is your pump cavitating?
This applet will help you
determine this. ENJOY! Click
on the image to start.

View this applet's Help file.

3. Predict centrifugal pump

efficiency

This neat applet helps you do

power calculations prior to the
selection of the pump from a
manufacturer's catalog. Save
time in the initial phase of the
project and calculate power
requirement prior to the final
pump selection. Alternatively,
compare the efficiency of the
final pump selection with the
industry average.

View this applet's Help file.

4. Calculate head from
pressure and flow from
velocity

This applet will convert your

pressure readings at the pump
discharge and suction to
pressure head. Use these
values to check against the
pump performance curve to
see if you are obtaining the
predicted performance.

It also helps you convert flow

rate to velocity, simple but
effective.

View this applet's Help file.

5. Calculate the mass flow

rate of solids suspended in a
liquid

If you transport solids in a

liquid via a pumping system
you need to know how many
tons per hour of solids are
being displaced. This applet
will help you calculate this
based on the volumetric flow
rate and other factors.

View this applet's Help file.

6. Calculate a new impeller

diameter or speed for a new
flow rate

The affinity laws can be used

to calculate a new impeller
diameter for a new flow
requirement. If you are
contemplating a permanent
flow reduction, reducing the
impeller diameter will allow
your pump to run smoothly and
more efficiently. This applet
will help you do these
calculations.

Alternatively calculate what

speed is required while keeping
the diameter constant for a
new flow requirement.

In short the affinity laws are

great, use them!

View this applet's Help file.

7.1 Calculate total head of a

centrifugal pump with
pressure measurements

It's a long process to calculate

the total head of a pump and
you need allot of information.
Fortunately it is quite easy to
measure the pressure at the
pump outlet and inlet and then
calculate the total head. This
applet helps you do this
calculation.

7.2 Calculate the pump power

with motor current

Motor amps are easy to

obtain as most installations
have ammeters installed on
the motor control panel. You
can calculate the power
consumed by the pump with
the amperage reading of the
motor and therefore
determine the mechanical
status of the pump. You can
use this applet and the data
provided to help you with
this calculation.

View this applet's Help file.

8. Calculate pipe friction

loss for pulp suspensions

This applet will be useful for

people who work in the pulp
and paper industry. Pulp
suspensions are a special class
of non newtonian fluids.
Depending on the consistency,
the friction factor can be much
greater than that of water.

The applet will help you

calculate the friction factor
(feet/100 feet of pipe) for
each type of pulp suspension. It
will also rank them in order of
high to low friction. This
method can only be used for
pulp consistency higher than 2%
and less than 6%. Two percent
consistency pulp is considered
to have the same friction
factor as water.

View this applet's Help file.

9. Calculate correction
factors to centrifugal pump
characteristic curves for
water performance due to
viscosity

This applet will help you

calculate the correction factors
to apply to the performance of
a pump with a viscous fluid
when the water performance is
known.

The applet will help you

calculate the three correction
factors to apply to head, flow
and efficiency. This calculation
is based on research conducted
by the Hydraulic Institute www.
pumps.org.

View this applet's Help file.

10. Calculate the minimum
pump inlet submersion to
avoid vortex formation in
the suction tank

This applet will help you

calculate the minimum
submersion of a pump's inlet
pipe in the suction tank to
avoid the formation of a vortex
and therefore air entrainment
in the pump which would
reduce the pump's capacity.

View this applet's Help file.

11. Calculate the impeller tip

speed to avoid excessive
erosion due to solid particles
in suspension

The applet helps you calculate

the tip speed of the impeller.
When pumps get large,
impeller tip speed can become
an issue in terms of excessive
erosion due to abrasive
particles. This is especially
prevalent in the mining
industry where very heavy
concentrated abrasive slurries
are handled on a regular basis.
The Hydraulic Institute has
issued guidelines on maximum
tip speed to avoid excessive
erosion. These guidelines are
clearly shown in the applet.

View this applet's Help file.

12. Calculate the pressure
anywhere within a pump
system

Often one needs to know the

pressure at a specific location
in a pump system, this applet is
designed to help you do this. It
may be at the inlet of a control
valve, or maybe at the high
point of the system. One
critical location is the pump
inlet, this will allow you to
calculate the N.P.S.H.A. of the
system.

View this applet's Help file.

13. Calculate the pipe friction

head loss

This applet will tell you how

much friction loss the fluid will
produce at a certain flow rate
for a given pipe size, pipe
roughness and flow rate
(Newtonian fluids only).

View this applet's Help file.

14. Calculate the max.

allowable piping pressure

This applet will help you

calculate the maximum
allowable pressure in pipe
according to the ASME pressure
piping code B31.3.

View this applet's Help file.

15. Calculate pipe fittings
friction loss

This applet will help you

calculate pipe fittings friction
loss according to Crane Valve
Co. Technical Paper no.410.

View this applet's Help file.

16. Pipe size economic

analysis

This applet will help you

decide the pipe diameter
based on a comparison of
pump power costs and pipe
installation costs. Size pipes
properly now, once they are
installed it's too late.

View this applet's Help file.

Disclaimer: Fluide Design is confident that these programs work as intended, however, we cannot be held responsible for
any negative consequences of their use. You may check the results at all times, a practice I encourage since the answers can
be easily calculated with the formulas provided either directly on the program display or in the Help menu.
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP SYSTEM TUTORIAL
Revised January 5, 2006

This on-line tutorial is intended for everyone with an interest in centrifugal pumps. There is no math, just good, clear explanations of how it works. The
tutorial contains the equivalent of about 50 typed 8 1/2"x11" pages with lots of images. The style is loose and stresses principles and understanding rather
than details of calculations. For those who need to do those calculations, there are links to many pages that can be downloaded for this purpose as well. You
will be given the opportunity of providing feedback or comments throughout the tutorial. Enjoy! There is more information available in the pdf version of this
Table of contents
tutorial . Listen to the author's introductory comments on this audio recording .
HOME
CONTACT US
This tutorial answers the following questions:
SERVICES
PRODUCTS
-REFERENCE
What are the important characteristics of a pump system.
TUTORIALS
-GLOSSARY
What is head and how is it used in a pump system to make calculations easier.
What can I do
on this site?
- What is static head and friction head and how do they affect the flow rate in a pump system.
ON-LINE
CALCULATIONS
-DOWNLOADS
How does a centrifugal pump produce pressure.
LINKS
-DISCUSSION
Why is total head and flow the two most important characteristics of a centrifugal pump?
TROUBLE
-SHOOTING
What is meant by the pump rating? And what is the optimal operating point of a centrifugal pump?
FRANÇAIS
- How to do details calculations that will allow you to size and select a centrifugal pump.

- How to verify that your centrifugal pump is providing the rated pressure or head.

- What is density and specific gravity and how do they relate to pressure and head?

START OF TUTORIAL

Different types of pump systems

There are many types of centrifugal pump systems. Figure 1 shows a typical industrial pump system. There are many variations on this including all kinds of
equipment that can be hooked up to these systems that are not shown. A pump after all is only a single component of a process although an important and
vital one. The pumps’ role is to provide sufficient pressure to move the fluid through the system at the desired flow rate.
Figure 1

Back in the old days domestic water supply was simpler...aaah the good old days. Goodnight John boy..
source: 712 designs

Domestic water systems take their water from various sources at different levels depending on the water table and terrain contours.
Figure 1a

Source: The Ground Water Atlas of Colorado

The system in Figure 2 is a typical domestic water supply system that takes it's water from a shallow well (25 feet down max.) using an end suction centrifugal
pump. A jet pump works well in this application ( see http://www.watertanks.com/category/43/) .
Figure 2

Figure 2a Typical jet pump. For pricing and info see http://www.epinions.com/pr-Water_Tanks_Pumps-Flotec_1_2_HP_Jet_Pump_System_2806E/
display_~latest_prices

For more details on the construction of jet pumps see this article: specialty pumps.
The system in Figure 3 is another typical domestic water supply system that takes it's water from a deep well (200-300 feet) and uses a multi-stage
submersible pump often called a turbine pump. Feed back

http://www.webtrol.com/domestic_pumps/8in_turbine.htm
Figure 3

Figure 3a

source: The Ground Water Atlas of Colorado

Figure 3b
Figure 3c Typical deep well submersible pump

Pressure, friction and flow

Figure 4

Pressure, friction and flow are three important characteristics of a pump system. Pressure is the driving force responsible for the movement of the fluid.
Friction is the force that slows down fluid particles. Flow rate is the amount of volume that is displaced per unit time. The unit of flow in North America, at
least in the pump industry, is the US gallon per minute, USgpm. From now on I will just use gallons per minute or gpm. In the metric system, flow is in liters
per second (L/s) or meters cube per hour (m3/h).

Pressure is often expressed in pounds per square inch (psi) in the Imperial system and kiloPascals (kPa) in the metric system. In the Imperial system of
measurement, the unit psig or pounds per square inch gauge is used, it means that the pressure measurement is relative to the local atmospheric pressure, so
that 5 psig is 5 psi above the local atmospheric pressure. In the metric system, the kPa unit scale is a scale of absolute pressure measurement and there is no
kPag, but many people use the kPa as a relative measurement to the local atmosphere and don't bother to specify this. This is not a fault of the metric system
but the way people use it. The term pressure loss or pressure drop is often used, this refers to the decrease in pressure in the system due to friction. In a pipe
or tube that is at the same level, your garden hose for example, the pressure is high at the tap and zero at the hose outlet, this decrease in pressure is due to
friction and is the pressure loss.

As an example of the use of pressure and flow units, the pressure available to domestic water systems varies greatly depending on your location with respect
to the water treatment plant. It can vary between 30 and 70 psi or more. The following table gives the expected flow rate that you would obtain for different
pipe sizes assuming the pipe or tube is kept at the same level as the connection to the main water pressure supply and has a 100 feet of length.
The unit of friction is....Sorry, I think I need to wait 'til we get closer to the end to explain the reasoning behind this unit. Feed back
Figure 5

Pressure provides the driving force to overcome friction and elevation difference. It's responsible for driving the fluid through the system, the pump provides
the pressure.
Pressure is increased when fluid particles are forced closer together. For example, in a fire extinguisher work or energy has been spent to pressurize the liquid
chemical within, that energy can be stored and used later. Is it possible to pressurize a liquid within a container that is open? Yes. A good example is a
syringe, as you push down on the plunger the pressure increases, and the harder you have to push. There is enough friction as the fluid moves through the
needle to produce a great deal of pressure in the body of the syringe

Figure 6

If we apply this idea to the pump system of Figure 5, even though the discharge pipe end is open, it is possible to have pressure at the pump discharge because there
is sufficient friction in the system and elevation difference.

What is friction in a pump system

Friction is always present, even in fluids, it is the force that resists the movement of objects.
Figure 7

When you move a solid on a hard surface, there is friction between the object and the surface. If you put wheels on it, there will be less friction. In the case
of moving fluids such as water, there is even less friction but it can become significant for long pipes. Friction can also be high for short pipes which have a
high flow rate and small diameter as in the syringe example.

In fluids, friction occurs between fluid layers that are traveling at different velocities within the pipe. There is a natural tendency for the fluid velocity to be
higher in the center of the pipe than near the wall of the pipe. Friction will also be high for viscous fluids and fluids with suspended particles. Feed back
Figure 8

Another cause of friction is the interaction of the fluid with the pipe wall, the rougher the pipe, the higher the friction.

Friction depends on:

- average velocity of the fluid within the pipe see this calculator for velocity based on flow rate

- viscosity

- pipe surface roughness

An increase in any one of these parameters will increase friction.

The amount of energy required to overcome the total friction energy within the system has to be supplied by the pump if you want to achieve the required
flow rate. In industrial systems, friction is not normally a large part of a pump's energy output. For typical systems, it is around 25% of the total. If it becomes
much higher then you should examine the system to see if the pipes are too small. However all pump systems are different, in some systems the friction
energy may represent 100% of the pump's energy. This is what makes pump systems interesting, there is a million and one applications for them. In household
systems, friction can be a greater proportion of the pump energy output, maybe up to 50% of the total because small pipes produce higher friction than larger
pipes for the same average fluid velocity in the pipe (see the friction chart later in this tutorial). Feed back

continue
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP SYSTEM TUTORIAL
What is total head

Total head and flow are the main criteria that are used to compare one pump with another or to select a centrifugal pump for an application. Total head is related to
the discharge pressure of the pump. Why can't we just use discharge pressure? Pressure is a familiar concept, we are familiar with it in our daily lives. For
example, fire extinguishers are pressurized at 60 psig (413 kPa), we put 35 psig (241 kPa) air pressure in our bicycle and car tires.For good reasons, pump
manufacturers do not use discharge pressure as a criteria for pump selection. One of the reasons is that they do not know how you will use the pump. They do
Table of contents
not know what flow rate you require and the flow rate of a centrifugal pump is not fixed. The discharge pressure depends on the pressure available on the
suction
HOME side of the pump. If the source of water for the pump is below or above the pump suction, for the same flow rate you will get a different discharge
pressure.
CONTACT Therefore
US to eliminate this problem, it is preferable to use the difference in pressure between the inlet and outlet of the pump.
SERVICES
TPRODUCTS
he manufacturers have taken this a step further, the amount of pressure that a pump can produce will depend on the density of the fluid, for a salt water
REFERENCE
solution which is denser than pure water, the pressure will be higher for the same flow rate. Once again, the manufacturer doesn't know what type of fluid is
TUTORIALS
in your system, so that a criteria that does not depend on density is very useful. There is such a criteria and it is called TOTAL HEAD, and it is defined as the
GLOSSARY
difference in head between the inlet and outlet of the pump. Feed back
What can I do
on this site?
You can measure the discharge head by attaching a tube to the discharge side of the pump and measuring the height of the liquid in the tube with respect to
ON-LINE
the suction of the pump. The tube will have to be quite high for a typical domestic pump. If the discharge pressure is 40 psi the tube would have to be 92 feet
CALCULATIONS
high. This is not a practical method but it helps explain how head relates to total head and how head relates to pressure. You do the same to measure the
DOWNLOADS
suction head. The difference between the two is the total head of the pump.
LINKS
DISCUSSION
TROUBLE
SHOOTING
FRANÇAIS
Figure 25

The fluid in the measuring tube of the discharge or suction side of the pump will rise to the
same height for all fluids regardless of the density. This is a rather astonishing statement, here's
why. The pump doesn’t know anything about head, head is a concept we use to make our life
easier. The pump produces pressure and the difference in pressure across the pump is the amount
of pressure energy available to the system. If the fluid is dense, such as a salt solution for
example, more pressure will be produced at the pump discharge than if the fluid were pure water.
Compare two tanks with the same cylindrical shape, the same volume and liquid level, the tank
with the denser fluid will have a higher pressure at the bottom. But the static head of the fluid
surface with respect to the bottom is the same. Total head behaves the same way as static head,
even if the fluid is denser the total head as compared to a less dense fluid such as pure water will
be the same. This is a surprising fact, see this experiment on video that shows this idea in

action .

For these reasons the pump manufacturers have chosen total head as the main parameter that describes the pump’s available energy.
What is the relationship between head and total head?

Total head is the height that the liquid is raised to at the discharge side of the pump less the height that it is raised to at the suction side (see Figure 25). Why
less the height at the suction side? Because we want the energy contribution of the pump only and not the energy that is supplied to it.

What is the unit of head? First let's deal with the unit of energy. Energy can be expressed in foot-pounds which is the amount of force required to lift an object
up multiplied by the vertical distance. A good example is weight lifting. If you lift 100 pounds (445 Newtons) up 6 feet (1.83 m), the energy required is 6 x
100= 600 ft-lbf (814 N-m). Head is defined as energy divided by the weight of the object displaced. For the weight lifter, the energy divided by the weight
displaced is 6 x 100 / 100= 6 feet (1.83 m), so the amount of energy per pound of dumbbell that the weight lifter needs to provide is 6 feet. This is not terribly
useful to know for a weight lifter but we will see how very useful it is for displacing fluids. Feed back

Figure 26

You may be interested to know that 324 foot-pounds of energy is equivalent to 1 calorie. This means that our weight lifter spends 600/324 = 1.8 calories each
time he lifts that weight up 6 feet, not much is it.

The following figure shows how much energy is required to displace vertically one gallon of water.
Figure 27

This next figure shows how much head is required to do the same job.
Figure 28

If we use energy to describe how much work the pump needs to do to displace a volume of liquid we need to know the weight. If we use head, we only need to
know the vertical distance of movement. This is very useful for fluids because pumping is a continuous process, usually when you pump you leave the pump
turned on, you don't start and stop the pump for every pound of fluid displaced. We are only interested in getting the flow rate.

The other very useful aspect of using head is that the elevation difference or static head can be used as one part of the value of total head, the other part
being friction headas shown in this next figure.
How much static head is required to pump water up from the ground floor to the second floor, or 15 feet up? Remember that you must also take into
consideration the level of the water in the suction tank. If the water level is 10 feet below the pump suction connection then the static head will be 10 + 15 =
25 feet. Therefore the total head will have to be at least 25 feet plus the friction head loss of the fluid moving through the pipes. Feed back
Figure 29

How to determine friction head

Friction head is the amount of energy loss due to friction of the fluid moving through pipes and fittings. It takes a force to move the fluid against friction, in
the same way that a force is required to lift a weight. The force is exerted in the same direction as the moving liquid and energy is expended. In the same way
that head was calculated to lift a certain weight, the friction head is calculated with the force required to overcome friction times the displacement (pipe
length) divided by the weight of fluid displaced. These calculations have been done for us and you can find the values for friction head loss in Table 1 for
different pipe sizes and flow rates. Feed back
Table 1

Download a printer friendly version (Imperial units or metric units).

Table 1 gives the flow rate and the friction head loss for water being moved through a pipe at a typical velocity of 10 ft /s. I have chosen 10 ft/s because it is
a typical value for velocity in pipes, it is not too large which would create allot of friction and not too small which would slow things down. If the velocity is
less, then the friction loss will be less and if the velocity is higher the loss will be greater than is shown in Table 1. This is normal practice for sizing pipes on
the discharge side of the pump. For the suction side of the pump, it is desirable to be more conservative and size pipes for a lower velocity, for example
between 4 and 7 feet/second. This is why you normally see a bigger pipe size on the suction side of the pump than on the discharge. A rule of thumb is to
make the suction pipe the same size or one size larger than the suction connection.

Why bother with velocity, isn’t flow rate enough information to describe fluid movement through a system. It depends how complicated your system is, if the
discharge pipe has a constant diameter then the velocity though out will be the same. Then if you know the flow rate, based on the friction loss tables, you
can calculate the friction loss with the flow rate only. If the discharge pipe diameter changes then the velocity will change for the same flow rate and a higher
or lower velocity means a higher or lower friction loss in that portion of the system.You will then have to use the velocity to calculate the friction head loss in

this part of the pipe. You can find a velocity calculator at this web site http://www.fluidedesign.com/applets.htm#applets4

If you would like to see a chart of flow rates for 5 ft/s (imperial or metric ) and 15 ft/s (imperial or metric ) download them here.

For those of you who would like to do your own velocity calculations, you can download the formulas and a sample calculation here .

Those who would like to do pipe friction calculations can download an example here.

A calculator for pipe friction loss is available here ( http://www.fluidedesign.com/applets.htm#applets13 ) and for fittings friction loss here( http://www.

fluidedesign.com/applets.htm#applets15 ).

Feed back

The performance or characteristic curve of the pump

The pump characteristic curve has a similar appearance to the previous curve shown that I also called a characteristic curve that showed the relationship
between discharge pressure vs. flow (see Figure 21). As I mentioned this is not a practical way of describing the performance because you would have to know
the suction pressure used to generate the curve. Figure 30 shows a typical total head vs. flow rate characteristic curve. This is the type of curve that all pump
manufacturers publish for each model pump for a given operating speed.

Not all manufacturer's will provide you with the pump characteristic curve. However, the curve does exist and if you insist you can probably get it. Generally
speaking the more you pay, the more technical information you get. Feed back

Figure 30

How to select a centrifugal pump

It is unlikely that a centrifugal pump, bought off the shelf, will satisfy exactly your flow requirement. The flow rate that you obtain depends on the physical
characteristics of your system such as friction which depends on the length and size of the pipes and elevation difference which depends on the building and
location. The pump manufacturer has no means of knowing what these constraints will be. This is why buying a centrifugal pump is more complicated than
buying a positive displacement pump which will provide its rated flow no matter what system you install it in.

The main factors that affect the flow rate of a centrifugal pump are:

- friction, which depends on the length of pipe and the diameter

- static head, which depends on the difference of the pipe end discharge height vs. the suction tank fluid surface height
- fluid viscosity, if the fluid is different than water.

The steps to follow to select a centrifugal pump are:

1. Determine the flow rate

To size and select a centrifugal pump, first determine the flow rate. If you are a home owner, find out which of your uses for water is the biggest consumer. In
many cases, this will be the bathtub which requires approximately 10 gpm (0.6 L/s). In an industrial setting, the flow rate will often depend on the production
level of the plant. Selecting the right flow rate may be as simple as determining that it takes 100 gpm (6.3 L/s) to fill a tank in a reasonable amount of time or
the flow rate may depend on some interaction between processes that needs to be carefully analyzed. Feed back

2. Determine the static head

This a matter of taking measurements of the height between the suction tank fluid surface and the discharge pipe end height or the discharge tank fluid
surface elevation.

3. Determine the friction head

The friction head depends on the flow rate, the pipe size and the pipe length. This is calculated from the values in the tables presented here (see Table 1).
For fluids different than water the viscosity will be an important factor and Table 1 is not applicable.

4. Calculate the total head

The total head is the sum of the static head (remember that the static head can be positive or negative) and the friction head.

5. Select the pump

You can select the pump based on the pump manufacturer’s catalogue information using the total head and flow required as well as suitability to the
application.

Example of total head calculation

Example 1 - Sizing a pump for a home owner application

Experience tells me that to fill a bath up in a reasonable amount of time, a flow rate of 10 gpm is required. According to Table 1, the copper tubing size
should be somewhere between 1/2" and 3/4", I choose 3/4". I will design my system so that from the pump there is a 3/4" copper tube main distributor, there
will be a 3/4" take-off from this distributor on the ground floor to the second floor level where the bath is located. On the suction, I will use a pipe diameter
of 1”, the suction pipe is 30 ft long (see Figure 30).
Figure 31

Friction loss on the suction side of the pump

According to calculation or the use of tables which is not presented here the friction loss for a 1" tube is has a friction loss of 0.068 feet per feet of pipe. In this case,
the distance is 30 feet. The friction loss in feet is then 30 x 0.068 = 2.4 feet. There is some friction loss in the fittings, let's assume that a conservative estimate is 30%
of the pipe friction head loss, the fittings friction head loss is = 0.3 x 2.4 = 0.7 feet. If there is a check valve on the suction line the friction loss of the check valve
will have to be added to the friction loss of the pipe. A typical value of friction loss for a check valve is 5 feet. A jet pump does not require a check valve therefore I
will assume there is no check valve on the suction of this system. The total friction loss for the suction side is then 2.4 + 0.7 = 3.1 feet.

You can find the friction loss for a 1” pipe at 10 gpm in the Cameron Hydraulic data book of which the next figure is an extract:
Friction loss on the discharge side of the pump

According to calculation or the use of tables which is not presented here the friction loss for a 3/4" tube is has a friction loss of 0.23 feet per feet of pipe. In this case,
the distances are 10 feet of run on the main distributor and another 20 feet off of the main distributor up to the bath, for a total length of 30 feet. The friction loss in
feet is then 30 x 0.23 = 6.9 feet. There is some friction loss in the fittings, let's assume that a conservative estimate is 30% of the pipe friction head loss, the fittings
friction head loss is = 0.3 x 6.9 = 2.1 feet. The total friction loss for the discharge side is then 6.9 + 2.1 = 9 feet.

You can find the friction loss for a 0.75” pipe at 10 gpm in the Cameron Hydraulic data book of which the next figure is an extract:

You can also do pipe friction calculation on the Fluide Design web site.

The total friction loss for piping in the system is then 9 + 3.1 = 12.1 feet.

The static head as per Figure 41 is 35 feet. Therefore the total head is 35 + 12.1 = 47 feet. We can now go to the store and purchase a pump with at least 47 feet of
total head at 10 gpm. Sometimes total head is called Total Dynamic Head (T.D.H.), it has the same meaning. The pump’s rating should be as close as possible to
these two figures without splitting hairs. As a guideline, allow a variation of plus or minus 15% on total head. On the flow, you can also allow a variation but you
may wind up paying for more than what you need.
For those of you who would like to do your own fittings friction calculation, download an example calculation here .

What is the pump rating? The manufacturer will rate the pump at its optimum total head and flow, this point is also known as the best efficiency point or B.E.
P.. At that flow rate, the pump is at its most efficient and there will be minimal amount of vibration and noise. Of course, the pump can operate at other flow
rates, higher or lower than the rating but the life of the pump will suffer if you operate too far away from its normal rating. Therefore, as a guideline aim for
a maximum variation of plus or minus 15% on total head. Feed back

See another example of the design and calculations for a new fountain pump system

Figure 32

Examples of common residential water systems

This next figure shows a typical small residential water system.The yellow tank is an accumulator.
The following figures show various common water systems and indicates what the static head, the friction head and the pump total head.

This web site will tell you the flow requirement of each nozzle and the nozzle head requirement.
Calculate the pump discharge pressure from the pump total head

To calculate the pressure at the bottom of a pool, you need to know the height of the water above you. It doesn’t matter if it’s a pool or a lake, the height is
what determines how much fluid weight is above and therefore the pressure.
Pressure is equal to a force divided by a surface. It is often expressed in pounds per square inch or psi. The force is the weight of water. The density of water
is 62.3 pounds per cubic foot.

The weight of water in tank A is the density times it’s volume.

The volume of the tank is the cross-sectional area A times the height H.

The cross-sectional area is pi times the diameter squared divided by 4.

The cross-sectional area of tank A is:

The volume V is A x H:

The weight of the water WA is:

Therefore the pressure is:

This is the pressure in pounds per square feet, one more step is required to get the pressure in pounds per square inch or psi. There is 12 inches to a foot
therefore there is 12x12 = 144 inches to a square foot.

The pressure p at the bottom of tank A in psi is:

If you do the calculation for tanks B and C you will find exactly the same result, the pressure at the bottom of all these tanks is 4.3 psi.

The general relationship for pressure vs. tank height is:

SG or specific gravity is another way of expressing density, it is the ratio of a fluid's density to that of water, so that water will have an SG =1. Denser liquids
will have a value greater than 1 and lighter liquids a value less than 1. The usefulness of specific gravity is that it has no units since it is a comparative
measure of density or a ratio of densities therefore specific gravity will have the same value no matter what system of units we are using, Imperial or metric

For those of you who would like to see how this general relationship is found go to Appendix E in the pdf version of this article .

We can measure head at the discharge side of the pump by connecting a tube and
measuring the height of liquid in the tube.Since the tube is really only a narrow tank we can
use the pressure vs. tank height equation

to determine the discharge pressure. Alternatively, if we put a pressure gauge at the pump
discharge, we can then calculate the discharge head.
We can calculate the discharge pressure of the pump based on the total head which we get from the characteristic curve of the pump. This calculation is
useful if you want to troubleshoot your pump or verify if it is producing the amount of pressure energy that the manufacturer says it will at your operating flow
rate.
Figure 37

For example if the characteristic curve of the pump is as shown in Figure 39 and the flow in the system is 20 gpm. The total head is then 100 feet.

The installation is as shown in Figure 37, a domestic water system that takes its water from a shallow well 15 feet lower than the pump suction.

The pump will have to generate lift to get the water up to its suction connection. This means that the pressure will be negative (relative to atmosphere) at the
pump suction.

Why is this pressure less than atmospheric pressure or low? If you take a straw, fill it with water, cover one end with your fingertip and turn it upside down you
will notice that the liquid does not come out of the straw, try it!. The liquid is pulled downward by gravity and creates a low pressure under your fingertip.
The liquid is maintained in balance because the low pressure and the weight of the liquid is exactly balanced by the force of atmospheric pressure that is
directed upwards.

The same phenomenon occurs in the pump suction which is pulling up liquid from a low source. Like in the straw, the pressure close to the pump suction
connection must be low for the liquid to be supported.
To calculate the discharge head, we determine the total head from the characteristic curve and subtract that value from the pressure head at the suction, this
gives the pressure head at the discharge which we then convert to pressure.

We know that the pump must generate 15 feet of lift at the pump suction, lift is negative static head. It should in fact be slightly more than 15 feet because a
higher suction lift will be required due to friction. But let’s assume that the pipe is generously sized and that the friction loss is small.
Figure 39

TOTAL HEAD = 100 = HD - HS

or

HD = 100 + HS

The total head is equal to the difference between the pressure head at the discharge HD and the pressure head at the suction HS. HS is equal to –15 feet
because it is a lift therefore:

HD = 100 + (-15) = 85 feet

The discharge pressure will be:

Now you can check your pump to see if the measured discharge pressure matches the prediction. If not, there may be something wrong with the pump.
Note: you must be careful where you locate the pressure gauge, if it is much higher than the pump suction, say higher than 2 feet, you will read less pressure
than actually is there at the pump. Also the difference in velocity head of the pump discharge vs. the suction should be accounted for but this is typically
small.
 Dust off your keyboard, grab your mouse, and sit where you can see the screen -- Pump
School® is now in session.

Pump School is an introduction to positive-displacement (PD) pumps, and in particular,

rotary pumps. Study as long as you want and recess whenever you feel like it. Pump
School is always open and Professor Pump will take your questions. Plus, the curriculum
is continuously being upgraded so stop back periodically.

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or errors contained herein or for any use of such information. Individuals and businesses desiring assistance in the
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PUMP AND PUMP SYSTEM GLOSSARY
Accumulator: used in domestic water applications to stabilize the pressure in the system and avoid the pump cycling on and off every time
a tap is opened somewhere in the house. The flexible bladder is pressurized with air at the pressure desired for acheiving the correct flow
GLOSSARY NAVIGATION
rate at the furthest point of the house or system. As water is pulled from the tank the bladder expands to fill the volume and maintain the
pressure. When the bladder can no longer expand the water pressure drops, the pressure switch of the pump is activated on low pressure,
and the pump starts and fills the water volume of the accumulator. The bladder keeps the air from entering into solution with the water
resulting in less frequent re-pressurisation of the accumulator.

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Pumps are often sold as a package with a accumulator.

Affinity laws: the affinity laws are used to predict the change in diameter required to increase the flow or total head of a
pump. They can also predict the change in speed required to achieve a different flow and total head. The affinity laws can
only be applied in circumstances where the system has a high friction head compared to the static head and this is because
the affinity laws can only be applied between performance points that are at the same efficiency. see affinity laws.pdf

The following figure shows a system that has a friction head (curve A) higher than its static head for which the affinity
laws apply, as compared to curve B, a system with a high static head as compared to the friction head where the affinity
laws do not apply.
Domain of application of the affinity laws for an axial flow pump.

The affinity laws are expressed by the three following relationships where Q is the flow rate, n the pump rpm, H the total head and P the power.
You can predict the operating condition for point 2 based on the knowledge of the conditions at point 1 and vice versa.

The process of arriving at the affinity laws assumes that the two operating points that are being compared are at the same efficiency. The
relationship between two operating points, say 1 and 2, depends on the shape of the system curve (see next Figure). The points that lie on system
curve A will all be approximately at the same efficiency. Whereas the points that lie on system curve B are not. The affinity laws do not apply to
points that belong to system curve B. System curve B describes a system with a relatively high static head vs. system curve A which has a low
static head.

Diameter reduction To reduce costs pump casings are designed to accommodate several different impellers. Also, a variety of operating
requirements can be met by changing the outside diameter of a given radial impeller. Euler's equation shows that the head should be proportional
to (nD)2 provided that the exit velocity triangles remain the same before and after cutting. This is the usual assumption and leads to:

Which apply only to a given impeller with altered D and constant efficiency but not a geometrically similar series of impellers.If that is the case
then the affinity laws can be used to predict the performance of the pump at different diameters for the same speed or different speed for the same
diameter. Since in practice impellers of different diameters are not geometrically identical, the author's of the section called Performance
Parameters in the Pump Handbook recommend to limit the use of this technique to a change of impeller diameter no greater than 10 to 20%. In
order to avoid over cutting the impeller, it is recommended that the trimming be done in steps with careful measurement of the results. At each step
compare your predicted performance with the measured one and adjust as necessary.

Try this affinity law calculator.

Air entrainment: air in the pump suction can reduce the performance of a pump considerably. The following chart from Goulds shows that even
2% air by volume in the liquid can have an effect on performance.

Performance reduction due to air in the pump

There are many causes of air entrainment, the air may be coming in at the suction tank due to improper piping
or due to leakage iin the pump suction line (assuming that conditions are such that low pressure is produced in the suction line).

Leakage in a suction pipe under low pressure will cause air to enter the pump.

Centrifugal pumps can be designed to handle more air if required. Viscous drag pumps can handle large quantities of air.

ANSI: American National Standards Institute. A term often used in connection with the classification of flanges, ANSI class 150, 300, etc. See this
excerpt of the ASME B16.5 code for the pressure rating of ANSI class flanges.

ANSI B73.1: this is a standard that applies to the construction of end-suction pumps. It is the intent of this standard that pumps of all sources of
supply shall be dimensionnally interchangeable with respect to mounting dimensions, size and location of suction and discharge nozzles, input
shafts, baseplates, and foundation bolts.

This next image shows the dimensions that have been standardized (source: the Pump Handbook by McGraw-Hill)
This next image shows a cross-section of an end-suction pump built to the B73.1standard (source: the Pump Handbook by McGraw-Hill).

The following web page from the McNally Institute gives comments on the scope of pump standards and recommends various changes to apply to
pumps prior to ordering and modifications that will increase the operating life after receipt of a pump.

API 610: American Petroleum Industry, a pump standard adopted by the petroleum industry. The intent being to make pumps more robust, leak-
free and reliable.
ASME: American Society of Mechanical Engineers. The Boiler pressure power piping code B31.3 is a code that is often used in connection with
the term ASME, the maximum pressure safely allowable can be calculated using this code.

Try this calculator to determine the maximum allowable piping pressure.

The help file of this applet shows some excerpts of B31.3 ASME code.

Atmospheric pressure: usually refers to the pressure in the local environment of the pump. Atmospheric pressure varies with elevation, it is 14.7
psia at sea level and decreases with rising elevation. The value of the local atmospheric pressure is required for calculating the NPSHA of the
pump and avoiding cavitation.

Take a look at this video of an interesting experiment with atmospheric pressure.

The variation of atmospheric pressure with elevation.

The Goulds pump catalogue provides more information on atmospheric pressure vs. elevation.

Axial flow pump: refers to a design of a centrifugal pump for high flow and low head. The impeller shape is similar to a propeller. The value of
the specific speed number will provide an indication whether an axial flow pump design is suitable for your application. see axial flow pumps.
They are used extensively in the state of Florida to control the water level in the canals of low lying farming areas. The water is pumped over low
earthen walls called burms into the South Florida Water Management Disctrict main collecting canals.

MWI in Florida is a reputable supplier of these pumps.

Back vanes: see end-suction pump.

Back plate: see end-suction pump.

Barometric pressure: the same as atmospheric pressure, the pressure in the local environment. Barometric pressure is a term used in meteorology
and is often expressed in inches of Mercury.

Baseplate: all pumps require some sort of steel base that holds the pump and motor and is anchored to a concrete base.

see this Goulds web page for more information, these baseplates are built to the ANSI standard B73.1 and will therefore accomodate any pump
built to the same standard.

Best Efficiency Point (B.E.P.): The point on a pump's performance curve that corresponds to the highest efficiency. At this point, the impeller is
subjected to minimum radial force promoting a smooth operation with low vibration and noise.
Figure 1 Important points of the pump characteristic curve.

Radial force on the impeller vs. the flow rate (source: the Pump Handbook by McGrawhill).

When selecting a centrifugal pump it is important that the design operating point lie within the desirable selection area shown in the next figure.
Bingham plastic: A fluid that behaves in a Newtonian fashion (i.e. constant viscosity) but requires a certain level of stress to set it in motion.

For more information see non-newtonian fluids.pdf

Bourdon pressure gauge: the Bourdon tube is a sealed tube that deflects in response to applied pressure and is the most common type of pressure
sensing mechanism.

Bowl: the casing of one stage a multi-stage vertical turbine pump.

Calculation software: doing pump system calculations and pump selection can be a long manual process with opportunities for many errors. Help
yourself produce accurate, consistent and error free total head calculation results with PIPE-FLO software. This sofware can resolve complicated
systems with multiple branches, handle control valves and other equipment and help you do the final pump selection with the manufacturer's
electronic pump performance curves providing you with customizable search features to obtain the optimum selection. see software.htm

Casing: The body of the pump, which encloses the impeller, syn. volute.
Cavitation: the collapse of bubbles that are formed in the eye of the impeller due to low pressure. The implosion of the bubbles on the inside of
the vanes creates pitting and erosion that damages the impeller. The design of the pump, the pressure and temperature of the liquid that enters the
pump suction determines whether the fluid will cavitate or not.

Figure 2 Pressure profile inside a centrifugal pump.

as the liquid travels through the pump the pressure drops, if it is sufficiently low the liquid will vaporize and produce small bubbles. These bubbles
will be rapidly compressed by the pressure created by the fast moving impeller vane. The compression creates the characteristic noise of cavitation
. Along with the noise, the shock of the imploding bubbles on the surface of the vane produces a gradual erosion and pitting which damages the
impeller.
Cavitation damage on an impeller of a Robot BW5000 pump (image provided by my pump friend Bart Duijvelaar).

You can join the centrifugal pump discussion forum at http://groups.yahoo.com/group/centrifugal_pumps/join

Centrifugal force: A force associated with a rotating body. In the case of a pump, the rotating impeller pushes fluid on the back of the impeller
blade, imparting circular and radial motion. A body that moves in a circular path has a centrifugal force associated with it .

Try this experiment, find a plastic cup or other container that you can poke a small pinhole in the bottom. Fill it with water and attach a
string to it, and now you guessed it, start spinning it.
Figure 3 An experiment with centrifugal force.

The faster you spin, the more water comes out the small hole, you have pressurized the water contained in the cup using centrifugal force,
just like a pump.

Characteristic curve: same as performance curve.

Check valve: a device for preventing flow in the reverse direction. The pump should not be allowed to turn in the reverse direction as damage and
spillage may occur. Check valves are not used in certain applications where the fluid contains solids such as pulp suspensions or slurries as the
check valve tends to jam. A check valve with a rapid closing feature is also used as a preventative for water hammer. see also check valve CV
coefficient.
Various check valves (source: The Crane Technical Paper no 410)

Colebrook equation: an equation for calculating the friction factor f of fluid flow in a pipe for Newtonian fluids of any viscosity. see also the
Moody diagram figure 9.

Chopper pump: a pump with a serrated impeller edge which can cut large solids and prevent clogging.
Chopper pump

see specialty_pumps.pdf for more information

Closed impeller: the impeller vanes are sandwiched within a shroud which keeps the fluid in contact with the impeller vanes at all times. This type
of impeller is more efficient than an open type impeller. The disadvantage is that the fluid passages are narrower and could get plugged if the fluid
contains impurities or solids.

Open and closed impellers

for more information on an open impeller

CV coefficient: a coefficient developed by control valve manufacturers that provides an indication of how much flow the valve can handle for a 1
psi pressure drop. For example, a control valve that has a CV of 500 will be able to pass 500 gpm with a pressure drop of 1 psi. CV coefficients are
sometimes used for other devices such as check valves.
CV coefficients for a wafer style check valve.

Cutwater: the narrow space between the impeller and the casing in the discharge area of the casing.

this is the area where pressure pulsations are created, each vane that crosses the cutwater produces a pulse. To reduce pulsations in critical process',
more vanes are added.

Darcy-Weisbach equation: an equation used for calculating the friction head loss for fluids in pipes, the friction factor f must be known and can
be calculated by the Colebrook, the Swamee-Jain equations or the Moody diagram.
Diffuser: located in the discharge area of the pump, the diffuser is a set of fixed vanes often an integral part of the casing that reduces turbulence
by promoting a more gradual reduction in velocity.

The following image comes from this web site http://www.tpub.com/content/doe/h1018v1/css/h1018v1_97.htm

Diaphragm pump: a positive displacement pump. Double Diaphragm pumps offer smooth flow, reliable operation, and the ability to pump a wide
variety of viscous, chemically aggressive, abrasive and impure liquids. They are used in many industries such as mining, petro-chemical, pulp and
paper and others.

An air valve directs pressurized air to one of the chambers, this pushes the diaphragm across the chamber and fluid on the other side of the
diaphragm is forced out. The diaphragm in the opposite chamber is pulled towards the centre by the connecting rod. This creates suction of liquid
in chamber, when the diaphragm plate reaches the centre of the pump it pushes across the Pilot Valve rod diverting a pulse of air to the Air Valve.
This moves across and diverts air to the opposite side of the pump reversing the operation. It also opens the air chamber to the exhaust.
this type of diaphragm pump is driven by pneumatic air so these can be used where electric drives are not preferred, is self priming and can run dry
for brief periods, an handle hazardous liquids with almost any viscosity, can pump solids up to certain sizes.

Wilden is a major manufacturer of such pumps http://www.wildenpump.com/

Dilatant: The property of a fluid whose viscosity increases with strain or displacement.

For more information see non-newtoninan fluids.pdf

Discharge Static Head: The difference in elevation between the liquid level of the discharge tank if the pipe end is submerged and the centerline
of the pump. If the discharge pipe end is open to atmosphere than it is the difference between the pipe end elevation and the suction tank fluid
surface elevation. This head also includes any additional pressure head that may be present at the discharge tank fluid surface, for example as in a
pressurized tank.
Figure 4 Discharge, suction and total static head.

See this tutorial for more information on discharge static head.

Double suction pump: the liquid is channeled inside the pump casing to both sides of the impeller. This provides a very stable hydraulic
performance because the hydraulic forces are balanced. The impeller sits in the middle of the shaft which is supported on each end by a bearing.
Also the N.P.S.H.R. of this type of pump will be less than an equivalent end-suction pump. They are used in a wide variety of industries because of
their reliabilty. Another important feature is that access to the impeller shaft and bearings is available by removing the top cover while all the
piping can remain in place. This type of pump typically has a double volute.

The following image is provided by the Flow Serve Corporation.

This sketch will help visualize the flow inside the pump.
Double volute pump: a pump where the immediate volute of the impeller is separated by a partition from the main body of the casing. This design
reduces the radial load on the impeller making the pump run smoother and vibration free.
Double volute pump (source of image the Pump Handbook by McGraw-Hill).

see specialty_pumps.pdf for more information

Drooping curve: similar to the normal profile except at the low flow end where the head rises then drops as it gets to the shut-off head
point. see centrifugal-pump-tips.htm

End suction pump: a typical centrifugal pump, the workhorse of industry. Also known as volute pump, standard pump, horizontal suction pump.
The back pull out design is a standard feature and allows easy removal of the impeller and shaft with the complete drive and bearing assembly
while keeping the piping and motor in place.

Some of its components are:

1.Casing, volute

2. Impeller, vanes, vane tips, backplate, frontplate (shroud),

back vanes, pressure equalising passages or balancing holes

3. Back cover parallel to Plane of the impeller intake

4. Stuffing Box - Gland/mechanical seal housing or packing/

lantern ring

5. Pump shaft

6. Pump casing

7. Bearing housing

8. Bearings

9. Bearing seals

11. Back pull out

12. Bearings

13. Bearing seals

Balancing holes
Backvanes

Equivalent length: a method used to establish the friction loss of fittings (see next figure). The equivalent length of the fitting can be found using
the nomograph below. The equivalent length is then added to the pipe length, and with this new pipe length the overall pipe friction loss is
calculated. This method is rarely used today. See tutotial3.htm for the current method for calculating fittings friction head loss.
Energy gradient: see Hydraulic gradient.

External Gear pump: a positive displacement pump. Two spur gears are housed in one casing with close clearance. Liquid is trapped between the
gear tooth spaces and the casing, the rotation of the gears pumps the liquid. They are also used for high pressure industrial transfer and metering
applications on clean, filtered, lubricating fluids.
Viking Pumps is a major supplier of these pumps http://www.vikingpump.com/.

Flat curve: head decreases very slowly as flow increases, see centrifugal-pump-tips.htm

Friction: The force produced as reaction to movement. All fluids are subject to friction when they are in motion. The higher the fluid viscosity, the
higher the friction force for the same flow rate. Friction is produced internally as one layer of fluid moves with respect to another and also at the
fluid wall interface. Rough pipes will also produce high friction.

Friction head loss: the friction head loss is given by the Darcy-Weisbach equation and in many tables such as provided by the Cameron Hydraulic
data book. It is normally given in feet of fluid per 100 feet of pipe.
Table of head loss factors for water from the Cameron Hydraulic data book.

Try this calculator for piping friction head loss.

For more information on friction head .

Friction factor f: the friction factor f is required for the calculation of the friction head loss. It is given by the Moody diagram, or the Colebrook
equation or the Swamee-Jain equation. The value of the friction factor will depend on whether the fluid flow is laminar or turbulent. These flow
regimes can be determined by the value of the Reynolds number.
Front cover: see end-suction pump.

Front plate: see end-suction pump.

Gland: see stuffing box.

Glandless pumps: see sealless pumps.

Hazen-Williams equation: this equation is now rarely used but has been much used in the past and does yield good results although it has many
limitations, one being that it does not consider viscosity. It therefore can only be applied to fluids with a similar viscosity to water at 60F. It has
been replaced by the Darcy-Weisbach and the Colebrook equation. Interestingly the NFPA (National Fire Protection Association) mandates that
the Hazen-Williams equation be used to do the friction calculations.

The C coefficients use in the above Hazen-Williams equation are given in the table below.
Hazen-Williams equation C coefficients.

Head: the height at which a pump can displace a liquid to. Head is also a form of energy. In pump systems there are 4 different types of head:
elevation head or static head, pressure head, velocity head and friction head loss. For more information on head see this tutorial.

Also known as specific energy or energy per unit weight of fluid, the unit of head is expressed in feet or meters. see also tutorial2

Try this calculator to obtain head from pressure.

Hydraulic gradient: All the energy terms of the system ( for example velocity head and piping and fitting friction loss) are converted to head and
graphed above an elevation drawing of the installation. It helps to visualize where all the energy terms are located and ensure that nothing is
missed.
Impeller: The rotating element of a pump which consists of a disk with curved vanes. The impeller imparts movement and pressure to the fluid.

Figure 5 Major pump parts and terminology.

The impeller consists of a back plate, vanes and for closed impellers a front plate or shroud. It may be equipped with wear rings, back vanes and
balancing holes.

for more on the different impeller types see impeller.htm.

Impeller eye: that area of the centrifugal pump that channels fluid into the vane area of the impeller. The diameter of the eye will control how
much fluid can get into the pump at a given flow rate without causing excessive pressure drop and cavitation. The velocity within the eye will
control the NPSHR, see this chart.

see also centrifugal-pump-tips.htm

For more information on pump part terminology see this web page.
Inducer: an inducer is a device attached to the impeller eye that is usually shaped like a screw that helps increase the pressure at the impeller vane
entrance and make viscous or liquids with high solids pumpable. It can also be used to reduce the NPSHR.

Inducer (source: The Pump Handbook from McGrawHill).

Another image of an inducer from the Hydraulic Institute.

Internal gear pump: a positive displacement pump.

The internal gear pumping principle was invented by Jens Nielsen, one of the founders of Viking Pump. It uses two rotating gears which un-mesh
at the suction side of the pump to create voids which allow atmospheric pressure to force fluid into the pump. The spaces between the gear teeth
transport the fluid on either side of a crescent to the discharge side, and then the gears re-mesh to discharge the fluid. Viking's internal gear design
has an outer drive gear (rotor- shown in orange) which turns the inner, driven gear (idler-shown in white).
Viking Pumps is a major supplier of these pumps http://www.vikingpump.com/.

Jet pump: a jet pump is a commonly available residential water supply pump. It has an interesting clever design that can lift water from a well (up
to 25 feet) and allow it to function without a check valve on the suction and furthermore does not require priming. The heart of the design is a
venturi (source of water is from the discharge side of the impeller) that creates low pressure providing a vacuum at the suction and allowing the
pump to lift fluids.

see this article for more information

visit this manufacturer (and no, I don't get a commission) for more info

Another good web site on this topic.

K factor: a factor that provides the head loss for fittings. It is used with the following equation

The K factor for various fittings can he found in many publications. As an example, Figure 6 depicts the relationship between the K factor of a 90°
screwed elbow and the diameter (D). The type of fitting dictates the relationship between the friction loss and the pipe size.

Note: this method assumes that the flow is fully turbulent (see the demarcation line on the Moody diagram of Figure 9).
Figure 6 K factor vs. diameter of fitting (source: Hydraulic Institute Engineering data book)

Another good source for fitting K factors is the Crane Technical Data Brochure.

Figure 7 Values for the K factor with respect to the friction factor for a standard tee.

The Crane technical paper gives the K value for a fitting in terms of the term fT as in this example for a standard tee.

As is the case for the data shown in Figure 6, the friction loss for fittings is based on the assumption that the flow is highly turbulent, in fact that it
is so turbulent that the Reynolds number is no longer a factor and pipe roughness is the main parameter affecting friction. This can be seen in the
Moody diagram. There is a line in the diagram that locates the position where full turbulence starts.

The term fT used by Crane is the friction factor and is the same as that given by the Colebrook or the Swamee-Jain equation.

When the Reynolds number becomes large the value of fT (using the Swamee-Jain equation) becomes:

furthermore the Crane Technical Paper No. 410 assumes that the roughness of the material will correspond to new steel whose value is 0.00015 ft.
Therefore, the previous equation for fT becomes:
Therefore the value of the K factor is easily calculated based on the diameter of the fitting, the friction factor fT and the multiplication factor for
each type of fitting.

Laminar: A distinct flow regime that occurs at low Reynolds number (Re <2000). It is characterized by fluid particles in layers moving past one
another without mixing.

Figure 8 Laminar flow velocity profile.

Lobe pump: a positive displacement pump. Primarily used in food applications because they handle solids without damaging them. Lobes are
driven by external timing gears as a result the lobes do not make contact. Liquid travels around the interior of the casing in the pockets between the
lobes and the casing, meshing of the lobes forces liquid through the outlet port under pressure. They also offer continuous and intermittent
reversible flows and can operate dry for brief periods of time. Typical applications are in following industries: food, pharmaceuticals, paper &
pulp, beverages, chemical and biotechnology.
Viking Pumps is a major supplier of these pumps http://www.vikingpump.com/.

Low NPSH pump: a pump designed for application with a low N.P.S.H. available, usually has an inducer. see inducer

see specialty_pumps.pdf for more information

Mechanical seal: a name for the joint that seals the fluid in the pump stopping it from coming out at the joint between the casing and the pump
shaft. The following image (source: the Pump Handbook by McGraw-Hill) shows a typical mechanical seal. A mechanical seal is a sealing device
which forms a running seal between rotating and stationary parts. They were developed to overcome the disadvantages of compression packing.
Leakage can be reduced to a level meeting environmental standards of government regulating agencies and maintenance costs can be lower.

For more information on mechanical seals see this Goulds web page.

Mercury (Hg): A metal that remains liquid at room temperature. This property makes it useful when used in a thin vertical glass tube since small
changes in pressure can be measured as changes in the mercury column height. The inch of mercury is often used as a unit for measuring vacuum
level or pressures below atmospheric pressure.

The relationship between inches of mercury, psi and psia units of pressure.

Minimum flow rate

Most centrifugal pumps should not be used at a flow rate less than 50% of the B.E.P. (best efficiency point) flow rate without a recirculation
line. (What is the B.E.P.?) If your system requires a flow rate of 50% or less then use a recirculation line to increase the flow through the
pump keeping the flow low in the system, or install a variable speed drive.

see also the pump glossary BEP

How is the minimum flow of a centrifugal pump established (answer from the Hydraulic Institute http://www.pumps.org/public/
pump_resources/faq.htm)

The factors which determine minimum allowable rate of flow include the following:

* Temperature rise of the liquid -- This is usually established as 15°F and results in a very low limit. However, if a pump operates at shut off,
it could overheat badly.

* Radial hydraulic thrust on impellers -- This is most serious with single volute pumps and, even at flow rates as high as 50% of BEP could
cause reduced bearing life, excessive shaft deflection, seal failures, impeller rubbing and shaft breakage.
* Flow re-circulation in the pump impeller -- This can also occur below 50% of BEP causing noise, vibration, cavitation and mechanical
damage.

* Total head characteristic curve - Some pump curves droop toward shut off, and some VTP curves show a dip in the curve. Operation in such
regions should be avoided.

There is no standard which establishes precise limits for minimum flow in pumps, but "ANSI/HI 9.6.3-1997 Centrifugal and Vertical Pumps -
Allowable Operating Region" discusses all of the factors involved and provides recommendations for the "Preferred Operating Region".

Minimum NPSHA: the margin of safety or minimum NPSHA that should be available depends in part on the amount of suction energy of the
pump. The suction energy level of the pump increases with:

● The casing suction diameter

● The pump speed
● The suction specific speed
● The specific gravity of the fluid

Anything that increases the velocity of the pump impeller eye, the rate of flow of the pump, or the specific gravity, increases the suction energy of
the pump.

The Hydraulic Institute has offered these guidelines for minimum NPSHA depending on the level of suction energy.

Minimum NPSH Margin Ratio Guidelines NPSHA/NPSHR

Suction energy levels
Application Low Medium High
Petroleum 1.1-a 1.3-a
Chemical 1.1-a 1.3-a
Electrical power 1.1-a 1.5-a 2.0-a
Nuclear power 1.5-b 2.-a 2.5-a
Cooling towers 1.3-b 1.5-a 2.0-a
Water/Waste water 1.1-a 1.3-a 2.0-a
General industry 1.1-a 1.2-a
Pulp and paper 1.1-a 1.3-a
Building services 1.1-a 1.3-a
Slurry 1.1-a
Pipeline 1.3-a 1.7-a 2.0-a
Water/Food 1.2-a 1.5-a 2.0-a
"a" - or 0.6 m (2 feet) whichever is greater

"b" - or 0.9 m (3 feet) whichever is greater

"a" - or 1.5 m (5 feet) whichever is greater

Motor frame:NEMA (National electrical Manufacturers Association) provides standards to which electric induction motors are built. Each frame
size (for example frame 254T) is built to specified dimensions. The amount of room required for the pump assembly will depend on the size and
construction of the motor. It is easy to find a chart that provides the motor dimensions vs. the frame size (see following chart).
but I looked long and hard to find a chart that provides the frame size vs. the rpm and hp, and here it is:

Moody diagram: A graphical representation of the laminar and turbulent (Colebrook) flow equations.
Figure 9 the Moody diagram, a graphical representation of the laminar flow equation and the Colebrook equation for the friction factor f.

Net Positive Suction Head Available (N.P.S.H.A.): Net positive suction head available. The head or specific energy at the pump suction flange
less the vapor pressure head of the fluid. see NPSHA.PDF

See this calculator for N.PS.H.A.

Also for those who need to know about NPSHA but hate that stuffy word.

Net Positive Suction Head Required (N.P.S.H.R.): Net positive suction head required. The manufacturers estimate on the NPSH required for the
pump at a specific flow, total head, speed and impeller diameter. This is determined my measurement. see also NPSHR.PDF

This next figure provides an estimate for NPSHR for centrifugal pumps (source: Centrifugal Pump Design & Application by Val.S.Labanoff and
Robert R Ross, contributed by a pump forum friend, Ravi Sankar.

You can join the centrifugal pump discussion forum at http://groups.yahoo.com/group/centrifugal_pumps/join

For a larger scale image download npshr-predict.pdf

Newtonian fluid: A fluid whose viscosity is constant and independent of the rate of shear (strain). For Newtonian fluids, there is a linear
relationship between the rate of shear and the tangential stress between layers.
For more information see non-newtoninan fluids.pdf

Figure 10 Shear/strain relationship for a Newtonian fluid.

If you want to understand what a non-Newtonian fluid feels like and what it means for viscosity to change with the rate of shear, try this
experiment.

In a large shallow bowl make a solution of approximately 1 part water and 2 parts corn starch, try moving this fluid rapidly around with your
fingers. When the fingers are moved slowly, the solution behaves as expected, offering little resistance. The faster you try to move through the
fluid, the higher the resistance. At that rate of shear, the solution almost behaves as a solid, If you move your fingers fast enough they will skip
over the surface. This is what is meant by viscosity being dependent on rate of shear. Compare this behavior to that of molasses; you will find that
even though molasses is viscous its viscosity changes very little with the shear rate. Molasses flows readily no matter how fast the movement.

See a video presentation of this experiment .

Open impeller: the impeller vanes are open and the edges are not constrained by a shroud. This type of impeller is less efficient than a closed type
impeller. The disadvantage is mainly the loss of efficiency as compared to the closed type of impeller and the advantage is the increased clearance
available which will help any impurities or solids get through the pump and prevent plugging. See an image of an open impeller.

Operating point: The point (flow rate and total head) at which the pump operates. It is located at the intersection of the system curve and the
performance curve of a pump. It corresponds to the flow and head required for the process.
Figure 11 Operating point on a pump performance curve.

Packing: see stuffing box.

Partial emission pump: see radial vane pump.

Peripheral pump: also known as regenerative or regenerative turbine pump. These are low capacity (150 gpm or 34 m3/h) high head (5400 ft or
1645 m) pumps. The impeller has short vanes at the periphery and these vanes pass through an annular channel. The fluid enters between two
impeller vanes and is set into a circular motion, this adds energy to the fluid particles which travel in a spiral like path from the inlet to the outlet.
Each set of vanes continuously adds energy to the fluid particles.

Peripheral pumps are more efficient at these low flow high head conditions than centrifugal pumps, they also require much less NPSHA than an
equivalent centrifugal pump. They can also handle liquids with up to 20% entrained gases.

They are used in a wide range of domestic and industrial applications.

For a good explanation of the principal of operation see the Mepco web site.

Performance curve: A plot of Total Head vs. flow for a specific pump model, impeller diameter and speed (syn characteristic curve, water
performance curve). see Figure 1
For more information on performance or characteristic curve see this tutorial

Pipe roughness: A measurement of the average height of peaks producing roughness on the internal surface of pipes. Roughness is measured in
many locations and then averaged, it is usually defined in micro-inches RMS (root mean square). Download or view a pipe roughness chart in pdf
format

Piping pressure (maximum): it may be necessary in certain applications to check the maximum rating of your pipes to avoid bursting due to
excessive pressure. The ASME pressure piping code B31.3 provides the maximum stress for pipes of various materials. Also the pipe flange rating
will have to be checked.

for more information see max_piping_oper_press.pdf

Table of allowable piping stress from the ASME pressure piping code B31.3
Pitot pump: also know as rotating casing pump. This pump’s specialty is low to medium flow rates at high pressures. It is frequently used for high
pressure shower supply on paper machines.

Pitot (Roto-jet ) pump

see specialty_pumps.pdf for more information

Pressure: The application of a force to a body producing more or less compression within the liquid. In a static fluid pressure varies with height.

Fluid weight is the cause of hydrostatic pressure. A thin slice of fluid is isolated so that the forces surrounding it can be visualized. If we make the
slice very thin, the pressure at the top and bottom of the slice will be the same. The slice is compressed top and bottom by force vectors opposing
each other. The fluid in the slice also exerts pressure in the horizontal direction against the pipe walls. These forces are balanced by stress within
the pipe wall. The pressure at the bottom of the slice will be equal to the weight of fluid above it divided by the area.

The weight of a fluid column of height (z) is:

The pressure (p) is equal to the fluid weight (F) divided by the cross-sectional area (A) at the point where the pressure is calculated :
where F : force due to fluid weight

V : volume

g : acceleration due to gravity (32.17 ft/s2)

: fluid density in pound mass per unit volume

: fluid density or specific weight in pound force per unit volume

Pressure head: an expression of energy, specifically it is energy per unit weight of fluid displaced. More information on pressure head.

We often need to calculate the pressure head that corresponds to the pressure. Pressure can be converted to pressure head or fluid column height
for any fluid. However, not all fluids have the same density. Water for example has a density of 62.34 pounds per cubic foot whereas gasoline has
a density of 46.75 pounds per cubic foot. Specific gravity is the ratio of the fluid density to water density at standard conditions. By definition
water has a specific gravity (SG) of 1. To convert pressure to pressure head, the specific gravity SG of the fluid must be known. The specific
gravity of a fluid is:

where is the fluid density and is water density at standard conditions. Since

where is the fluid density in terms of weight per unit volume. The constant gc is required to provide a relationship between mass in lbm and
force in lbf .

The quantity ( = 62.34 lbm/ft3 for water at 60 °F) is:

After simplification, the relationship between the fluid column height and the pressure at the bottom of the column is:
Progressive cavity pump: a positive displacement pump. These pumps are ideal for fluids that are just too tough for other pumps to handle. e.g. –
pastes, greases, sludge etc. They consist of only one driven metal rotor rotating within an elastomer lined (elastic) stator.

Liquid enters the Suction Inlet under pressure or by gravity and as the ROTOR 1 turns within the flexible rubber STATOR 2 forming tightly sealed
cavities 3 which moves the Liquid toward the Discharge Outlet. Pumping action starts the instant the ROTOR turns. Liquid acts as the lubricant
between the pumping elements.

Pseudoplastic: The property of a fluid whose viscosity increases slowly with rate of shear.

For more information see non-newtoninan fluids.pdf

Radial flow pump: refers to the design of a centrifugal pump for medium head and medium flow or high head and low flow. The value of the
specific speed number will provide an indication whether a radial pump design is suitable for your application. see radial flow pumps.

Radial vane pump: also known as partial emission pump or vane pump. A frame mounted, end suction, top centerline discharge, ANSI pump
designed specifically to handle corrosive chemicals at low flows.
Vane pump

see specialty_pumps.pdf for more information

Recessed impeller pump: sometimes known as vortex pump. This is a frame-mounted, back pull-out, end suction, recessed impeller, tangential
discharge pump designed specifically to handle certain bulky or fibrous solids, air or gas entrained liquids or shear sensitive liquids.
Recessed impeller pump

see specialty_pumps.pdf for more information

Regenerative pump: see peripheral pump, also known as regenerative turbine pump.

Recirculation: at low flow and high flow compared to the flow at the B.E.P. the fluid will start to recirculate or move in a reverse direction at the
suction and at the discharge.

It is well established that cavitation type of damage seen on the inlet vanes and not associated with inadequate NPSH can be directly linked to the
pump operating in the suction recirculation zone. Similar damage seen on the discharge vane tips can also be associated with pump operation in the
discharge recirculation zone.

The suction and discharge recirculation may occur at different points as shown on the characteristic curve below.
Reynolds number: the Reynolds number is proportional to the ratio of velocity and viscosity, the higher the number (higher than 4000 for
turbulent flow) the more turbulent the flow and the less viscosity has an effect. At high Reynolds numbers (see the transition line to complete
turbulence in the Moody diagram) the pipe roughness becomes the controlling factor for friction loss. The lower the Reynolds number (less then
2000 for laminar flow) the more the viscosity of the fluid is relevant. Most applications are in the turbulent flow regime mode unless the fluid is
very viscous (for example 300 cSt and up), the velocity has to be very low to produce the laminar flow regime.

Rheopectic: The property of a fluid whose viscosity increases with time.

For more information see non-newtoninan fluids.pdf

Sealless pump: see pump type chart for more information, images and references on sealless pumps.

Self-priming pump: a pump that does not require priming or a initial filling with liquid. The pump casing carries a reserve of water that helps
create a vacuum that will lift the fluid from a low source.
Self-priming pump

see specialty_pumps.pdf for more information

Shroud: see end-suction pump.

Shut-off head: The Total Head corresponding to zero flow on the pump performance curve.

Figure 12 Shut-off head and other points on a centrifugal pump performance curve.

The shut-off head is the Total Head that the pump can deliver at zero flow (see next Figure). The shut-off head is important for 2 reasons.

1. In certain systems (admittedly unusual), the pump discharge line may have to run at a much higher elevation than the final discharge point. The
fluid must first reach the higher elevation in the system. If the shut-off head is smaller than the static head corresponding to the high point, then
flow will not be established in the system.

2. During start-up and checkout of the pump, a quick way to determine if the pump has the potential capacity to deliver the head and flow required,
is to measure the shut-off head. This value can be compared to the shut-off head predicted by the performance curve of the pump.
Siphon: A system of piping or tubing where the exit point is lower than the entry point and where some part of the piping is above the free surface
of the fluid source.

Figure 14 A siphon.

See this article for a description of how a siphon works.

Sludge pump: certain types of sludges tend to settle very quickly and are hard to keep in suspension. The Lawrence pump company has solved
this problem by putting an agitator in front of the pump suction.
Sludge pump

see specialty_pumps.pdf for more information

Slurry pump: a pump is a rugged heavy duty pump intended for aggressive or abrasive slurry solutions with particles of various sizes. It achieves
this by lining the inside of the pump casing as well as the impeller with rubber.

Slurry pump

see specialty_pumps.pdf for more information

Specific gravity (SG): the ratio of the density of a fluid to that of water at standard conditions. If the SG is 1 then the density is the same as water,
if it is less than 1 then the fluid is less dense than water and heavier than water if the SG is bigger than 1. Mercury has an SG of 14, gasoline has an
SG of 0.8. The usefulness of specific gravity is that it has no units since it is a comparative measure of density or a ratio of densities
therefore specific gravity will have the same value no matter what system of units we are using, Imperial or metric.

For more information see specific gravity.pdf

See this experiment on video showing that total head is independant of density or specific gravity .
the above image is from the Cameron Hydraulic data book which contains a great deal of information on fluid properties. To purchase go to the
Flow Serve web site.

Specific speed: a number that provides an indication what type of pump (for example radial, mixed flow or axial) is suitable for the application.

Specific speed is calculated with this formula:

see also suction specific speed

for an article on this topic see specific-speed_primer.pdf

and here is a calculator for specific speed.

Strain: The ratio between the absolute displacement of a reference point within a body to a characteristic length of the body. see Figure 10.

Stress: In this case refers to tangential stress or the force between the layers of fluid divided by the surface area between them.

Stuffing box: the joint that seals the fluid in the pump stopping it from coming out between the casing and the pump shaft. The following image
(source: the Pump Handbook by McGraw-Hill) shows a typical stuffing box with gland packing. The function of packing is to control leakage and
not to eliminate it completely. The packing must be lubricated, and a flow from 40 to 60 drops per minute out of the stuffing box must be
maintained for proper lubrication. This makes this type of seal unfit for situations where leakage is unacceptable but they are very common in large
primary sector industries such a mining and pulp and paper.

For more information see this Goulds pump web page.

Submersion: Submersion as used here is the height between the free surface of a suction tank and the pump intake pipe.

Figure 13 Minimum submersion to avoid vortex formation.

Try this calculator for minimum submersion height.

Here's a nice picture of an axial flow pump with an suction intake submersion problem.

see this video on submersion

and for more information on this web site see this help file for the submersion calculation applet.

The Hydraulic Institute publishes a guide on Pump Intake Design that provides detail recommendations.

The Goulds pump company provides similar pump intake design recommendations at no cost.

Suction guide: a device that helps straighten the flow ahead of a pump that has a 90 degree elbow immediately ahead of it.
There are two types of suction gudes as far as I know.

Suction guide by Armstrong, see http://www.armstrongpumps.com

The other type of suction guide is the Cheng vane system

The Cheng vane, see http://www.chengfluid.com

Another manufacturer of standard suction guide components from 2" to 14" diameter is Metraflex.

Suction vane: see suction guide.

Suction specific speed: a number that indicates whether the suction conditions are sufficient to prevent cavitation. According to the Hydraulic
Institute the suction specific speed should be less than 8500. Other experiments have shown that the suction specific speed could be as high as
11000.

When a pump has a high suction specific speed value, it will also mean that the impeller inlet area has to be large to reduce the inlet velocity which
is needed to enable a low NPSHR. However, if you continue to increase the impeller inlet area (to reduce NPSHR), you will reach a point where
the inlet area is too large resulting in suction recirculation (hydraulically unstable causing vibration, cavitation, erosion etc..). The recommended
maximum suction specifc speed value is to avoid reaching that point. (paragraph contributed by Mike Tan of the pump forum group).

Keeping the suction specific speed below 8500 is also a way of determining the maximum speed of a pump and avoiding cavitation.

For a double suction pump, half the value of Q is used for calculating the suction specific speed.

Suction specific speed is calculated with this formula:

see also specific speed

The term NSS is also used to represent the suction specific speed.

According to the Hydraulic Institute the efficiency of the pump is maximum when the suction specific speed is between 2000 and 4000. When S
lies outside this range the efficiency must be derated according to the following figure.
source: Pump & Systems magazine August 2005

for an article on this topic see specific-speed_primer.pdf

and here is a calculator for suction specific speed.

Suction Static Head: The difference in elevation between the liquid level of the fluid source and the centerline of the pump (see Figure 4). This
head also includes any additional pressure head that may be present at the suction tank fluid surface, for example as in the case of a pressurized
suction tank.

Suction Static Lift: The same definition as the Suction Static head. This term is only used when the pump centerline is above the suction tank
fluid surface.

System: as in pump system. The system includes all the piping, including the equipment, starting at the inlet point (often the fluid surface of the
suction tank) and ending at the outlet point (often the fluid surface of the discharge tank).

System Curve: A graphical representation the pump Total Head vs. flow. Calculations are done for the total head at different flow rates, these
points are linked and form a curve called the system curve. It can be used to predict how the pump will perform at different flow rates. The Total
head includes the static head which is constant and the friction head and velocity head difference which depends on the flow rate (see Figure 11).
The intersection of the system curve with the pump characteristic curve defines the operating point of the pump.

Changes to the system such as opening or closing valves or making the discharge pipe longer or shorter will change the friction head which will
change the shape of the system curve and therefore the operating point. In the following figure there is a system which has a static head of 100 feet
and a total system resistance of approximately 20 feet shown by curve A. There is a valve at the pumpdischarge which is partially closed. If the
friction head is increased (i.e. valve is closed) then the operating point will shift from A to point B and the flow will drop. If the friction head is
decreased (i.e. valve is opened) then the operating point will shift to point C and the flow increases.
System requirements: Those elements that determine Total Head: friction and the system inlet and outlet conditions (for example velocity,
elevation and pressure).

Swamee-Jain equation: an equation that can be used as a substitute for the Colebrook equation for calculating the friction factor f.

Thixotropic: The property of a fluid whose viscosity decreases with time.

Total Dynamic Head: Identical to Total Head. This term is no longer used and has been replaced by the shorter Total Head.

Total Head: The difference between the pressure head at the discharge and suction flange of the pump ( syn Total Dynamic Head. pump head,
system head). see also tutorial3.htm

Total Static Head: The difference between the discharge and suction static head including the difference between the surface pressure of the
discharge and suction tanks if the tanks are pressurized (see Figure 4). See also tutorial3.htm
Turbulent: The behavior of fluid articles within a flow stream characterized by the rapid movement of particles in many directions as well as the
general direction of the overall fluid flow.

Vacuum: pressure less than atmospheric pressure.

Vane pass frequency: when doing a vibration analysis this frequency (no. of vanes times the shaft speed) and it's even multiples shows up as a
peak which can indicate a damaged or imbalanced impeller.

Figure 15 Noise vibration spectra showing vane pass frequency (source: The Pump Handbook publ. by McGrawHill)

Vane pump: see radial vane pump.

Vane pump (hydraulic): a positive displacement pump. Vane pumps are used successfully in a wide variety of applications (see below). Because
of vane strength and the absence of metal-to-metal contact, vane pumps are ideally suited for low-viscosity, non lubricating liquids up to 2,200
cSt / 10,000 SSU. Such liquids include LPG, ammonia, solvents, alcohol, fuel oils, gasoline, and refrigerants.
1. A slotted rotor or impeller is eccentrically supported in a cycloidal cam. The rotor is located close to the wall of the cam so a crescent-shaped
cavity is formed. The rotor is sealed into the cam by two sideplates. Vanes or blades fit within the slots of the impeller. As the impeller rotates
(yellow arrow) and fluid enters the pump, centrifugal force, hydraulic pressure, and/or pushrods push the vanes to the walls of the housing. The
tight seal among the vanes, rotor, cam, and sideplate is the key to the good suction characteristics common to the Vane pumping principle.

2. The housing and cam force fluid into the pumping chamber through holes in the cam (small red arrow on the bottom of the pump). Fluid enters
the pockets created by the vanes, rotor, cam, and sideplate.

3. As the impeller continues around, the vanes sweep the fluid to the opposite side of the crescent where it is squeezed through discharge holes of
the cam as the vane approaches the point of the crescent (small red arrow on the side of the pump). Fluid then exits the discharge port.

Rexroth is a major manufacturer of vane pumps http://www.boschrexroth.com/

see also http://www.pumpschool.com/principles/vane.htm

Vapor pressure: The pressure at which a liquid boils for a specific temperature.

Figure 16 The boundary between liquid and vapor phase of a fluid. A fluid can be vaporized by increasing the temperature or decreasing the
pressure.
Figure 17 Vapor pressure vs. temperature for various fluids.

Values for vapor pressure of common liquids is available in the Goulds pump catalogue.

Venturi: a venturi is a pipe that has a gradual restriction that opens up into a gradual enlargement. The area of the restriction will have a lower
pressure than the enlarged area ahead of it. If the ratio of the diameters is large you can even produce a very large vacuum (-28 feet of water). I use
a cheap plastic one made by Fisher or Cole Palmer for an experiment that I do to demonstrate vapor pressure during my training seminars and it is
very easy to create near absolute vacuum.

In certain locations I can't do this experiment, because hey don't have a source of water in hotel suites, too bad because it's always a winner, so I

have to revert to a video . It's a 14 Meg download so you better have a fast connection to view it. If you want to purchase this nifty plastic
venturi you can get it here, and no, I don't get a commission.

It is not easy to understand why low pressure occurs in the small diameter area of the venturi. I have come up with this explanation that seems to
help.

It is clear that all the flow must pass from the larger section to the smaller section. Or in other words, the flow rate will remain the same in the
large and small portions of the tube. The flow rate is the same, but the velocity changes. The velocity is greater in the small portion of the tube.
There is a relationship between the pressure energy and the velocity energy, if velocity increases the pressure energy must decrease. This is the
principle of conservation of energy at work. This is similar to a bicycle rider at the top of a hill. At the top or point 1 (see Figure 18 below), the
elevation of the cyclist is high and the velocity low. At the bottom (point 2) the elevation is low and the velocity is high, elevation (potential)
energy has been converted to velocity (kinetic) energy. Pressure and velocity energies behave in the same way. In the large part of the pipe the
pressure is high and velocity is low, in the small part, pressure is low and velocity high.
Figure 18 The venturi effect.

for an article on this and related subjects see unusual_aspects-pumps-syst.pdf

Viscosity: A property from which a fluid's resistance to movement can be evaluated. The resistance is caused by friction between the fluid and the
boundary wall and internally by the fluid layers moving at different velocities. The more viscous the fluid the higher the friction loss in the system.
Centrifugal pumps are affected by viscosity and for fluids with a viscosity higher than 10 cSt, the performance of the pump must be corrected. Use

this calculator to determine the correction for viscosity to the water performance curve of the pump.

The following figure which you can find in the Goulds pump catalogue in the Technical Section shows the effect of viscosity on pump
performance.

This next figure is a chart of values for viscosity for different liquids which you can find in the Cameron Hydraulic data book.
The basic unit of viscosity is known as the Poise or centiPoise (cP) named after the French scientist Poiseuille who discovered a practical method
of measuring viscosity. The greek letter is used to represent viscosity. There are two types of viscosity, the first just mentioned is known as
absolute viscosity and the other for which the greek letter nu is used is called the kinematic viscosity. The unit of kinematic viscosity is the
centiStoke (cSt) named after the English scientist Stokes.
The relationship between the two is:

Viscosity data of common liquids can also be found in the Goulds pump catalogue.

Viscous drag pump: a pump whose impeller has no vanes but relies on fluid contact with a flat rotating plate turning at high speed to move the
liquid.

Viscous drag pump

see specialty_pumps.pdf for more information

Volute: syn casing.

Vortex: see submersion.

Water hammer (pressure surge): If in systems with long discharge lines,(e.g. in industrial and municipal water supply systems ,in refineries and
power stations) the pumped fluid is accelerated or decelerated, pressure fluctuations occur owing to the changes in velocity. If these velocity
changes occur rapidly , they propagate a pressure surge in the piping system, originating from the point of disturbance ; propagation takes place in
both directions (direct waves),and these waves are reflected (indirect waves) at points of discontinuity ,e.g. changes of the cross sectional area ,
pipe branches, control or isolating valves, pumps or reservoir. The boundary conditions decide whether these reflections cause negative or positive
surges . The summation of all direct and indirect waves at a given point at a given time produces the conditions present at this point.

These pressure surges, in addition to the normal working pressure ,can lead to excessive pressure and stresses in components of the installation . In
severe cases such pressure surges may lead to failure of pipe work, of fittings or of the pump casings. The minimum pressure surge may,
particularly at the highest point of the installation ,reach the vapor pressure of the pumped liquid and cause vaporization leading to separation of
the liquid column. The ensuing pressure increase and collision of the separated liquid column can lead to considerable water hammer .The pressure
surges occurring under these conditions can also lead to the failure or collapse of components in the installation.

For the maximum pressure fluctuation the JOUKOWSKY pressure surge formula can be used:

∆p = ρ . a . ∆v

Where ρ = density of the pumped liquid

a = velocity of wave propagation

∆v = change of velocity of the flow in the pipe.

The full pressure fluctuation corresponding to the change of velocity ∆v occurs only if the change of velocity ∆v takes place during the period.

t ≤ reflection time tr = 2.l /a

where l = distance between the nearest discontinuity (point of reflection ) and the point of disturbance .

A contribution from Moshe Shayan of the pump discussion forum.

You can join the centrifugal pump discussion forum at http://groups.yahoo.com/group/centrifugal_pumps/join

 Glossary Home Page

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We have created a new version of this free online Glossary,
with greatly increased functionality (FLASH MX-based!)
Please change your links to go to the ALL ABOUT PUMPS tutorial MX version home page,
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This Glossary of Pumps is from ALL ABOUT PUMPS by Russell D. Hoffman. All entries are animated
in the CD-ROM version of ALL ABOUT PUMPS (entries with asterisks are animated in this Internet
version).

Air Lift Pump

Gear Pump, Reversing
Archimedes Screw
Global Pump (tm) Ram Pump
Archimedes Snail
Gravi-Chek (tm) Pump Recessive Spiral Pump
Ball Piston Pump*
Hand Pump* Rotary Cam Pump
Bent-Axis Piston Pump*
Impeller Mechanism, Basic* Scoopwheel Pump
Bilge Pump, Hand-Operated
Impeller, Single Lobe Screw Pump
Bucket Pump
Impeller Mechanism, 2-Lobe Simplex Pump*
Crescent Pump*
Impeller Diffuser Pump Sling Pump
Ctesibian Pump
Impeller Diffuser, Multi-Stage Spiral Pump
Cylindrical Energy Module (tm)*
Infusion Pump Squeeze Bulb
Diaphragm Pump*
Jet Pump (Wells)* Star Pump*
Discflo (tm) Pump
Lift Disk Pump Sucker Rod Pump
Double Diaphragm Pump*
Lift Pump Swash Plate Piston Pump*
Drum-Mate (tm) Drum Pump
Magnetic Flux Pump Tesla Turbine Pump
Duplex Pump*
Newby's Minimum Fluid Tire Pump
Dutch Pumps*
Technique Pump Turbine Pump
Ericsson Hot Air Pump*
Peristaltic Pump* Tympanum Drum
Finger Pump*
Piston Pump* Vacuum Pump
Fireboat
Progressive Cavity Pump Vane Pump
Fish Tank Diaphragm Pump
Propeller Pump Volute Pump
Force Pump, Double Acting*
Pulser Pump Watergun, Super Soaker (tm)
Gear Pump*
Pumper Truck Wobble Plate Piston Pump*
Gear Pump, Balanced
Quimby Screw Pump Wolfhart Principle Pump*
Gear Pump, 2-lobe
Radial Piston Pump*
Gear Pump, 3-Lobe*
Rag Pump
 CD-ROM -- only $59.95!

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Other Internet sources for pump information:

Fluid Power Journal

Fluid Power Journal is the official publication of
the Fluid Power Society. Their web site includes many sources for more information.

Hydraulic Institute
A non-profit industry (trade) association
established in 1917. HI and its members are
"dedicated to excellence in the engineering, manufacture, and application of pumping equipment.
The Institute has a leading role in the development of pump standards in North America and
worldwide."
 Lifewater
Sponsored by Lifewater Canada, a Federally incorporated (Canada) non-profit
charitable organization. Lifewater volunteers build pumps in poor communities
around the world. Their web site contains information about a variety of low-cost, easy-to-
maintain, easy-to-build, human-powered, solar-powered and animal-powered pumps. While most
of them fall into one or two broad categories (lift pumps, ram pumps, etc.), YES, they describe
some pumps I don't have in this glossary (at least, not yet)! A valuable resource, with links to
pump manufacturers and descriptive information for building pumps. They have been operational
since 1994.

Flow Control Network

Flow Control Network -- A powerful source of fluid handling product
and application information for engineers. Includes searchable database
of more than 1,000 companies and more than 450 product categories.
All back issues of Flow Control magazine are available online and keyword searchable! More
than 20,000 registered fluid handling professionals utilize the Flow Control Network web site.

Pumpbiz.Com
Pumpbiz.com is a pump distributor (over 9000
pumps!) and also contains a pump selection program for automated help in choosing a pump.

Pump Zone
Sponsored by Pumps & Systems Magazine. Includes additional Internet pump connections and
has an enormous amount of pump-related material as well. (J. Robert Krebs reviewed ALL
ABOUT PUMPS and THE HEART, THE ENGINE OF LIFE in the March, 1996 issue of the
printed version of Pumps & Systems.)

KEOHPS
KEOHPS -- Knowledge Engineering on Hydraulics and Pneumatic Systems. The project
originated out of a work intitled "Artificial Intelligence Applied to Fluid Power Design- An
Integrating Approach". This site is available in both English and Portuguese.
 PUMP-FLO.COM
PUMP-FLO.com is "the global pump selection portal". PUMP-
FLO.com is a FREE service to all users.

PUMPS-PROCESSES.
COM

Pumps and Processes magazine is "devoted to the needs of the mechanics, operators and engineers
who work with pumps". At their web site you can learn about the magazine, view articles from
their current issue, apply for a subscription, contact their staff, etc..

NATIONAL GROUND WATER ASSOCIATION

As described at their web site, "The mission of NGWA is to enhance the

skills and credibility of all ground water professionals, develop and
exchange industry knowledge and promote the ground water industry and
understanding of ground water resources."

Please do not place this Glossary on another web server without prior permission of the
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Images for this glossary are captured from our ALL ABOUT PUMPS animated educational
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Catalog / Site Map / Company Home page / Contact / Product Home Page

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Webmaster: Russell D. Hoffman
Copyright (c) Russell D. Hoffman
 CENTRIFUGAL PUMP SPECIFIC SPEED PRIMER AND THE AFFINITY LAWS
Jacques Chaurette p. eng., Fluide Design Inc.
November 2004
www.fluidedesign.com

There is a number called the specific speed of a pump whose value tells us something about
the type of pump. Is it a radial type pump which provides high head and low flow or an axial
or propeller type pump which provides low flow but high head or something in between. If
you are worried whether you have the right type of pump or not this number will help you
decide. The article gives you an example of how to calculate this number. Also if you are
worried that your pump may be cavitating there is another number related to specific speed
called suction specific speed that will help you diagnose and avoid cavitation.

There is a multitude of pump designs that are available for any given task. Pump designers
have needed a way to compare the efficiency of their designs across a large range of pump
model and types. Pump users also would like to know what efficiency can be expected from
a particular pump design. For that purpose pump have been tested and compared using a
number or criteria called the specific speed (NS) which helps to do these comparisons. The
efficiency of pumps with the same specific speed can be compared providing the user or the
designer a starting point for comparison or as a benchmark for improving the design and
increase the efficiency. Equation [1] gives the value for the pump specific speed, H is the
pump total head, N the speed of the impeller and Q the flow rate.

n(rpm)´ Q(USgpm) [1]

NS =
H( ft fluid)0.75

5764 Monkland avenue, Suite 311, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H4A 1E9 Tel: 514.484.PUMP (7867) Fax: 514.484.2294
E-mail: jchaurette@fluidedesign.com Web site: www.fluidedesign.com
 Specific speed primer…2

Figure 1 Specific speed values for the different pump designs.

(source: the Hydraulic Institute Standards book, see www.pumps.org)

Pumps are traditionally divided into 3 types, radial flow (see Figure 2), mixed flow (see Figure
3) and axial flow (see Figure 4). There is a continuous change from the radial flow impeller,
which develops pressure principally from the action of centrifugal force, to the axial flow
impeller, which develops most of its head by the propelling or lifting action of the vanes on the
liquid.

Figure 2 Radial flow Figure 3 Mixed flow Figure 4 Axial flow

pump cross-section, pump cross-section, pump cross-section,
(source: Hydraulic (source: Hydraulic (source: Hydraulic
Institute Institute Institute
www.pumps.org). www.pumps.org). www.pumps.org).
 Specific speed primer…3

Specific speed has also been used as a criteria for evaluating the efficiency of standard
volute pumps (see Figure 5). Notice that larger pumps are inherently more efficient and that
efficiency drops rapidly at specific speeds of 1000 or less.

Figure 5 Efficiency values for pump with different specific speeds (source:
The Pump Handbook published by McGraw Hill).
 Specific speed primer…4

The following chart provides the efficiency data for pumps of various types vs the flow rate
and maybe easier to read than Figure 5. However some corrections are required (use the
chart in the upper left corner of Figure 6) to the values predicted.

Figure 6 Efficiency values for pumps of different types (source: The Hydraulic
Institute www.pumps.org).
 Specific speed primer…5

Let’s take an example, we have selected a Goulds pump Model 3175 which will provide us
with a head of 97 feet at a flow rate of 500 USgpm, what is the specific speed? The
efficiency of this pump according to the Goulds performance curve (see Figure 6) is 71.5%.

The chart in Figure 5 predicts that the efficiency should be 78% for a specific speed of 1266,
this is a fair difference, perhaps Goulds would suggest another pump as an alternative.

n(rpm)´ Q(USgpm) 1750x 500 [2]

NS = = = 1266
H( ft fluid)0.75 970.75

Figure 7 Goulds characteristic curves for a model 3175 3X6-12 pump at 1770 rpm
(from the Goulds pump catalogue).

SUCTION SPECIFIC SPEED

Suction specific speed is a number that is dimensionally similar to the pump specific speed
and is used as a guide to prevent cavitation.

n(rpm)´ Q(USgpm) [3]

S=
N.P.S.H.A ( ft fluid)0.75
 Specific speed primer…6

Instead of using the total head of the pump H, the N.P.S.H.A (Net Positive Suction Head
available) is used. Also if the pump is a double suction pump then the flow value to be used
is one half the total pump output.

From the previous article on cavitation, the N.P.S.H.A at the pump suction is :

v1
2
[4]
N.P.S.H.avail. ( ft fluid absol. ) = - (DH F1- S + DHEQ1- S ) + + ( z1 - z S + H1 ) + H A - Hva
2g

where HA and Hva are in feet of fluid. Equation [4] requires that the piping (DHF1-S) friction
loss and equipment friction loss (DHEQ1-S) be calculated. The meaning of some of the
variables in equation [4] are shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8 Meaning of the variables used for calculating the

N.P.S.H.A.

We can avoid doing the calculations for equation [4] by measuring the N.P.S.H.. The value
for the N.P.S.H.A can be deduced by taking a pressure measurement at the pump inlet and
using equation [5]

p GS ( psig ) vS
2 [5]
N .P.S .H . avail ( ft fluid absol .) = 2.31 + z GS - z S + + H A + H va
SG 2 g
 Specific speed primer…7

The meaning of some of the variables in equation [5] are shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9 Location of variables for measuring

N.P.S.H.A.

We may be considering an increase in the pump’s speed to increase the flow rate. If so, be
aware that an increase in speed will also require an increase in N.P.S.H. required. The
suction specific speed value give us an indication of what the impeller speed limitation will be
for a given N.P.S.H.A . The Hydraulic Institute recommends that the suction specific speed
be limited to 8500 to avoid cavitation. Other experiments have shown that the suction specific
speed could be as high as 11000.

In the previous example the N.P.S.H.A of the pump was determined to be 15 feet absolute.
Therefore the suction specific speed will be 5130.

n(rpm)´ Q(USgpm) 1750 x 500 [6]

S= = = 5130
N.P.S.H.A ( ft fluid)0.75 150.75

This is well below 8500. We can easily calculate the new suction specific speed if we were to
change the impeller speed.

When a pump has a high suction specific speed value, it can mean that the impeller inlet area
is large reducing the inlet velocity which is needed to enable a low NPSHR. However, if you
continue to increase the impeller inlet area (to reduce NPSHR), you will reach a point where
the inlet area is too large resulting in suction recirculation (hydraulically unstable causing
vibration, cavitation, erosion etc..). The recommended cap on the S value is to avoid reaching
that point. (paragraph contributed by Mike Tan of the pump forum group).
 Specific speed primer…8

Keeping the suction specific speed below 8500 is also a way of determining the maximum
speed of a pump and avoiding cavitation. For a double suction pump, half the value of Q is
used for calculating the suction specific speed.

According to the Hydraulic Institute the efficiency of the pump is maximum when the suction
specific speed is between 2000 and 4000. When S lies outside this range the efficiency must
be de-rated according to the following figure.

Figure 10 Pump efficiency correction due to suction

specific speed.

AFFINITY LAWS

The affinity laws are derived from a dimensionless analysis of three important parameters
that describe pump performance: flow, total head and power (ref: The Pump Handbook by
McGraw-Hill, chapter 2). The analysis is based on the reduced impeller being geometrically
similar and operated at dynamically similar conditions or equal specific speed. If that is the
case then the affinity laws can be used to predict the performance of the pump at different
diameters for the same speed or different speed for the same diameter. Since in practice
impellers of different diameters are not geometrically identical, the author's of the section
called Performance Parameters in the Pump Handbook recommend to limit the use of this
technique to a change of impeller diameter no greater than 10 to 20%. In order to avoid over
cutting the impeller, it is recommended that the trimming be done in steps with careful
measurement of the results. At each step compare your predicted performance with the
measured one and adjust as necessary.

The affinity laws were developed using the law of similitudes which provide 3 basic
relationships.

Flow vs. diameter and speed

 Specific speed primer…9

Q or Q1 n1 D1
3
=K =
nD 3 Q2 n2 D2 3

Total Head vs. diameter and speed

gH or 2
H 1 n1 D1
2
=K =
n2 D2 H 2 n2 2 D2 2

Power vs. diameter and speed

P or P1 n1 D1
3 5
=K =
γ 3 5 P2 n2 3 D2 5
n D
g

where subscripts 1 and 2 denote the value before and after the change. P is the power, n the
speed, D the impeller diameter, H the total head.

If the speed is fixed the affinity laws become:

3 2 5
Q1 D1 H 1 D1 P1 D1
= = =
Q2 D2 3 H 2 D2 2 P2 D2 5

If the diameter is fixed the affinity laws become:

Q1 n1 2 3
= H 1 n1 P1 n1
= =
Q2 n2 H 2 n2 2 P2 n2 3

The process of arriving at the affinity laws assumes that the two operating points that are
being compared are at the same efficiency. The relationship between two operating points,
say 1 and 2, depends on the shape of the system curve (see Figure 11). The points that lie
on system curve A will all be approximately at the same efficiency. Whereas the points that
lie on system curve B are not. The affinity laws do not apply to points that belong to system
curve B. System curve B describes a system with a relatively high static head vs. system
curve A which has a low static head.
 Specific speed primer…10

Figure 11 Limitation on the use of the affinity laws.

 Specific speed primer…11

Symbols

Variable nomenclature Imperial system Metric system

(FPS units) (SI units)
g acceleration due to gravity: 32.17 ft/s2 ft/s2 (feet/second m/s2 (meter/second
squared) squared)
NS specific speed
S suction specific speed
H head ft (feet) m (meter)
N.P.S.H. Net Positive Suction Head
DHEQ equipment head difference ft (feet) m (meter)
DHF friction head difference ft (feet) m (meter)
p pressure psi (pound per square kPa (kiloPascal)
inch)
SG specific gravity; ratio of the fluid density non-dimensional
to the density of water at standard
conditions
Q flow rate USgpm (US gallon per Cubic meters per
minute) hour
N impeller speed rpm
v velocity ft/s (feet/second) m/s (meter/second)
z vertical position ft (feet) m (meter)
 REGULATORY IMPACT
ANALYSIS FOR THE
PETROLEUM REFINERY
NESHAP

REVISED DRAFT

Prepared for:

Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711

Prepared by:

E.H. Pechan & Associates, Inc.

5537-C Hempstead Way
Springfield, VA

E.H. Pechan & Associates, Inc.

3500 Westgate Drive, Suite 103
Durham, NC

and

Mathtech, Inc.
210 Carnegie Center, Suite 200
Princeton, NJ 08540

April 5, 1994

EPA Contract No. 68-D1-0144

Work Assignment No. 2-11 (Option 2)
Pechan Report No. 94.03.001/1050.027
CONTENTS

Page

TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
FIGURES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .vii

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ES-1

ES.1 PURPOSE AND STATUTORY AUTHORITY . . . . . . . . . . . . ES-1
ES.2 PROPOSED PETROLEUM REFINERY EMISSION STANDARD . . . . . ES-2
ES.3 NEED FOR REGULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ES-3
ES.4 CONTROL TECHNIQUES AND REGULATORY ALTERNATIVES. . . . . ES-4
ES.5 COST ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ES-4
ES.6 ECONOMIC IMPACTS AND SOCIAL COSTS . . . . . . . . . . . ES-6
ES.7 QUALITATIVE ASSESSMENT OF BENEFITS OF EMISSION REDUCTIONSES-8
ES.8 QUANTITATIVE ASSESSMENT OF BENEFITS . . . . . . . . . . ES-8
ES.9 COMPARISON OF BENEFITS TO COSTS . . . . . . . . . . . .ES-10

1.0 INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1PURPOSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2LEGAL HISTORY AND STATUTORY AUTHORITY . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2.0 PROPOSED PETROLEUM REFINERIES EMISSION STANDARD IN BRIEF. . . . 5

2.1THE EMISSION STANDARD IN BRIEF. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.1 Applicability of the Petroleum Refinery NESHAP . . . . 6
2.1.2 Miscellaneous Process Vent Provisions. . . . . . . . . 6
2.1.3 Storage Vessel Provisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.4 Wastewater Provisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1.5 Equipment Leak Provisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1.6 Recordkeeping and Reporting Provisions . . . . . . . . 9
2.1.7 Emission Averaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

3.0 NEED FOR REGULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

3.1MARKET FAILURE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.1.1 Air Pollution as an Externality. . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.1.2 Natural Monopoly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.1.3 Inadequate Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2INSUFFICIENT POLITICAL AND JUDICIAL FORCES. . . . . . . . . . 13
3.3ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS WHICH NECESSITATE REGULATION. . . . . . 14
3.3.1 Air Emission Characterization. . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3.2 Harmful Effects of HAPs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.4CONSEQUENCES OF REGULATORY ACTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.4.1 Consequences if EPA's Emission Reduction Objectives are Met 17
3.4.2 Consequences if EPA's Emission Reduction Objectives are Not Met 20

4.0 CONTROL TECHNIQUES AND REGULATORY ALTERNATIVES. . . . . . . . . 23

4.1CONTROL TECHNIQUES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.1.1 Combustion Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.1.2 Product Recovery Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.1.3 Leak Detection and Repair. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.1.4 Internal Floating Roofs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.2DESCRIPTION OF MACT AND SUMMARY OF REGULATORY ALTERNATIVES. . 65
4.2.1 Miscellaneous Process Vents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.2.2 Storage Vessels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.2.3 Wastewater Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.2.4 Equipment Leaks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.2.5 Summary of Alternatives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.3NO ADDITIONAL EPA REGULATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.3.1 Judicial System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
 4.3.2 State and Local Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.4ROLE OF COST EFFECTIVENESS IN CHOOSING AMONG REGULATORY
ALTERNATIVES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.5ECONOMIC INCENTIVES: SUBSIDIES, FEES, AND MARKETABLE PERMITS 72

5.0 COST ANALYSIS AND EMISSION REDUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

5.1APPROACH FOR ESTIMATING REGULATORY COMPLIANCE COSTS . . . . . 75
5.1.2 Calculations for Existing Sources. . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.1.3 Calculations for New Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.2TOTAL COMPLIANCE COST ESTIMATES, REDUCTIONS, AND COST
EFFECTIVENESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.3MONITORING, RECORDKEEPING, AND REPORTING COSTS. . . . . . . . 91

6.0 ECONOMIC IMPACTS AND SOCIAL COSTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

6.1 PROFILE OF THE PETROLEUM REFINING INDUSTRY. . . . . . . . . 98
6.1.1 Profile of Affected Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.1.2 Market Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
6.1.3 Market Supply. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
6.1.4 Market Demand Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . .107
6.1.5 Market Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
6.2MARKET MODEL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114
6.2.1 Market Supply and Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114
6.2.2 Market Supply Shift. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
6.2.3 Impact of Supply Shift on Market Price and Quantity. .119
6.2.4 Trade Impacts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119
6.2.5 Changes in Economic Welfare. . . . . . . . . . . . . .120
6.2.6 Labor Market and Energy Market Impacts . . . . . . . .123
6.2.7 Baseline Inputs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
6.2.8 Price Elasticities of Demand and Supply. . . . . . . .124
6.3CAPITAL AVAILABILITY ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127
6.4LIMITATIONS OF THE ECONOMIC MODEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . .131
6.5PRIMARY IMPACT, CAPITAL AVAILABILITY ANALYSIS, AND SECONDARY
IMPACT RESULTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133
6.5.1 Estimates of Primary Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . .133
6.5.2 Capital Availability Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . .136
6.5.3 Labor Market Impacts and Energy Market Impacts . . . .137
6.5.4 Foreign Trade Impacts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
6.5.5 Regional Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140
6.6SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140
6.7POTENTIAL SMALL BUSINESS IMPACTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142
6.7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142
6.7.2 Methodology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142
6.7.3 Categorization of Small Businesses. . . . . . . . . .143
6.7.4 Small Business Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143
6.8SOCIAL COSTS OF REGULATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .144
6.8.1 Social Cost Estimates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .144

7.0 QUALITATIVE ASSESSMENT OF BENEFITS OF EMISSION REDUCTIONS . . .149

7.1IDENTIFICATION OF POTENTIAL BENEFIT CATEGORIES. . . . . . . .149
7.2QUALITATIVE DESCRIPTION OF AIR RELATED BENEFITS . . . . . . .150
7.2.1 Benefits of Decreasing HAP Emissions . . . . . . . . .150
7.2.2 Benefits of Reduced VOC Emissions. . . . . . . . . . .153

8.0 QUANTITATIVE ASSESSMENT OF BENEFITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157

8.1METHODOLOGY FOR DEVELOPMENT OF BENEFIT ESTIMATES. . . . . . .157
8.1.1 Benefits of Reduced Cancer Risk Associated with HAP Reductions158
 8.1.2 Quantitative Benefits of VOC Reduction . . . . . . . .165

9.0 COMPARISON OF BENEFITS TO COSTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173

9.1COMPARISON OF ANNUAL BENEFITS AND COSTS . . . . . . . . . . .173
TABLES

Page
ES-1 SUMMARY OF TOTAL COSTS IN THE FIFTH YEAR FOR THE PETROLEUM
REFINING INDUSTRY REGULATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ES-5
ES-2 ANNUAL SOCIAL COST ESTIMATES FOR THE PETROLEUM REFINING
REGULATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ES-7
ES-3 VOC EMISSION REDUCTIONS BY EMISSION POINT . . . . . . . . . ES-9
ES-4 BENEFIT PER MEGAGRAM VALUES FOR VOC REDUCTIONS. . . . . . .ES-10
ES-5 COMPARISON OF ANNUAL BENEFITS TO COSTS FOR THE NATIONAL
PETROLEUM REFINING INDUSTRY REGULATION. . . . . . . . . . .ES-11
ES-6 VOC INCREMENTAL COST-EFFECTIVENESS OF PETROLEUM REFINING
REGULATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ES-11
3-1 NATIONAL BASELINE VOC AND HAP EMISSIONS BY EMISSION POINT . . 15
3-2 BASELINE SPECIATED HAP EMISSIONS FROM EQUIPMENT LEAKS . . . . 16
3-3 NATIONAL CONTROL COST IMPACTS OF PREFERRED ALTERNATIVE IN THE
FIFTH YEAR. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4-1 SUMMARY OF REGULATORY ALTERNATIVES BY EMISSION POINT. . . . . 70
5-1 SUMMARY OF TOTAL COSTS IN THE FIFTH YEAR FOR THE PETROLEUM
REFINING NESHAP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5-2 CONTROL OPTIONS AND IMPACTS BY EMISSION POINT . . . . . . . . 89
5-3 COST, HAP EMISSION REDUCTION, AND COST EFFECTIVENESS BY
ALTERNATIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5-4 COST, VOC EMISSION REDUCTION, AND COST EFFECTIVENESS BY
ALTERNATIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5-5 MISCELLANEOUS PROCESS VENTS þ MONITORING, RECORDKEEPING, AND
REPORTING REQUIREMENTS FOR COMPLYING WITH 98 WEIGHT-PERCENT
REDUCTION OF TOTAL ORGANIC HAP EMISSIONS OR A LIMIT OF 20 PARTS
PER MILLION BY VOLUME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6-1 ESTIMATES OF PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND . . . . . . . . . . .125
6-2 SUMMARY OF PRIMARY IMPACTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135
6-3 ANALYSIS OF FINANCIAL RATIOS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137
6-4 SUMMARY OF SECONDARY REGULATORY IMPACTS . . . . . . . . . . .138
6-5 FOREIGN TRADE (NET EXPORTS) IMPACTS . . . . . . . . . . . . .141
6-6 ANNUAL SOCIAL COST ESTIMATES FOR THE PETROLEUM REFINING
REGULATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145
7-1 POTENTIAL HEALTH AND WELFARE EFFECTS ASSOCIATED WITH EXPOSURE
TO HAZARDOUS AIR POLLUTANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151
8-1 HAP EMISSIONS AT PETROLEUM REFINERIES . . . . . . . . . . . .158
8-2 SOURCES OF UNCERTAINTY IN CANCER RISK ASSESSMENT. . . . . . .161
8-3 UNCERTAINTIES IN BENEFIT ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161
8-4 UNIT RISK FACTORS FOR CARCINOGENIC HAPS . . . . . . . . . . .162
8-5 MAXIMUM INDIVIDUAL RISK AND ANNUAL CANCER INCIDENCE OF
CARCINOGENIC HAPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163
8-6 RFCS AND NUMBER OF INDIVIDUALS EXPOSED AT OR ABOVE RFC BY HAP164
8-7 VOC EMISSION REDUCTIONS BY EMISSION POINT . . . . . . . . . .169
8-8 BENEFITS OF VOC REDUCTIONS BY REGULATORY ALTERNATIVE . . . .170
8-9 VOC INCREMENTAL COST-EFFECTIVENESS OF PETROLEUM REFINING
REGULATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171
9-1 COMPARISON OF ANNUAL BENEFITS TO COSTS FOR THE NATIONAL
PETROLEUM REFINING INDUSTRY REGULATION. . . . . . . . . . . .175
 FIGURES

Page

6-1 ILLUSTRATION OF POST-NESHAP MODEL. . . . . . . . . . . . . .118

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

API American Petroleum Institute

ASM Annual Survey of Manufactures
bbl One barrel; equal to 42 gallons
bbl/d barrels per day
BCA Benefit Cost Analysis
BWON Benzene Waste Operations NESHAP (NESHAP is defined below)
CAA Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990
C/E cost effectiveness
CERA Cambridge Energy Research Associates
DOC Department of Commerce
DOE/EIA Department of Energy/Energy Information Administration
EIA economic impact analysis
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
FCCU fluidized catalytic cracking unit
HAP Hazardous Air Pollutant
HEM Human Exposure Model
HON Hazardous Organic NESHAP (NESHAP is defined below)
IARC International Agency for Research on Cancer
kPa kilopascal
LDAR leak detection and repair
LEL lower explosive limit
LPGs Liquefied Petroleum Gases
lpm liter per minute
MACT Maximum Achievable Control Technology
MIR maximum individual risk
MRR monitoring, recordkeeping, and reporting
MTBE Methyl tertiary butyl ether
Mg Megagram
NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standard
NESHAP National Emission Standard for Hazardous Air Pollutants
NSPS New Source Performance Standard
NOx nitrogen oxide
OGJ Oil and Gas Journal
OMB Office of Management and Budget
PADD Petroleum Administration for Defense Districts
ppmv parts per million by volume
RACT Reasonably Available Control Technology
RFA Regulatory Flexibility Act; also Regulatory Flexibility Analysis
RfC reference-dose concentration
RIA Regulatory Impact Analysis
SIC Standard Industrial Classification
SIP State Implementation Plan
SO2 sulfur dioxide
SOCMI Synthetic Organic Chemical Manufacturing industry
URF unit risk factor
VOC volatile organic compound EXECUTIVE
SUMMARY
ES.1 PURPOSE AND STATUTORY AUTHORITY

This report analyzes the regulatory impacts of the Petroleum Refinery National
Emission
Standard for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP), which is being promulgated under
Section 112
of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 (CAA). This emission standard would
regulate the
emissions of certain hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) from petroleum refineries. The
petroleum
refineries industry group includes any facility engaged in the production of motor
gasoline,
naphthas, kerosene, jet fuels, distillate fuel oils, residual fuel oils, lubricants,
or other products
made from crude oil or unfinished petroleum derivatives. This report analyzes the
impact that
regulatory action is likely to have on the petroleum refining industry, and on
society as a whole.

The President issued Executive Order 12866 on October 4, 1993, which requires
EPA to
prepare RIAs for all "significant" regulatory actions. EPA has determined that the
petroleum
refinery NESHAP is a "significant" rule because it will have an annual effect on the
economy of
more than $100 million, and is therefore subject to the requirements of Executive
Order 12866.
This report satisfies the requirements of the executive order.In addition to a
mandatory
assessment of benefits and costs, E.O. 12866 specifies that EPA, to the extent
allowed by the
CAA and court orders, demonstrate (1) that the benefits of the NESHAP regulation
will outweigh
the costs and (2) that the maximum level of net benefits (including potential
economic,
environmental, public health and safety and other advantages; distributive impacts;
and equity)
will be reached. EPA has chosen two regulatory options to be evaluated in this
RIA. For each of
the two options, benefits and costs are quantified to the greatest extent allowed by
available data.

The petroleum refinery NESHAP would require sources to achieve emission limits
reflecting
the application of the maximum achievable control technology (MACT), consistent with
sections 112(d) and 112(h) of the CAA. Section 112 of the CAA provides a list of
189 HAPs and
directs the EPA to develop rules to control HAP emissions. For the Petroleum
Refinery NESHAP,
EPA chose regulatory options based on control options on an emission point basis.
An emission
point is defined as a point within a refinery which emits one or more HAPs. The
emission points
to be regulated under the source category for this standard are: equipment leaks,
storage vessels,
miscellaneous process vents, and wastewater collection and treatment systems.

ES.2 PROPOSED PETROLEUM REFINERY EMISSION STANDARD

The proposed rule, the Petroleum Refinery NESHAP, would require sources to
achieve
emission limits reflecting the application of MACT. The definition of source in the
proposed
standard is "the collection of emission points in HAP-emitting petroleum refining
processes
within the source category." The source comprises all miscellaneous process vents,
storage
vessels, wastewater collection and treatment systems, and equipment leaks associated
with
petroleum refining process units that are located at a single plant site covering a
contiguous area
under common control. The definition of source is an important element of this
NESHAP
because it describes the specific grouping of emission points within the source
category to which
each standard applies. The rule is made up of seven different subjects:
applicability, definitions,
and general standards; miscellaneous process vent provisions; storage vessel
provisions;
wastewater provisions; equipment leak provisions; recordkeeping and reporting
provisions; and
emissions averaging. The proposed rule outlines the chosen option for controlling
HAP
emissions from each of the four emission points within a refinery source, given
existing control
technology.

The applicability of the rule refers to the definition of the source within the
petroleum
refinery source category. The emission standard applies to petroleum refining
process units that
are part of a major source as defined in Section 112 of the CAA. EPA's initial
source category
list (57 FR 31576, July 16, 1992), required by section 112(c) of the Act, identifies
categories of
sources for which NESHAP are to be established. Two categories of sources are
listed in the
initial source category list for petroleum refineries: (1) catalytic cracking
(fluid and other) units,
catalytic reforming units, and sulfur plant units and (2) other sources not
distinctly listed. Based
on an EPA review of information on petroleum refineries during development of the
proposed
standards, it was determined that some of the emissions points from the two listed
categories of
sources have similar characteristics and can be controlled by the same control
techniques. EPA
determined that it is most effective to regulate these emission points in a single
regulation.
 Data analyses conducted in developing the MACT floor for miscellaneous process
vents
determined that combustion controls can achieve 98 percent organic HAP reduction or
an outlet
organic HAP concentration of 20 ppmv or less for all vent streams. The storage
vessel provision
specifies the control systems which represent the MACT floor to be applied to
storage vessels.
The wastewater provisions of this rule are based on the benzene waste operations
NESHAP
(BWON), which controls 75 percent of the benzene in refinery wastewater. The
wastewater
streams subject to this rule include water, raw material, intermediate product, by-
product,
co-product, or waste material that contains HAPs and is discharged into an
individual drain
system. The equipment leak provisions
of the proposed rule are based on the negotiated equipment leak regulation included
in the
Hazardous Organics NESHAP (HON) (40 CFR 63 subpart H).

The rule specifies the necessary recordkeeping and reporting requirements to

verify
compliance with the MACT floor for each of the four emission points. EPA is also
proposing that
emission averaging be allowed among existing miscellaneous process vents, storage
tanks, and
wastewater streams within a refinery. Under emission averaging, a system of
emission "credits"
and "debits" would be used to determine whether the source is achieving the required
emission
reductions. If emissions averaging is accepted as part
of the standard, the rule would contain specific equations and procedures for
calculating credits
and debits.

ES.3 NEED FOR REGULATION

One of the concerns about potential threats to human health and the environment
from
petroleum refineries is the emission of HAPs. Health risks from emissions of HAPs
into the air
include increases in cancer incidences and other toxic effects. The U.S. Office of
Management
and Budget (OMB) directs regulatory agencies to demonstrate the need for an
economically
significant rule. The RIA must show that a market failure exists and that it cannot
be resolved by
measures other than Federal regulation. Externality is one type of market failure.
HAP emissions
represent an externality in that refinery operation imposes costs on others outside
of the
marketplace. In the case of this type of negative externality, the market price of
goods and
services does not reflect the costs borne by receptors of the HAPs generated in the
refining
process. With the NESHAP in effect, the amount that refiners must incur to refine
petroleum
products will more closely approximate the full social costs of production. The
necessity for a
uniform national standard is based on the determination that air pollution crosses
jurisdictional
lines, and uniform national standards, unlike potentially piecemeal local standards,
will be more
efficient to both industry and government.

ES.4 CONTROL TECHNIQUES AND REGULATORY ALTERNATIVES

The proposed regulation would require a broad range of control techniques as

options for
compliance with the standard. Combustion technology, internal floating roofs, and
product
recovery devices, including internal floating roofs and vapor recovery tanks, are
all part of the
technology requirements for the Petroleum Refinery NESHAP. In addition, leak
detection and
repair (LDAR) programs will be used to control equipment leaks.

Based on the determination of the MACT floor for each of the four emission
points, EPA
developed two regulatory alternatives. Alternative 1 is a hybrid option, referred
to as the
preferred alternative, which incorporates MACT floor level control for wastewater
collection and
treatment systems, storage vessels, and miscellaneous process vents, and an option
above the
floor for equipment leaks. Alternative 2 includes control levels above the floor
for equipment
leaks and storage vessels.

ES.5 COST ANALYSIS

The annualized compliance costs by emission point are shown in Table ES-1 for the
preferred alternative (Alternative 1) and the more stringent alternative
(Alternative 2). The total
national cost of Alternative 1 in the fifth year is $81 million, compared with a
cost of $97 million
for Alternative 2. The difference between the two alternatives are the TABLE ES-
1. SUMMARY OF TOTAL COSTS IN THE FIFTH YEAR
FOR THE PETROLEUM REFINING INDUSTRY REGULATION

Annual Fifth Year Costs (1000$/yr)4

(1992 Dollars)
Emission Point
Option Existing Sources New
Construction
Total
Alternative 1
Alternative 2 Equipment Leaks
Miscellaneous Process Vents

Wastewater Systems

Storage Vessels Floor

Option 11
Option 22

Floor3

Floor1
Option 1

Floor1
Option 12 $69,000
$66,000
$78,000

$11,000

$ 0
$120,000

$3,700
$6,200 $ 0
$(210)
$840

$370

$ 0
$18,000

$98
$550 $69,000
$65,790
$78,840

$11,370

$ 0
$138,000

$3,798
$6,750
$65,790

$11,370

$ 0

$3,798
$78,840

$11,370

$ 0

$6,750 TOTAL COST $80,958 $96,960

NOTES: 1Alternative 1.
2Alternative 2.
3EPA did not choose an option above the MACT floor for miscellaneous process
vents.
4Monitoring, recordkeeping, and reporting costs are not incorporated in the
cost estimates in the table. increased costs associated with more stringent control
techniques for equipment leaks and
storage vessels. In addition to provisions for the installation of control
equipment, the proposed
regulation includes provisions for monitoring, recordkeeping, and reporting (MRR).
EPA
estimates that the total annual cost for refineries to comply with the MRR
requirements is $30
million. The MRR requirements are outlined separately in the proposed regulation
for each
emission point.

ES.6 ECONOMIC IMPACTS AND SOCIAL COSTS

An economic impact analysis (EIA) was conducted to evaluate the effect of

increased
compliance costs for emission control equipment on the domestic petroleum refining
market.
The partial equilibrium model used in the EIA utilized the costs for Alternative 1
which were
presented in Table ES-1 to estimate primary market impacts including increases in
price of
refined petroleum products, decreases in output levels, changes in the value of
domestic
shipments, and possible refinery closures. Estimated secondary effects include
labor market
adjustments, energy input market changes, and foreign trade effects. Welfare
changes for
consumers, producers, and society at large or the social costs of the proposed
emission controls
were also evaluated. The estimated market changes from the proposed emission
controls were
relatively small.

The social costs of regulation incorporate costs borne by society for pollution
abatement.
The social costs reflect the opportunity cost or economic cost of resources used in
emission
control. Consumers, producers, and all of society bear the costs of pollution
controls in the form
of higher prices, lower quantities produced, and possible tax revenues that may be
gained or lost.
The annual social cost estimates for the preferred alternative and the more
stringent alternative
are shown in Table ES-2. The social costs are used later in the RIA to conduct a
benefit cost
analysis. TABLE ES-2. ANNUAL SOCIAL COST ESTIMATES FOR THE PETROLEUM REFINING
REGULATION
(Millions of 1992 dollars)

Social Cost Category

Net Costs1 Surplus Losses for Preferred Alternative:
Change in Consumer Surplus
Change in Producer Surplus
Change in Residual Surplus to Society2
$476.19
$(242.11)
$(101.73) Total Social Cost of Alternative 13 $132.35 Total Social Cost of
Alternative 24 $148.35
NOTES: 1Brackets indicate negative surplus losses or surplus gains.
2Residual surplus loss to society includes adjustments necessary to equate
the relevant discount rate to the social
cost of capital and to consider appropriate tax effect adjustments.
3Alternative 1 includes floor controls for all emission points except
equipment leaks. Option 1 is preferred to the
floor for equipment leaks because it is a less costly option than the
floor.
4Alternative 2 includes Option 2 for Equipment Leaks, Option 1 for Storage
Tanks, and the Floor for Miscellaneous
process vents. Emission controls at other emission points were not
considered. Social costs were calculated by
adding incremental compliance costs for Alternative 2 to the social costs of
Alternative 1.
ES.7 QUALITATIVE ASSESSMENT OF BENEFITS OF EMISSION REDUCTIONS

This RIA presents the results of an examination of the potential health and
welfare benefits
associated with air emission reductions projected as a result of implementation of
the petroleum
refinery NESHAP. The proposed regulation is expected to reduce emissions of HAPs
emitted
from storage tanks, process vents, equipment leaks, and wastewater emission points
at refining
sites. Of the HAPs emitted by petroleum refineries, some areclassified as VOCs,
which are
ozone precursors. HAP benefits are presented separately from the benefits
associated specifically
with VOC emission reductions.

The predicted emissions of a few HAPs associated with this regulation have been
classified
as probable or known human carcinogens. As a result, one of the benefits of the
proposed
regulation is a reduction in the risk of cancer mortality. Other benefit categories
include reduced
exposure to noncarcinogenic HAPs, and reduced exposure to VOCs.
 Emissions of VOCs have been associated with a variety of health and welfare
impacts. VOC
emissions, together with NOx, are precursors to the formation of tropospheric
ozone. Exposure
to ambient ozone is most directly responsible for a series of respiratory related
adverse impacts.

ES.8 QUANTITATIVE ASSESSMENT OF BENEFITS

Based on existing data, the benefits associated with reduced HAP and VOC
emissions were
quantified. The quantification of dollar benefits for all benefit categories is not
possible at this
time because of limitations in both data and available methodologies. Although an
estimate of
the total reduction in HAP emissions for various control options has been developed
for this RIA,
it has not been possible to identify the speciation of the HAP emission reductions
for each type
of emission point. However, an estimate of HAP speciation for equipment leaks has
been made.
Using emissions data for equipment leaks and the Human Exposure Model (HEM), the
annual
cancer risk caused by HAP emissions from petroleum refineries was estimated.
Generally, this
benefit category is calculated as the difference in estimated annual cancer
incidence before and
after implementation of each regulatory alternative. Since the annual cancer
incidence associated
with baseline conditions was less than one life per year, the benefits associated
with the
petroleum refinery NESHAP were determined to be small. Therefore, these benefits are
not
incorporated into this benefit analysis.

The benefits of reduced emissions of VOC from a MACT regulation of petroleum

refineries
were quantified using the technique of "benefits transfer." Because there is an
assumption
incorporated into a report completed by the Office of Technology Assessment (OTA)
from which
benefits transfer values were obtained that no health benefits are experienced in
attainment areas,
the VOC emission reductions used in this analysis are defined in terms of reductions
occurring
only in non-attainment areas. (Nonattainment areas are geographical locations in
which the
Federal ambient air quality standard (NAAQS) for ozone has been violated.) Table ES-
3 presents
the VOC emission reductions for refineries in nonattainment and attainment areas
associated with
each alternative.

TABLE ES-3. VOC EMISSION REDUCTIONS BY EMISSION POINT

 VOC Emission Reductions by Regulatory Alternative (Mg/yr)3 Alternative 1
Alternative 2 Emission Point2 Nonattainment1 Attainment Nonattainment1 Attainment
Equipment Leaks 77,535 80,266 81,626 83,471 Miscellaneous Process Vents 104,693
55,161 104,693 55,161 Storage Vessels 3,090 1,408 6,056 2,760 TOTAL REDUCTION BY
ATTAINMENT STATUS
185,318
136,835
192,375
141,392 TOTAL REDUCTION BY
ALTERNATIVE
322,153
333,767

NOTES: 1VOC emission reductions include only those associated with control of the
87 refineries located in ozone
nonattainment areas.
2No further control is assumed for wastewater streams, and therefore,
emission reductions associated with this
emission point is zero.
3Emission reduction estimates do not incorporate reductions occurring at new
sources.
The benefit transfer ratio range for acute health impacts used in this analysis
is presented in
Table ES-4. In order to quantify VOC emission reductions, these ratios were
multiplied by VOC
emission reductions from petroleum refineries located in ozone non-attainment
areas. Estimated
benefits for VOC reductions are $148.3 million for Alternative 1 and $153.9 million
for
Alternative 2.

TABLE ES-4. BENEFIT PER MEGAGRAM VALUES FOR VOC REDUCTIONS

Benefits Transfer Value1 1992 Dollars/Megagram2 Average $800 Range $25 - $1,574
NOTES: 1The benefits transfer value in the table quantifies only the benefits
attributable to acute health impacts.
2Values are in first quarter 1992 dollars.
ES.9 COMPARISON OF BENEFITS TO COSTS

Table ES-5 depicts a comparison of the benefits of the alternative proposals to

the
compliance and social costs. A comparison of the net benefits for the alternatives
and the
incremental difference in net benefits between the alternatives provides an economic
basis for
rational environmental policymaking. The benefits exceed costs for each of the
alternatives.
Thus, either alternative is viable and warrants consideration. However, a
comparison of the
incremental difference in the two alternatives indicates that the incremental net
benefits are
negative for Alternative 2. Thus, Alternative 1 provides the greatest net benefits
to society.

Based on the monetary estimates of the benefits associated with the Petroleum
Refinery
NESHAP, incremental VOC cost-effectiveness values were calculated. The results of
these
calculations are presented in Table ES-6. Alternative 1 can be justified as a
desirable option
since the incremental VOC cost-effectiveness of implementing Alternative 2 is
significantly
higher.

TABLE ES-5. COMPARISON OF ANNUAL BENEFITS TO COSTS FOR THE NATIONAL

PETROLEUM REFINING INDUSTRY REGULATION
(MILLIONS OF 1992 DOLLARS PER YEAR)

Alternative 1
Alternative 2 Incremental
Difference1 Benefits $148.3 $153.9 $5.6 Social Costs $(132.35) $(148.35)2 $(16.0)
Benefits Less Social Costs $15.95 $5.55 $(10.4)
NOTES: ( ) represent costs or negative values.
1The incremental difference represents the difference between Alternative 1
and Alternative 2.
2Social costs for Alternative 2 are calculated by adding incremental
compliance costs to social costs of
Alternative 1.

TABLE ES-6. VOC INCREMENTAL COST-EFFECTIVENESS OF PETROLEUM REFINING

REGULATION

Alternative 1 Alternative 2 Incremental Cost (Million $ 1992)1 $132.35 $16.0

Incremental Emission Reduction (Mg) 185,318 7,057 Incremental Cost Effectiveness ($/
Mg) $714/Mg $2,267/Mg
NOTES: 1The cost estimates of each alternative reflect the total social cost of
emission control. 1.0 INTRODUCTION

The regulation under analysis in this report, which is being promulgated under
Section 112
of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 (CAA), is the Petroleum Refinery National
Emission
Standard for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP). This emission standard would
regulate the
emissions of certain hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) from petroleum refineries. The
petroleum
refineries industry group includes any facility engaged in producing motor gasoline,
naphthas,
kerosene, jet fuels, distillate fuel oils, residual fuel oils, lubricants, or other
products made from
crude oil or unfinished petroleum derivatives. This report analyzes the impact that
regulatory
action is likely to have on the petroleum refining industry, and on society as a
whole. Included
in this chapter is a summary of the purpose of this regulatory impact analysis
(RIA), the statutory
history which preceded this regulation, and a description of the content of this
report.
1.1 PURPOSE

The President issued Executive Order 12866 on October 4, 1993. It requires EPA
to prepare
RIAs for all "significant" regulatory actions. The criteria set forth in Section 1
of the Order for
determining whether a regulation is a significant rule are that the rule: (1) is
likely to have an
annual effect on the economy of $100 million or more, or adversely and materially
affect a
sector of the economy, productivity, competition, jobs, the environment, public
health or safety,
or State, local, or tribal governments or communities; (2) is likely to create a
serious
inconsistency or otherwise interfere with an action taken or planned by another
agency; (3) is
likely to materially alter the budgetary impact of entitlements, grants, user fees,
or loan programs
or the rights and obligation of recipients thereof; or (4) is likely to raise novel
legal or policy
issues arising out of legal mandates, the President's priorities, or the principles
set forth in the
Executive Order. EPA has determined that the petroleum refinery NESHAP is a
"significant" rule
because it will have an annual effect on the economy of more than $100 million, and
is
therefore subject to the requirements of Executive Order 12866.

Along with requiring an assessment of benefits and costs, E.O. 12866 specifies
that EPA, to
the extent allowed by the CAA and court orders, demonstrate (1) that the benefits of
the NESHAP
regulation will outweigh the costs and (2) that the maximum level of net benefits
(including
potential economic, environmental, public health and safety and other advantages;
distributive
impacts; and equity) will be reached. EPA has chosen two regulatory options to be
evaluated in
this RIA. For each of the two options, benefits and costs are quantified to the
greatest extent
allowed by available data. As stipulated in E.O. 12866, in deciding whether and how
to
regulate, EPA is required to assess all costs and benefits of available regulatory
alternatives,
including the alternative of not regulating. Accordingly, the cost benefit analysis
in this report is
measured against the baseline, which represents industry conditions in the absence
of regulation.

1.2 LEGAL HISTORY AND STATUTORY AUTHORITY

The petroleum refinery NESHAP would require sources to achieve emission limits
reflecting
the application of the maximum achievable control technology (MACT), consistent with
sections 112(d) and 112(h) of the CAA. This section provides a brief history of
Section 112 of
the Act and background regarding the definition of source categories and emission
points for
Section 112 standards.

Section 112 of the Act provides a list of 189 HAPs and directs the EPA to
develop rules to
control HAP emissions. The CAA requires that the rules be established for
categories of sources
of the emissions, rather than being set by pollutant. In addition, the CAA
establishes specific
criteria for establishing a minimum level of control and criteria to be considered
in evaluating
control options more stringent than the minimum control level. Assessment and
control of any
remaining unacceptable health or environmental risk is to occur 8 years after the
rules are
promulgated.

For the subject NESHAP, EPA chose regulatory options based on control options on
an
emission point basis. The petroleum refinery NESHAP regulates emissions of all HAPs
emitted
from all emission points at both new and existing petroleum refinery sources. An
emission point
is defined as a point within a refinery which emits one or more HAPs. The emission
points to be
regulated under the source category for this standard are: equipment leaks, storage
vessels,
miscellaneous process vents, and wastewater collection and treatment systems.

1.3 REPORT ORGANIZATION

Chapter 2 presents a summary of the proposed regulation for the Petroleum

Refinery
NESHAP. Executive Order 12866 requires EPA to prove that regulation is necessary
due to a
compelling public need, such as material failures of private markets to protect or
improve the
health and safety of the public, the environment, or the well-being of the public.
In order to
satisfy this requirement, Chapter 3 presents the market conditions which necessitate
regulatory
action. A characterization of the air emissions associated with the petroleum
refining process,
and the significance of the environmental problem which EPA intends to address
through
regulation are assessed. An explanation of how the regulation is consistent with
the CAA is also
presented.

Chapter 4 identifies the control techniques and regulatory alternatives which

were
considered for the standard. EPA's designation of control options reflects the best
control
technology available to refineries, given existing technology levels. Chapter 5
presents the
approach for estimating regulatory compliance costs, the quantitative estimates of
each control
option under analysis, and the issues and assumptions upon which the estimates were
based.
The associated emission reductions and cost effectiveness of the regulatory options
are also
presented.

Chapter 6 provides an economic profile of the petroleum refining industry, and

describes the
methodology used to estimate the economic effects of a chosen hybrid option on the
industry.
Predicted price, output, employment, and closure impacts are presented as well as a
quantification of the social costs of the regulatory option.

Chapter 7 provides a qualitative description of the benefits associated with

the regulatory
action. As explained in this chapter, some benefits are nonquantifiable and
therefore cannot be
usefully estimated. Qualitative measures of the air related benefits associated
with a decrease in
HAP emissions are presented separately from those associated with a decrease in
volatile organic
compound (VOC) emissions. Benefits which are difficult to quantify, but
nevertheless essential to
consider, are also identified in this chapter.

Chapter 8 provides a quantitative assessment of those benefits which were

identified in
Chapter 7. The methodology used to arrive at these estimates is outlined and any
limitations are
identified. The quantitative estimates of benefits associated with risk reductions
and human
health effects are presented separately.

The Executive Order requires EPA to assess both the costs and the benefits of
the intended
regulation and, recognizing that some costs and benefits are difficult to quantify,
adopt a
regulation only on a determination that the benefits of the regulation justify the
costs. Chapter 9
compares the annualized costs to the annualized benefits for each of the two
regulatory options
in this RIA. Economic efficiency is considered within the context of a welfare
analysis, using the
social costs of regulation. 2.0 PROPOSED PETROLEUM REFINERIES EMISSION
STANDARD
IN BRIEF

The discussion in this chapter briefly summarizes the requirements of the rule,
without
accounting for how the provisions were selected or how emission cutoffs were
determined. The
proposed rule, the NESHAP for petroleum refineries, would require sources to achieve
emission
limits reflecting the application of MACT, consistent with sections 112(d) and 112
(h) of the CAA.
The proposed rule would regulate the emissions of the organic HAPs identified on the
list of
189 HAPs in the CAA at both new and existing petroleum refinery sources.

The proposed standard defines source as the collection of emission points in HAP-
emitting
petroleum refining processes within the source category. The source comprises all
miscellaneous
process vents, storage vessels, wastewater streams, and equipment leaks associated
with
petroleum refining process units that are located at a single plant site covering a
contiguous area
under common control. The definition of source is an important element of this
NESHAP
because it describes the specific grouping of emission points within the source
category to which
each standard applies.

2.1 THE EMISSION STANDARD IN BRIEF

The rule is made up of seven different subjects: applicability, definitions,

and general
standards; miscellaneous process vent provisions; storage vessel provisions;
wastewater
provisions; equipment leak provisions; recordkeeping and reporting provisions; and
emissions
averaging. Each of these sections is summarized below.

2.1.1 Applicability of the Petroleum Refinery NESHAP

The applicability of the rule refers to the definition of the source within the
petroleum
refinery source category. Petroleum refineries are defined as facilities engaged in
producing
motor gasoline, naphthas, kerosene, jet fuels, distillate fuel oils, residual fuel
oils, or other
transportation fuels, heating fuels, or lubricants from crude oil or unfinished
petroleum
derivatives. The emission standard applies to petroleum refining process units that
are part of a
major source as defined in Section 112 of the CAA. EPA's initial source category
list
(57 FR 31576, July 16, 1992), required by section 112(c) of the Act, identifies
categories of
sources for which NESHAP are to be established. This list includes all categories
of major
sources of HAPs known to the EPA at this time, and all area source categories for
which findings
of adverse effects warranting regulation have been made. Two categories of sources
are listed in
the initial source category list for petroleum refineries: (1) catalytic cracking
(fluid and other)
units, catalytic reforming units, and sulfur plant units and (2) other sources not
distinctly listed.

Based on an EPA review of information on petroleum refineries during

development of the
proposed standards, it was determined that some of the emissions points from the two
listed
categories of sources have similar characteristics and can be controlled by the same
control
techniques. In particular, miscellaneous process vents emitting organic HAPs,
storage vessels,
wastewater streams, and leaks from equipment in organic HAP service within catalytic
cracking
units, catalytic reforming units, and sulfur plant units are similar to emission
points from the other
process units at petroleum refineries. EPA determined that it is most effective to
regulate these
emission points in a single regulation. (The EPA intends to amend the source
category list when
the NESHAP under analysis is promulgated.) Upon revision, all emission points
regulated by the
subject NESHAP will be in a single source category.

2.1.2 Miscellaneous Process Vent Provisions

Miscellaneous process vents are defined to include streams containing greater

than 20 parts
per million by volume (ppmv) of organic HAP that are continuously or periodically
discharged
from petroleum refining process units. This emission point excludes vents that are
routed to the
refinery fuel gas system and vents from fluidized catalytic cracking unit (FCCU)
catalyst
regeneration, catalytic reformer catalyst regeneration, and sulfur plants. The
miscellaneous
process vent provisions require the owner or operator of a miscellaneous process
vent to reduce
emissions of organic HAP by 98 percent or to 20 ppmv of HAP, or to reduce emissions
using a
flare meeting the requirements of 63.11(b) of the NESHAP General Provisions (40
CFR 63
subpart A). Data analyses conducted in developing the MACT floor for miscellaneous
process
vents determined that combustion controls can achieve 98 percent organic HAP
reduction or an
outlet organic HAP concentration of 20 ppmv or less for all vent streams.

2.1.3 Storage Vessel Provisions

A storage vessel is defined as a tank or other vessel storing feed or product

for a petroleum
refining process unit that contains organic HAPs. The storage vessel provisions do
not apply to
the following: (1) vessels permanently attached to motor vehicles, (2) pressure
vessels designed
to operate in excess of 204.9 kPa (29.7 psia), (3) vessels with capacities smaller
than 40 m3
(10,500 gal), and (4) wastewater tanks. The storage provisions define two groups of
vessels:
Group 1 vessels are vessels with a design storage capacity and a maximum true vapor
pressure
above the specified values (see definitions section); Group 2 vessels are all
vessels that are not
Group 1 vessels.

The proposed rule specifies the control systems to be applied to each of the two
types of
storage vessels. The storage provisions require that one of the following control
systems be
applied to Group 1 storage vessels: (1) an internal floating roof with proper
seals; (2) an external
floating roof with proper seals; (3) an external floating roof converted to an
internal floating roof
with proper seals; or (4) a closed vent system with a 95-percent efficient control
device. Details
are provided in the proposed rule on the types of seals required. Vessels at new
sources are also
required to meet specifications for fittings. Monitoring and compliance provisions
for Group 1
vessels include periodic visual inspections of vessels and roof seals, as well as
internal
inspections. No controls or inspections are required for Group 2 storage vessels.

2.1.4 Wastewater Provisions

The wastewater provisions of this rule are based on the benzene waste operations
NESHAP
(BWON), using benzene as a surrogate for all HAPs from wastewater in petroleum
refineries.
EPA research concluded that benzene is a good indicator of the presence of other
HAPs. The
wastewater streams subject to this rule include water, raw material, intermediate
product,
by-product, co-product, or waste material that contains HAPs and is discharged into
an individual
drain system. The wastewater provisions define two groups of wastewater streams.
Group 1
streams are those that contain a concentration of at least 10 parts per million in
water (ppmw) of
benzene, have a flow rate of at least 0.02 liter per minute (lpm), are located at a
refinery with a
total annual benzene loading of at least 10 megagrams per year and are not exempt
from control
requirements under 40 CFR 61 subpart FF (the BWON). Group 2 streams are wastewater
streams
that are not Group 1.

The wastewater provisions of the rule refer to the BWON, which requires owners or
operators of a Group 1 wastewater stream to reduce benzene mass by 99 percent using
suppression followed by steam stripping, biotreatment, or other treatment
processes. The
performance tests required for wastewater streams and treatment operations to verify
that the
control devices achieve the desired performance are included in the BWON, as are the
monitoring, reporting, and recordkeeping provisions necessary to demonstrate
compliance. No
controls or monitoring are required for Group 2 wastewater streams.

2.1.5 Equipment Leak Provisions

The equipment leak standards for the petroleum refinery NESHAP refer to the
negotiated
equipment leak regulation included in the Hazardous Organics NESHAP (HON) (40 CFR 63
subpart H). The standards for the petroleum refinery NESHAP differ from the HON in
the
following ways: only one leak definition for pumps in phase III; leak definition
for pumps is
equal to or greater than 2,000 ppmv; leak definitions for valves in phases II and
III; monitoring
frequencies for valves; connectors are not required to be monitored, but sources may
choose to
monitor valves less frequently in exchange for monitoring of connectors.

2.1.6 Recordkeeping and Reporting Provisions

The rule requires petroleum refineries to keep records of information necessary

to document
compliance for five years and submit the following four types of reports to the
Administrator:
(1) an initial notification, (2) a notification of compliance status, (3) periodic
reports, and (4) other
reports. There are no requirements for reporting compliance with wastewater
provisions other
than the reports already required by the BWON. The initial notification report must
list the
petroleum refining process units that are subject to the rule. The notification of
compliance
status report contains the information necessary to demonstrate that compliance has
been
achieved. Periodic reports must include information required to be reported under
the
recordkeeping and reporting provisions for each emission point. Other reports must
be
submitted as required by the provisions for each kind of emission point, including
requests for
extensions of time for repair of storage vessels and notifications of storage vessel
inspections.

2.1.7 Emission Averaging

The EPA is proposing that emission averaging be allowed among existing

miscellaneous
process vents, storage tanks, and wastewater streams within a refinery. EPA decided
against
allowing equipment leaks to be included in emissions averaging because of the
complexity and
cost of developing a scheme to include equipment leaks in emissions averaging and the
likelihood of a high compliance determination burden for both the industry and
enforcement
agencies. Under emission averaging, a system of emission "credits" and "debits"
would be used
to determine whether the source is achieving the required emission reductions. An
owner or
operator who generates an emission debit must control other emission points to a
level more
stringent than is required by the regulation to generate an emission credit. Annual
emission
credits must exceed emission debits for a source to be in compliance. The rule
would contain
specific equations and procedures for calculating credits and debits.
3.0 NEED FOR REGULATION

One of the concerns about potential threats to human health and the environment
from
petroleum refineries is the emission of HAPs. Health risks from emissions of HAPs
into the air
include increases in cancer incidences and other toxic effects. This chapter
discusses the need
for and consequences of regulating of HAP emissions from petroleum refineries.

Section 3.1 presents the conditions of market failure which necessitate

government
intervention. Section 3.2 identifies the insufficiency of political and judicial
forces to control the
release of toxic air pollutants from petroleum refineries. Section 3.3 provides a
characterization
of the HAP and VOC emissions from petroleum refineries. These values represent the
baseline
against which the emission reductions associated with the regulatory options will be
compared in
the cost effectiveness calculations presented in Chapter 5 of this report. Section
3.3 also
provides more detail on the health risks of these pollutants. Lastly, Section 3.4
identifies the
consequences of regulating versus the option of not regulating.

3.1 MARKET FAILURE

The U.S. Office of Management and Budget (OMB) directs regulatory agencies to
demonstrate the need for a major rule.1 The RIA must show that a market failure
exists and that
it cannot be resolved by measures other than Federal regulation. Market failures
are categorized
by OMB as externalities, natural monopolies, or inadequate information. The
following
paragraphs address the three categories of market failure.

3.1.1 Air Pollution as an Externality

Air pollution is an example of a negative externality. This means that, in the

absence of
government regulation, the decisions of generators of air pollution do not fully
reflect the costs
associated with that pollution. For a petroleum refiner, air pollution from the
refinery is a
product or by-product that can be disposed of cheaply by venting it to the
atmosphere. Left to
their own devices, many refiners treat air as a free good and do not fully
"internalize" the
damage caused by emissions. This damage is born by society, and the receptors þ the
people
who are adversely affected by the pollution þ are not able to collect compensation
to offset their
costs. They cannot collect compensation because the adverse effects, like increased
risks of
morbidity and mortality, are non-market goods, that is, goods that are not
explicitly and routinely
traded in organized free markets.

HAP emissions represent an externality in that refinery operation imposes costs

on others
outside of the marketplace. In the case of this type of negative externality, the
market price of
goods and services does not reflect the costs, borne by receptors of the HAPs,
generated in the
refining process. Government regulation can be used to improve the situation. For
example, the
NESHAP will force petroleum refiners to reduce the quantity of HAPs that they emit.
With the
NESHAP in effect, the amount that refiners must incur to refine petroleum products
will more
closely approximate the full social costs of production. In the long run, refiners
will be forced to
increase prices of the petroleum products sold in order to cover total production
costs. Thus,
prices will rise, consumers accordingly will reduce their demand for petroleum
products, and as
a result, fewer petroleum products will be provided to the market. The more the
costs of
pollution are internalized by the petroleum refiners, the greater the improvement in
the way the
market functions.

3.1.2 Natural Monopoly

Natural monopoly exists where a market can be served at lowest cost only if
production is
limited to a single producer. The refining industry is characterized by some of the
same
attributes which define monopolistic markets, including economies of scale, and
barriers to entry
due to the heavy up-front capital needed for refinery construction. Because of the
wide diversity
in the size and number of petroleum refineries, however, conditions of natural
monopoly do not
represent a market failure for this industry.

3.1.3 Inadequate Information

The third category of potential market failure that sometimes is used to justify
government
regulation is inadequate information. Some petroleum refineries can reduce costs by
installing
air pollution control devices, or reducing leaks. Due to lack of information, some
of these
refineries do not install such systems. The NESHAP will require the collection of
information
that may give a particular petroleum refiner enough data to make an informed
decision on
whether or not control devices are the best option.

3.2 INSUFFICIENT POLITICAL AND JUDICIAL FORCES

There are a variety of reasons why many emission sources, in EPA's judgment,
should be
subject to reasonably uniform national standards. The principal reasons are:

þ Air pollution crosses jurisdictional lines.

þ The people who breathe the air pollution travel freely, sometimes coming in
contact
with air pollution outside their home jurisdiction.

þ Harmful effects of air pollution detract from the nation's health and welfare
regardless of
whether the air pollution and harmful effects are localized.

þ Uniform national standards, unlike potentially piecemeal local standards, are

not likely
to create artificial incentives or artificial disincentives for economic
development in any
particular locality.

þ One uniform set of requirements and procedures can reduce paperwork and
frustration
for firms that must comply with emission regulations across the country.

None of these reasons, by itself, provides overriding justification for Federal

action in the
case at hand. Collectively, however, the reasons argue against reliance on State
and local action
to control HAP emissions from petroleum refineries.

Citizens, as well as EPA, may sue State and local governments to force them to
control HAP
emissions from petroleum refineries. Litigation under both the CAA and RCRA is
possible.
However, EPA has not explored ways of improving the judicial route so that it might
serve as a
substitute for action under Section 112 of the CAA.

3.3 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS WHICH NECESSITATE REGULATION

Regulation of the petroleum refining industry is necessary because of the

adverse health
effects caused by human exposure to HAP emissions. This section characterizes the
emissions
attributable to petroleum refining and summarizes the adverse health effects
associated with
human exposure to HAP emissions.

3.3.1 Air Emission Characterization

The HAP emissions from the emission points that comprise the source in this
source category
are all organic HAPs. Therefore, given the source and source category definitions,
the provisions
of this NESHAP apply to organic HAPs listed in section 112(b) of the CAA. HAP
emissions from
refineries are composed of a few chemicals, including benzene, toluene, xylenes,
ethylbenzene,
and hexane. There is a narrower range of variation in emission stream composition
among
petroleum refinery emission points than there is in some other source categories (e.
g., Synthetic
Organic Chemical Manufacturing Industry (SOCMI) emission points regulated by the
HON).
However, the different HAPs emitted have different toxicities, and there are some
variations in
the concentrations of individual HAPs and the emission release characteristics of
different
emission points.

Baseline emissions from petroleum refineries were estimated using information

published in
the Oil and Gas Journal (OGJ) and provided by petroleum refineries in response to
information
collection requests and questionnaires sent out under section 114 of the CAA. Table
3-1
presents the baseline HAP and VOC emissions for each of the four kinds of emission
points
controlled by this proposed rule. Emission levels of other air pollutants (CO, NOx,
and SO2)
were not quantified. Baseline emissions include emissions from both new and existing
sources.
Baseline HAP and VOC emissions take into account the current estimated level of
emissions
control, based on questionnaire responses submitted by refineries, and on related
regulations
which have already been promulgated. (These regulations are summarized later in
this chapter.)
As a result, baseline HAP and VOC emissions reflect the level of control that would
be achieved
in the absence of the proposed rule.

TABLE 3-1. NATIONAL BASELINE VOC AND HAP EMISSIONS BY EMISSION POINT

Baseline Emissions (Mg/yr) Emission Point HAP VOC Miscellaneous Process Vents 9,800
190,000 Equipment Leaks 52,000 190,000 Storage Vessels 9,300 111,000 Wastewater
Collection and Treatment 10,000 10,000 TOTAL 81,100 501,000

Given available data, it has not been possible to identify individual HAP
emissions for each
type of emission point. Speciated HAP emissions were available only for equipment
leaks.
Since HAP emissions from equipment leaks account for nearly 65 percent of total HAP
emissions
at petroleum refineries, however, this speciation is valuable for approximating the
minimum level
of cancer risk related to refinery emissions. Speciated HAP emissions for equipment
leaks are
presented in Table 3-2.

3.3.2 Harmful Effects of HAPs

Exposure to HAPs has been associated with a variety of adverse health effects.
Direct
exposure to HAPs can occur through inhalation, soil ingestion, the food chain, and
dermal
contact. Only health effects associated with HAP emissions are addressed in these
NESHAPs.
Many HAPs are classified as known human carcinogens. Other HAPs have not been
classified as
known human carcinogens. Exposure to these pollutants, however, may still result in
adverse
health and welfare impacts to human populations. TABLE 3-2. BASELINE SPECIATED HAP
EMISSIONS FROM EQUIPMENT LEAKS

Hazardous Air Pollutant Baseline Emissions

(Mg/yr) 2, 2, 4-Trimethylpentane 5,660 Benzene 1,904 Ethyl Benzene 2,377 Hexane
5,486 Naphthalene 1,539 Toluene 8,049 Xylenes 7,597 Hydrogen Fluoride 2,764 Phenol
1,243 Cresols 603 MTBE 5,840 Hydrogen Chloride 199 Methyl Ethyl Ketone 2,117 TOTAL
45,380

EPA has devised a system, which was adapted from one developed by the
International
Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), for classifying chemicals based on the weight-
of-
evidence.2 Of the HAPs listed in Table 3-2, only benzene is classified as group A,
or a known
human carcinogen. This means that there is sufficient evidence to support that the
chemical
causes an increased risk of cancer in humans. Benzene is a concern to the EPA
because long
term exposure to this chemical has been known to cause leukemia in humans. While
this is the
most well known effect, benzene exposure is also associated with aplastic anemia,
multiple
myeloma, lymphomas, pancytopenia, chromosomal breakages, and weakening of bone marrow
(53 FR 28504; July 28, 1988).

Cresols and naphthalene are considered to be group C or possible human

carcinogens. For
these chemicals, there is either inadequate data or no data on human
carcinogenicity, and there
is limited data on animal carcinogenicity. Therefore, while cancer risk is
possible, there is not
sufficient evidence to support that these chemicals will cause increased cancer
risks in humans.
The remaining HAPs in Table 3-2 are noncarcinogens. Though they do not cause
cancer, they
are considered hazardous because of the other significant adverse health effects
with which they
are associated.

Emissions of VOC have been associated with a variety of health impacts. VOCs,
together
with NOx, are precursors to the formation of tropospheric ozone. It is exposure to
ozone that is
responsible for adverse respiratory impacts, including coughing and difficulty in
breathing.
Repeated exposure to elevated concentrations of ozone over long periods of time may
also lead
to chronic, structural damage to the lungs.

3.4 CONSEQUENCES OF REGULATORY ACTION

This section provides a preliminary assessment of the consequences of the

attainment of EPA
emission reduction objectives, and the likely consequences if these objectives are
not met.

3.4.1 Consequences if EPA's Emission Reduction Objectives are Met

This section presents the environmental, cost, and energy use impacts resulting
from the
control of HAP emissions under the proposed rule. (Economic impacts will be
presented in
Chapter 6.) It is estimated that approximately 192 petroleum refineries would be
required to
apply controls by the proposed standards. Throughout this report, impacts are
presented relative
to the baseline, which represents the level of control in the absence of the
proposed rule. The
estimates include the impacts of applying control to: (1) existing process units
and (2) additional
process units that are expected to begin operation over a 5-year period. Thus, the
estimates
represent annual impacts occurring in the fifth year. Based on a review of annual
construction
projects over the years 1988 to 1992 listed in the Oil and Gas Journal, it was
assumed that
34 new process units would be constructed each year over a 5-year period.

3.4.1.1 Allocation of Resources. There will be improved allocation of

resources associated
with petroleum refining. Specifically, more of the costs of the harmful effects of
the refining
process will be internalized by the producers. This, in turn, will affect
consumers' purchasing
decisions. To the extent these newly-internalized costs are then passed along to
the end users of
refined petroleum products, and to the extent that these end users are free to buy
as much or as
little of the petroleum products as they wish, they will purchase less (relative to
their purchases
of other competing services). If this same process of internalizing negative
externalities occurs
throughout the entire petroleum refining industry, an economically optimal situation
is
approached. This is the situation in which the marginal cost of resources devoted
to petroleum
refining equals the marginal value of the products to the end users of the
products. Although
there are uncertainties in this progression of impacts, in the aggregate and in the
long run, the
NESHAP will move society toward this economically optimal situation.

3.4.1.2 Emissions Reductions. The environmental impact of the rule includes

the reduction
of HAP and VOC emissions. Under the proposed rule, it is estimated that the
emissions of HAP
from refineries would be reduced by 53,000 Mg/yr, and the emissions of VOC would be
reduced
by 350,000 Mg/yr. Emission levels of other air pollutants (CO, NOx, and SO2) were
not
quantified. It is important to note that the possibility exists for slight
increases above existing
emission levels would result from the combustion of fossil fuel as part of control
device
operations. Additional emissions of these pollutants would be attributable to the
additional fuel
burned to generate energy for operation of compressors for ducting miscellaneous
process vent
streams to control devices.

3.4.1.3 Costs and Benefits. The cost impact of the rule includes the capital
cost of new
control equipment, and the associated operation and maintenance cost. Generally,
the cost
impact also includes any cost savings generated by reducing the loss of valuable
product in the
form of emissions. Under the proposed rule, it is estimated that total capital
costs would be
$188 million (first quarter 1992 dollars) and total annual costs would be $81
million (first
quarter 1992 dollars). Table 3-3 presents the capital and annual cost impact of the
regulation for
each of the four emission points as well as the national totals.

TABLE 3-3. NATIONAL CONTROL COST IMPACTS OF PREFERRED ALTERNATIVE IN THE

FIFTH YEAR

Emission Point Total Capital Costs

(Million Dollars) Total Annual Costs
(Million Dollars) Miscellaneous Process Vents $ 31.0 $ 11.4 Equipment Leaks $ 130.0
$ 65.8 Storage Vessels $ 27.0 $ 3.8 Wastewater Collection and Treatment b b TOTAL $
188.0 $ 81.0
NOTES: bThe MACT level of control is no additional control.

3.4.1.4 Energy Impacts. Increases in energy use were estimated for operating
control
equipment that would be required by the proposed standards (compressors for ducting
miscellaneous process vent streams to control devices). The estimated energy use
increase in the
fifth year would be 13 million kw-hr/yr of electricity or 10 barrels of oil
equivalent.3

3.4.1.5 State Regulation and New Source Review. State regulatory programs will
be
strengthened. Some components of the petroleum refining industry have already been
subject to
various Federal, State, and local air pollution control rules. Although these
existing rules will
remain in effect, the petroleum refinery NESHAP will provide comprehensive coverage
of the
petroleum refinery sources not covered by the existing rules. Recognition that the
NESHAP is
effectively reducing emissions will expedite the State process of reviewing
applications for new
petroleum refineries and issuing permits for their construction and operation.
State regulations
will also be uniform, and the disadvantages of the piecemeal approach to emission
regulation
will be avoided.

3.4.1.6Other Federal Programs. The regulations which affect the petroleum

refining
industry which have already been promulgated include a number of NSPS, (40 CFR 60):
subpart J þ Standards of Performance for Petroleum Refineries; subparts K, Ka, and
Kb þ various
standards of performance for storage vessels for petroleum liquids; subpart GGG þ
Standards of
Performance for Equipment Leaks of VOC in Petroleum Refineries, and the Standards of
Performance for VOC Emissions from Petroleum Refinery Wastewater Systems. The
regulations
that have already been promulgated also include a number of NESHAPs, (40 CFR 61):
subpart J
þ NESHAP for Equipment Leaks (Fugitive Emission Sources) of Benzene; subpart Y þ
NESHAP for
Benzene Emissions from Benzene Storage Vessels; and subpart FF þ NESHAP for Benzene
Waste
Operations (BWON).

This petroleum refinery NESHAP generally covers refinery processes that produce
petroleum
liquids (such as motor gasoline, naphthas, and kerosene) for use as fuels. Often,
products of
refinery processes are used to make synthetic organic chemicals other than fuels.
The petroleum
refinery NESHAP will not cover chemical manufacturing process units that are covered
under the
SOCMI source category, even if these units are located at a refinery site. A SOCMI
chemical
manufacturing process unit that is located at a refinery and produces one or more of
the
chemicals listed in the HON (40 CFR 63 subpart F, table 1) as a single chemical
product or as a
mixed chemical used to produce other chemicals would be considered a SOCMI process
and
would be subject to the HON rather than to the petroleum refinery NESHAP.

3.4.2 Consequences if EPA's Emission Reduction Objectives are Not Met

The most obvious consequence of failure to meet EPA's emission reduction

objectives would
be emissions reductions and benefits that are not as large as is projected in this
report. However,
costs are not likely to be as large either. Whether it is noncompliance from
ignorance or error,
or from willful intent, or simply slow compliance due to owners and/or operators
exercising legal
delays, poor compliance can save some refineries money. Unless States respond by
allocating
more resources into enforcement, then poor compliance could bring with it smaller
aggregate
nationwide control costs. EPA has not included an allowance for poor compliance in
its
estimates of emissions reductions, due to the fact that poor compliance is
unlikely. Also, if the
emission control devices degraded rapidly over time or in some other way did not
function as
expected, there could be a misallocation of resources. This situation is very
unlikely, given that
the NESHAP is based on demonstrated technology.
REFERENCES

1. U.S. Office of Management and Budget. Regulatory Impact Guidance. Appendix V of

Regulatory Program of the United States Government. April 1, 1991 þ March 31,
1992.

2. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The Risk Assessment Guidelines of 1986.

Office of
Health and Environmental Assessment. Washington, DC. August 1987.

3. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. National Emission Standards for

Hazardous Air
Pollutants for Source Categories: Petroleum Refineries. Proposed Rule and
Notice of Public
Hearing. Draft. Section IV. February 1994.
4.0 CONTROL TECHNIQUES AND REGULATORY ALTERNATIVES

The proposed regulation would require a broad range of control techniques as

options for
compliance with the standard. Combustion technology, internal floating roofs, and
product
recovery devices, including internal floating roofs and vapor recovery tanks, are
all part of the
technology requirements for the Petroleum Refinery NESHAP. Leak detection and
repair (LDAR)
programs will be used to control equipment leaks. This chapter does not attempt to
be
comprehensive in explaining the technology and techniques used to control air toxics
emissions
under this proposed regulation; it does attempt to survey what technologies and
techniques are
being used and how effective they are.

Petroleum refineries differ in the number, combination, and design of their

process units; the
production capacities of their refining processes; the type and characteristics of
crude oil they
use; and the control equipment they use. Consequently, actual emissions and
characteristics of
petroleum refinery facilities vary widely from refinery to refinery. This diversity
affected the
approach used to define the MACT floor for existing and new sources.

This chapter briefly explains the control technologies which are available to
refineries to
comply with the proposed regulation. At the end of this chapter, a summary of the
two
regulatory alternatives is provided.

4.1 CONTROL TECHNIQUES

This section presents a summary of the control equipment available for combustion
technology, product recovery devices, LDAR programs, and internal floating roofs.
Each type of
control is presented separately.

4.1.1 Combustion Technology

Combustion control devices, unlike noncombustion control devices, alter the

chemical
structure of the VOC. Destruction of the VOC by combustion is complete if all VOCs
are
converted to CO2 and water. Incomplete combustion results in some of the VOC
remaining
unaltered or being converted to other organic compounds such as aldehydes or acids.
If
chlorinated or sulfur-containing compounds are present in the mixture, the products
of complete
combustion include the acid components HCl or SO2, respectively, in addition to
water and
carbon dioxide. Available combustion technology options include incinerators,
flares, and
boilers and process heaters. The process and applicability of each control type are
summarized
in the following sections.

4.1.1.1 Incinerators. Incineration is one of the best known methods of

industrial gas waste
disposal. It is a method of ultimate disposal, that is, the constituents to be
controlled in the
waste gas stream are converted rather than collected. Provided proper engineering
design is
used, incineration can eliminate the desired organic chemicals in a gas stream
safely and cleanly.

The heart of an incinerator is a combustion chamber in which the VOC-containing

waste
stream is burned. The temperature required for combustion is much higher than the
temperature
of the inlet gas, so energy is usually supplied to the incinerator to raise the
waste gas
temperature. This is accomplished by adding auxiliary fuel (usually natural gas).

The amount of auxiliary fuel required can be decreased and energy efficiency
increased by
providing heat exchange between the inlet stream and the effluent stream. The
effluent stream
containing the products of combustion, along with any inerts that may have been
present in or
added to the inlet stream, can be used to preheat the incoming waste stream,
auxiliary air, or
both via a "primary", or recuperative, heat exchanger.

Auxiliary air may be required for combustion if the requisite oxygen is not
available in the
inlet gas stream. Most industrial gases that contain VOCs are dilute mixtures of
combustible
gases in air. During the air oxidation reactor and distillation processes, the
waste gas stream is
deficient in air.

Important in the design and operation of incinerators is the concentration of

combustible gas
in the waste gas stream. Having a large amount of excess air (i.e., in excess of
the required
stoichiometric amounts) may be costly, but any mixture within the flammability
limits, on either
the fuel-rich or fuel-lean side of the stoichiometric mixture, is considered a fire
hazard as a feed
stream to the incinerator. Therefore, some waste gas streams are diluted with air
before
incineration, even though this requires more fuel in the incinerator. There are two
types of
incinerators: thermal and catalytic. While much of what was discussed above
applies to both,
there are important differences in their design and operation.

4.1.1.1.1 Thermal Incinerators. As is true of other combustion control

devices, thermal
incinerators operate on the principle that any VOC heated to a high enough
temperature in the
presence of sufficient oxygen will be oxidized to CO2 and water. The theoretical
temperature
for thermal oxidation depends on the properties of the VOC to be combusted. There
is great
variation in theoretical combustion temperatures among different VOCs.

There are three requirements that must be met for a thermal incinerator to be
considered
efficient: 1) a high enough temperature within the combustion chamber to enable
oxidation of
the organic compounds to proceed rapidly to completion; 2) enough turbulence for
good mixing
of the hot combustion products from the burner, the combustion air, and the organic
compounds; and 3) sufficient residence time for oxidation to reach completion.

A typical thermal incinerator is a refractory-lined chamber containing a burner

or set of
burners at one end. Entering gases are mixed with the process vent streams and the
inlet air in a
premixing chamber. Then the stream of gases passes into the main combustion
chamber. This
chamber is designed to allow the mixture enough time at the required combustion
temperature
for complete oxidation (usually from 0.3 to 1.0 second). A heat recovery section is
often added
to increase energy efficiency. Often, inlet combustion air is preheated; if this
occurs, insurance
regulations require the VOC concentration must be maintained below 25 percent of the
lower
explosive limit (LEL) to minimize the possibility of explosions. Concentrations
from 25 to 50
percent are permitted given continuous monitoring by LEL monitors.

The required level of VOC control of the waste gas that must be achieved within
the time it
spends in the thermal combustion chamber dictates the reactor temperature. The
shorter the
residence time, the higher the reactor temperature must be. Once the unit is
designed and built,
the residence time is not easily changed, so that the required reaction temperature
becomes a
function of the particular gaseous species and the desired level of control. These
required
combustion reaction temperatures cannot be calculated a priori, although incinerator
vendors can
provide guidelines based on their extensive experience. Predictions of these
temperatures are
further complicated by the fact that most process vent streams are mixtures of
compounds.

Good mixing is also important, particularly in determining destruction

efficiency. Even
though it cannot be measured, mixing is a factor of equal or even greater importance
than other
parameters such as temperature. The most feasible and efficient way to improve the
mixing in
an incinerator is to adjust it after start-up.
 Other parameters affecting thermal incinerator performance are the heat content
of the vent
stream, the water content of the stream, and the amount of excess combustion air
(the amount of
air above the stoichiometric air needed for combustion). Combustion of a vent
stream with a
heat content less than 1.9 MJ/m3 (52 BTU/scf) usually requires burning supplemental
fuel to
maintain the desired combustion temperature.

The maximum achievable VOC destruction efficiency decreases with decreasing

inlet VOC
concentration because combustion is slower at lower inlet concentrations.
Therefore, a VOC
weight percentage reduction based on the mass rate of VOC exiting the control device
versus the
mass rate of VOC entering the device is appropriate for vent streams with VOC
concentrations
above approximately 2,000 ppmv (which corresponds to 1,000 ppmv VOC in the
incinerator
inlet stream since air dilution is typically 1:1).

Thermal incinerators are technically feasible control devices for most vent
streams. They are
not recommended, however, for vent streams with potentially excessive fluctuations
in flow rate
(process upsets, for example), and for vent streams containing halogens. The former
case would
require a flare (see Section 4.1.1.2) and the latter case would require additional
equipment such
as acid gas scrubbers (see Section 4.1.2).

4.1.1.1.2 Types of Thermal Incinerators. The very simplest type of thermal

incinerator
is the direct flame incinerator, which is made up of only the combustion chamber.
Energy
recovery devices such as a waste gas preheater and a heat exchanger are not included
with this
type of incinerator.

A second type of thermal incinerator is the recuperative model. Recuperative

incinerators
use the exit (product) gas to preheat the incoming feed stream, combustion air, or
both via a heat
exchanger. These heat exchangers can recover up to 70 percent of the energy (or
enthalpy) in
the product gas. The two types of heat exchangers commonly used for this purpose
and many
others are plate-to-plate and shell-and-tube. Plate-to-plate exchangers can be
built to achieve a
variety of efficiencies and offer high efficiency energy recovery at lower cost than
shell-and-tube
designs. But when gas temperatures exceed 520 degrees Celsius, shell-and-tube
exchangers
usually have lower purchase costs than plate-to-plate designs. Moreover, shell-and-
tube
exchangers offer better long-term structural reliability than plate-to-plate units.

Occasionally it is desired to recover some of the energy added by auxiliary fuel

in the
traditional thermal units (but not recovered in preheating the feed stream).
Additional heat
exchangers can be added to provide process heat in the form of low pressure steam or
hot water
for on-site application. The need for this higher level of energy recovery will be
dependent upon
the plant site. The additional heat exchanger is often provided by the incineration
unit vendor.

A third type of thermal incinerator is the regenerative incinerator. This type

of incinerator
uses direct contact heat exchangers constructed of a ceramic material that can
tolerate the high
temperatures needed to achieve ignition of the waste stream. The concept behind this
incinerator type is that the traditional approach to energy recovery in thermal
units still requires a
significant amount of auxiliary fuel to be burned in the combustion chamber when
waste gas
heating values are too low to sustain the desired reaction temperature at the
moderate preheat
temperature employed. Under these conditions, additional fuel savings can be
realized in units
with more complete transfer of exit stream energy. The regenerative incinerator
serves this
purpose.

In this type of incinerator, the inlet gas first passes through a hot ceramic
bed thereby
heating the steam to its ignition temperature. After the hot gases react and
release energy in the
combustion chamber, the gases pass through another ceramic bed, thereby heating it
to the
levels of the combustion chamber outlet temperature. The process flows are then
switched, now
feeding the inlet stream to the hot bed. This cyclic process affords very high
energy recovery (up
to 95 percent).

4.1.1.1.3 Catalytic Incinerators. A catalyst promotes oxidation of some

VOCs at a
lower temperature than that required for thermal incineration. The catalyst
increases the rate of
the chemical reaction without becoming permanently altered itself. Catalysts
typically used for
VOC incineration include platinum and palladium. These catalysts work well for most
organic
streams, but are not tolerant of compounds containing halogens such as chlorine and
sulfur.
Among the catalysts that have been developed that are effective in the presence of
these
halogens are chromia/alumina, cobalt oxide, and copper oxide/manganese oxide. Inert
substrates
are coated with thin layers of these materials to provide maximum surface area for
contact with
the VOC in the vent stream. Compounds containing elements such as lead, arsenic, and
phosphorus should, in general, be considered poisons for most oxidation catalysts.
In addition,
particulate matter, including dissolved minerals in aerosols, can rapidly blind
(deactivate) the
pores of catalysts and deactivate them over time. Because essentially all the
active surface of the
catalyst is contained in relatively small pores, the particulate matter need not be
large to blind
the catalyst.

For optimal operation, the volumetric gas flow rate and the concentration of
combustibles (in
this case, VOCs) should be constant. Large fluctuations in the flow rate will cause
the
conversion of the VOCs to fluctuate also. Changes in the concentration or type of
organic
compounds in the gas stream can also affect the overall conversion of the VOC
contaminants.
Most changes in flow rate, organic concentration, and chemical composition are
generally the
result of upsets in the manufacturing process generating the waste gas stream.

Applicability of catalytic incinerators for control of VOCs is limited by the

catalyst
deactivation sensitivity to the characteristics of the inlet gas stream. The vent
stream to be
combusted should not contain materials that can poison the catalyst or deposit on
and block the
reactive sites on the catalyst surface. In addition, catalytic incinerators are
unable to handle high
inlet concentrations of VOC or very high flow rates. Catalytic incineration is
generally useful for
concentrations of 50 to 10,000 ppmv, if the total concentration is less than 25
percent of the LEL
and for flow rates of less than 2,820 m3/min (100,000 scfm).

4.1.1.1.4 Types of Catalytic Incinerators. One type of catalytic

incinerator is fixed-bed.
Fixed-bed incinerators come in two varieties, depending on the type of catalyst
used: the
monolith and packed-bed. The monolith catalyst is the most widespread method of
contacting
the VOC-containing stream with the catalyst. In this scheme, the catalyst is a
porous solid block
containing parallel, non-intersecting channels aligned in the direction of the gas
flow. Monolith
catalysts offer the advantages of minimal attrition due to thermal expansion/
contraction during
startup/shutdown and low overall pressure drop.

A second contacting scheme is a simple packed-bed in which catalyst particles

are supported
either in a tube or in shallow trays through which the gases pass. The tray type
arrangement is
the more common packed-bed scheme due to the use of pelletized catalysts. This tray
arrangement is preferred because pelletized catalysts can handle inlet streams
containing
contaminants such as phosphorus or silicon. The tube arrangement is not used widely
due to its
inherently high pressure drop compared with a monolith, and the breaking of catalyst
particles
due to thermal expansion when the confined catalyst bed is heated/cooled during
startup/shutdown.

A third contacting pattern between the gas and catalyst is a fluid-bed. Fluid-
beds have the
advantage of very high mass transfer rates, although the overall pressure drop is
somewhat higher
than for a monolith. Fluid-beds also possess the advantage of high bed-side heat
transfer
compared with a normal gas heat transfer coefficient. This higher heat transfer
rate to heat
transfer tubes immersed in the bed allows higher heat release rates per unit volume
of gas
processed and therefore may allow waste gases with higher heating values to be
processed
without exceeding maximum permissible temperatures in the catalyst bed. The catalyst
temperatures depend on the rate of reaction occurring at the catalyst surface and
the rate of heat
exchange between the catalyst and imbedded heat transfer surfaces.

In general, fluid-bed systems are more tolerant of particulates in the gas

stream than fixed-
bed or packed-bed systems. This results from the constant abrasion of the fluidized
catalyst
pellets, which helps remove these particulates from the exterior of the catalysts in
a continuous
manner.

4.1.1.2 Flares. Flaring is an open combustion process in which the oxygen

necessary for
combustion is provided by the air around the flame. The organic compounds to be
combusted
are piped to a remote, usually elevated, location and burned in an open flame in the
open air
using a specially designed burner tip, auxiliary fuel, and sometimes steam or air to
promote
mixing for nearly complete (98 percent minimum) destruction of combustibles. Good
combustion in a flare is governed by flame temperature, residence time of organic
species in the
combustion zone, turbulent mixing of the organic species to complete the oxidation
reaction,
and the amount of oxygen available for free radical formation. Combustion is
complete if all
combustibles (i.e., VOCs) are converted to CO2 and water, while incomplete
combustion results
in some of the VOCs being unaltered or converted to other organic compounds such as
aldehydes or acids.
 Flares are generally categorized in two ways: 1) by the height of the flare tip
(i.e., ground-
level or elevated), and 2) by the method of enhancing mixing at the flare tip (i.e.,
steam-assisted,
air-assisted, pressure-assisted, or unassisted). Elevating the flare can prevent
potentially
dangerous conditions at ground level where the open flame is located near a process
unit.
Further, the products of combustion can be dispersed above working areas to reduce
the effects
of noise, heat radiation, smoke, and objectionable odors.

In most flares, combustion occurs by means of a diffusion flame. A diffusion

flame is one in
which air diffuses across the boundary of the fuel/combustion product stream toward
the center
of the fuel flow, forming the envelope of a combustible gas mixture around a core of
fuel gas.
This mixture, on ignition, establishes a stable flame zone around the gas core above
the burner
tip. This inner gas core is heated by diffusion of hot combustion products from the
flame zone.

Cracking can occur with the formation of small hot particles of carbon that give
the flame its
characteristic luminosity. If there is an oxygen deficiency and if the carbon
particles are cooled
to below their ignition temperature, smoking occurs. In large diffusion flames,
combustion
product vortices can form around burning portions of the gas and shut off the supply
of oxygen.
This localized instability causes flame flickering, which can be accompanied by soot
formation.

Flares can be dedicated to almost any VOC stream, and can handle fluctuations in
VOC
concentration, flow rate, heating value, and inerts content. Flaring is appropriate
for continuous,
batch, and variable flow vent stream applications.

Some streams, such as those containing halogenated or sulfur-containing

compounds, are
usually not flared because they corrode the flare tip or cause formation of
secondary pollutants
(such as acid gases or sulfur dioxide). If these vent types are to be controlled by
combustion,
thermal incineration, followed by scrubbing to remove the acid gases, is the
preferred method.

The majority of refineries have existing flare systems designed to relieve

emergency process
upsets that might contain large gas volumes. Often, large diameter flares designed
to handle
emergency releases are also used to control continuous vent streams from various
process
operations. Typically in refineries, many vent streams are combined in a common gas
header to
fuel boilers and process heaters. However, excess gases, fluctuations in flow rate
in the fuel gas
line, and emergency releases are sometimes sent to a flare. Five factors affecting
flare
combustion efficiency are vent gas flammability, auto-ignition temperature, heat
content of the
vent stream, density, and flame zone mixing.

The flammability limits of the vent stream influence ignition stability and
flame extinction.
Flammability limits are the stoichiometric composition limits (maximum and minimum)
of an
oxygen-fuel mixture that will burn indefinitely at given conditions of temperature
and pressure
without further ignition. In other words, gases must be within their flammability
limits to burn.
If these limits are narrow, the interior of the flame may have insufficient air for
the mixture to
burn. Fuels, such as hydrogen, with wide limits of flammability are therefore
easier to combust.

The auto-ignition temperature of a vent stream affects combustion because gas

mixtures must
be at a sufficient temperature and concentration to burn. A gas with a low auto-
ignition
temperature will ignite more easily than a gas with a high auto-ignition temperature.

The heat content of the vent stream is a measure of the heat available from the
combustion
of the VOC in the vent stream. The heat content of the vent stream affects the
flame structure
and stability. A gas with a lower heat content produces a cooler flame that does
not favor
combustion kinetics and is more easily extinguished. The lower flame temperature
will also
reduce buoyant forces, which reduces mixing.

The density of the vent stream also affects the structure and stability of the
flame through the
effect on buoyancy and mixing. By design, the velocity in many flares is very low;
therefore,
most of the flame structure is developed through buoyant forces as a result of
combustion.
Lighter gases therefore tend to burn better. In addition to burner tip design, the
density also
affects the minimum purge gas required to prevent flashback, with lighter gases
requiring more
purge.

Poor mixing at the flare tip or poor flare maintenance can cause smoking
(particulate matter
release). Vent streams with high carbon-to-hydrogen ratios (> 0.35) have a greater
tendency to
smoke and require better mixing to burn smokelessly. For this reason, one generic
steam-to-vent-
stream ratio is not appropriate for all vent streams. The steam required depends on
the vent
stream carbon-to-hydrogen ratio. A high ratio requires more steam to prevent a
smoking flare.

The efficiency of a flare in reducing VOC emissions can be variable. For

example, smoking
flares are far less efficient than properly operated and maintained flares. Flares
have been shown
to have high VOC destruction efficiencies, under proper operating conditions. Up to
99.7
percent combustion efficiency can be achieved.

4.1.1.2.1 Steam-Assisted Flares. Steam-assisted flares are single burner

tips, elevated
above ground level for safety reasons, that burn the vented gas in essentially a
diffusion flame.
They reportedly account for the majority of the flames installed and are the
predominant flare
type found in refineries. To ensure an adequate air supply and good mixing, this
type of flare
system injects steam into the combustion zone to promote turbulence for mixing and
to induce
air into the flame.

4.1.1.2.2 Air-Assisted Flares. Air-assisted flares use forced air to

provide the
combustion air and the mixing required for smokeless operation. These flares are
built with a
spider-shaped burner (with many small gas orifices) located inside but near the top
of a steel
cylinder two feet or more in diameter. Combustion air is provided by a fan in the
bottom of the
cylinder, and the amount of combustion air can be varied by changing the fan speed.
The
primary advantage air-assisted flares provide is that they can be used without steam.

4.1.1.2.3 Non-Assisted Flares. The non-assisted flare is just a flare tip

without any
auxiliary provision for enhancing the mixing of air into its flame. Its use is
limited essentially to
gas streams that have a low heat content and a low carbon/hydrogen ratio that burn
readily
without producing smoke. These streams require less air for complete combustion,
have lower
combustion temperatures that minimize cracking reactions, and are more resistant to
cracking.

4.1.1.2.4 Pressure-Assisted Flares. This type of flare uses vent stream

pressure to
promote mixing at the burner tip. If sufficient vent stream pressure is available,
these flares can
be applied to streams previously requiring steam or air assist for smokeless
operation. Pressure-
assisted flares generally have the burner arrangement at ground level, and
consequently, must be
located in a remote area of the plant where there is plenty of space available.
They have
multiple burner heads that are staged to operate based on the quantity of gas being
released.
The size, design, number, and group arrangement of the burner heads depend on the
vent gas
characteristics.

4.1.1.2.5 Enclosed Ground Flares. The burner heads of an enclosed flare are
inside an
insulated shell. This shell reduces noise, luminosity, and heat radiation and
provides wind
protection. A high nozzle pressure drop is usually adequate to provide the mixing
necessary for
smokeless operation and air or steam assist is not required. In this context,
enclosed flares can
be considered a special class of pressure-assisted or non-assisted flares. Enclosed
flares are
always at ground level.

Enclosed flares generally have less capacity than open flares and are used to
combust
continuous, constant flow vent streams, although reliable and efficient operation
can be attained
over a wide range of design capacity. Stable combustion can be obtained with lower
heat
content vent gases than is possible with open flare designs, probably due to their
isolation from
wind effects.

4.1.1.3 Boilers and Process Heaters. Industrial boilers are combustion units
that boil water
to produce high and low pressure steam. Industrial boilers can also combust various
vent
streams containing VOCs, including vent streams from distillation operations,
reactor processes,
and other general operations. The majority of industrial boilers used in the
refining industry are
of watertube design, and over half of these boilers use natural gas as a fuel. In a
watertube
boiler, hot combustion gases contact the outside of heat transfer tubes which
contain hot water
and steam. These tubes are interconnected by a set of drums that collect and store
the heated
water and steam. Energy transfer from the hot flue gases to the water in the
furnace watertube
and drum system can be better than 85 percent efficient. Additional energy can be
recovered
from the flue gas by preheating combustion air in an air preheater or by preheating
incoming
boiler feed water in an economizer unit.

When firing natural gas, forced- or natural-draft burners thoroughly mix the
incoming fuel
and combustion air. A VOC-containing vent stream can be added to this mixture or it
can be fed
into the boiler through a separate burner. In general, burner design depends on the
characteristics of the fuel þ either the combined VOC-containing vent stream and
fuel, or the
vent stream alone (when a separate burner is used).

A process heater is similar to an industrial boiler in that heat liberated by

the combustion of
fuels is transferred by radiation and convection to fluids contained in tubular
coils. It is different
from an industrial boiler in that process heaters raise the temperature of process
streams instead
of producing high temperature steam. Process heaters are used in many chemical
manufacturing
operations to drive endothermic reactions. They are also used as feed preheaters
and as reboilers
for some distillation operations. The fuels used in process heaters include natural
gas, refinery
offgases, and various grades of fuel oil.

A typical process heater design consists of the burner(s), the firebox, and a
row of tubular
coils containing the process fluid. Most heaters also contain a convective section
in which heat
is recovered from hot combustion gases by convective heat transfer to the process
fluid.

4.1.1.3.1 Efficiency of Boilers and Process Heaters. Average furnace

temperature and
residence time determine the combustion efficiency of boilers and process heaters,
just as they
do for incinerators. When a vent gas is injected as a fuel into the flame zone of a
boiler or
process heater, the required residence time is reduced because of the relatively
high temperature
and turbulence of the flame zone.

Residence time and temperature profiles in boilers and process heaters are
determined by
factors such as overall configuration, fuel type, heat input, and excess air level.
A mathematical
model developed to estimate furnace residence time and temperature profiles for a
variety of
industrial boilers predicts mean furnace residence times ranging 0.25 to 0.83 second
for natural
gas-fired watertube boilers that range in size from 4.4 to 44 MW (15 to 150 x 106
Btu/hr).
Boilers with a 44-MW capacity or greater generally have residence times and operating
temperatures that would ensure a 98 percent VOC destruction efficiency. The required
temperatures for these size boilers are at least 1,200 degrees Celsius.

Firebox temperatures for process heaters can show wide variations depending on
the
application. Firebox temperatures can range from 400 degrees Celsius for preheaters
and
reboilers to 1,260 degrees Celsius for pyrolysis furnaces. Tests conducted by EPA
on process
heaters using a mixture of benzene offgas and natural gas showed greater than 98
percent
destruction efficiency for C1 to C6 hydrocarbons.

4.1.1.3.2 Applicability of Boilers and Process Heaters. Both of these

devices are used
throughout petroleum refineries to provide steam and heat input essential to the
refining process.
Most of these devices possess sufficient size to provide the necessary temperature
and residence
time for VOC destruction. Furthermore, boilers and process heaters have proved
effective in
destroying compounds that are difficult to combust, such as PCBs (polychlorinated
biphenyls).
Boilers and process heaters are thus effective in reducing VOC emissions from any
vent streams
that are certain not to reduce the performance or reliability of the boiler or
process heater.

Ducting some vent streams to a boiler or process heater can present potential
safety and
operating problems. The varying flow rate and organic content of some vent streams
can lead to
explosive mixtures or flame instability within the furnace. In addition, vent
streams with
halogenated or sulfur-containing compounds are usually not combusted in boilers or
process
heaters due to the possibility of corrosion.

Boilers and process heaters are most applicable where the potential exists for
heat recovery
from the combustion of the vent stream. Vent streams with a high enough VOC
concentration
and high flow rate can provide enough equivalent heat value to act as a substitute
for fuel that
would otherwise be needed. Because boilers and process heaters cannot tolerate wide
fluctuations or interruptions in the fuel supply, they are not widely used to reduce
VOC
emissions from batch operations or other noncontinuous vent streams.

4.1.2 Product Recovery Devices

4.1.2.1 Absorbers. In absorption, a soluble vapor is absorbed from its mixture

with an inert
gas by means of a liquid in which the solute gas is more or less soluble. For any
given solvent,
solute, and operating conditions, there exists an equilibrium ratio of solute
concentration in the
gas mixture to solute concentration in the solvent. The driving force for mass
transfer at a given
point in an operating absorber is the difference between the concentration of solute
in the gas
and the equilibrium concentration of solute in the liquid.

Devices based on absorption principles include spray towers, venturi and wet
impingement
scrubbers, acid gas scrubbers, packed columns, and plate columns. Spray towers have
the least
effective mass transfer capability due to their high atomization pressure
requirement, and are
generally restricted to particulate matter removal and control of high-solubility
gases such as SO2
and NH3 (ammonia). Venturi scrubbers have a high degree of gas/liquid mixing and
provide
high particulate matter removal efficiency. They also require high pressure drops
(i.e. high
energy requirements) and have relatively short contact times. Their use is also
restricted to high-
solubility gases. Acid gas scrubbers are used with thermal incinerators to remove
corrosive
combustion products. Acid gas is formed upon the contact of halogenated or sulfur-
containing
VOCs with intense heat during incineration. This gas is quenched to lower its
temperature and
is then scrubbed in an absorber. In most cases, the type of absorber used is packed
or plate
columns, the two most commonly used absorbers for VOC control.

Packed towers are vertical columns containing inert packing, manufactured from
materials
such as porcelain, metal, or plastic, that provides the surface area for contact
between the liquid
and gas phases in the absorber. Packed towers are used mainly for corrosive
materials and
liquids with tendencies to foam or plug. They are less expensive than plate columns
for small-
scale or pilot plant operations where the column diameter is less than 0.6 m. They
are also
suitable where the use of plate columns would result in excessive pressure drops.

Plate columns contain a series of trays on which contact between the gas and
liquid phases
in a stepwise fashion. The liquid phase flows down tray to tray as the gas phase
moves up
through openings in the tray (usually perforations or bubble caps), passing through
the liquid on
the way.

The major design parameters for absorbing any substance are column diameter and
height,
system pressure drop, and required liquid flow rate. Deriving these parameters is
accomplished
by considering the solubility, viscosity, density, and concentration of the VOC in
the inlet vent
stream (all of which depend on column temperature); the total surface area provided
by the
packing material; and the mass flow rate of the gases to be treated.

4.1.2.1.1 Absorber Efficiency. Control efficiencies for absorbers can vary

widely
depending on the solvent selected, design parameters, and operating practices.
Solvents are
chosen for high solubility for the specific VOC and include liquids such as water,
mineral oils,
kerosenes, nonvolatile hydrocarbon oils, and aqueous solutions of oxidizing agents,
sodium
carbonate, and sodium carbonate. An increase in absorber size (i.e., contact
surface area) or a
decrease in the operating temperature can increase the VOC removal efficiency of the
system for
a given solvent and solute. It is sometimes possible to increase VOC removal
efficiency by
changing the solvent.

4.1.2.1.2 Applicability. The primary determinant of absorption

applicability for
controlling VOC emissions is the availability of a suitable solvent. Water is a
suitable solvent for
absorption of organic chemicals with relatively high water solubilities (e.g., most
alcohols,
organic acids, aldehydes, glycols). For organic compounds with low water
solubilities, other
solvents (usually organic liquids with low vapor pressures) are used.

Other important factors influencing absorption applicability include absorptive

capacity and
strippability of VOC in the solvent. Absorptive capacity is a measure of the
solubility of VOC in
the solvent. The solubility limits the total quantity of VOC that could be absorbed
in the system,
while strippability describes the ease with which the VOC can be removed from the
solvent. If
strippability is low, then absorption is less viable as a VOC control technique.

The concentration of VOC in the inlet vent stream also determines the
applicability of
absorption. Absorption is usually considered only when the VOC concentration is
above 200 to
300 ppm. Below these gas-phase concentrations, the rate of mass transfer of VOC to
solvent is
decreased enough to make reasonable designs infeasible.

4.1.2.2 Steam Stripping. Steam stripping can be used as initial treatment of a

process
wastewater stream to reduce the VOC loading of that steam before it is sent to the
facility-wide
wastewater treatment system. There are several components in a steam stripping
system: a feed
tank, heat exchanger, steam stripping column, condenser, overhead receiver, and a
destruction
device (if necessary).

Steam stripping involves the fractional distillation of wastewater to remove

VOCs. The basic
operating principle of steam stripping is the direct transfer of heat through
contact of steam with
wastewater. This heat transfer vaporizes the more volatile organic compounds. The
overhead
vapor contains water and organic compounds, and it is condensed and separated to
recover the
organic fraction. Recovered organic compounds are either recycled for reuse in the
process or
incinerated in an on-site combustion device for heat recovery.

Steam stripper systems may be operated in batch or continuous mode. Batch steam
strippers
are more prevalent when the wastewater feed is generated by batch processes, when
feed
characteristics are highly variable, or when small volumes of wastewater are
generated. They
may also be used if wastewater contains relatively high concentrations of solids,
resins, or tars.
In batch stripping, wastewater is charged to the receiver, or pot, and brought to
the boiling
temperature of the mixture. Solids and other residues remaining in the bottom of
the pot (hence
the term "bottoms") at the completion of the batch are nonvolatile, heavy compounds
that are
removed for disposal. By varying the heat input and fraction of the initial charge
boiled
overhead, a batch stripper can be used to treat wastewater mixtures with widely
varying
characteristics.

In contrast to batch strippers, continuous steam strippers are designed to treat

wastewater
streams with relatively consistent characteristics. Continuous strippers can have
several stages
and achieve greater efficiencies of VOC removal than batch strippers. Other
advantages offered
by continuous strippers include more consistent effluent quality, more automated
operation, and
lower annual operating costs.

Typically, wastewater steams continuously discharged from process equipment are

usually
consistent in composition. A continuous steam stripper system would thus be
indicated for
treating the wastewater. However, batch wastewater streams can also be controlled by
continuous steam strippers by incorporating a feed tank with adequate residence time
to provide
a consistent outlet composition.

4.1.2.2.1 Collecting, Conditioning, and Recovery. The controlled sewer

system or
hard piping from the point of wastewater generation to the feed tank controls
emissions before
steam stripping. The feed tank collects and conditions the wastewater fed to the
steam stripper.
If the feed tank is adequately designed, a continuous steam stripper can treat
wastewater
generated by some batch processes. In these cases, the feed tank serves as a buffer
between the
batch process and the continuous steam stripper. During periods of no wastewater
flow from the
batch process, wastewater stored in the feed tank is fed to the stripper at a
relatively constant
rate.

Often present in the feed tank are aqueous and organic phases. The feed tank
provides the
retention time necessary for these phases to separate. The organic phase is
recycled to the
process for recovery of organic compounds or disposed by incineration. The water
phase is fed
to the stripper to remove the soluble organic compounds. Solids are also separated
in the
stripper feed tank; the separation efficiency depends on the density of the solids
dissolved in the
process wastewater. The more dense solids, which settle to the bottom of the tank,
are removed
periodically from the feed tank and are usually landfilled or landfarmed.

After this conditioning of the wastewater, it is pumped through the feed/bottoms

heat
exchanger where it is preheated and then pumped into the steam stripping column.
Steam is
sparged into the stripper at the bottom of the column, and the wastewater feed
enters at the top.
The wastewater flowing down the column contacts the flowing countercurrently up the
column.
Both latent and sensible heat is transferred from the steam to the organic compounds
in the
wastewater, vaporizing them into the vapor stream. These constituents flow out the
top of the
column with any uncondensed steam.

The wastewater effluent leaving the bottom of the stripper is pumped through the
feed/bottoms heat exchanger which heats the feed stream and cools the bottoms before
discharge. After leaving the exchanger, the bottoms stream is usually either routed
to an on-site
wastewater treatment plant and discharged to an NPDES-permitted outfall, or sent to
a publicly
owned treatment works (POTW).

Recovery of both VOCs and water vapors from the gaseous overheads stream from
the steam
stripper is usually accomplished with a condenser. The condensed stream is fed to
an overhead
receiver, and the recovered VOCs are usually either pumped to storage and recycled
to the
process unit or combusted for their fuel value in an incinerator, boiler, or process
heater (all
discussed earlier in this chapter). If an aqueous phase is generated, it is
returned to the feed tank
and recycled through the steam stripper system.

4.1.2.2.2 Efficiency of Control. The degree of contact between the steam

and the
wastewater is the primary variable affecting the ability of a steam stripper to
remove VOCs. In
turn, this variable is affected by five factors: 1) column dimensions (height and
diameter); 2) the
contacting media (packing or trays); and 3) operating parameters such as the steam-
to-feed ratio,
column temperature, and wastewater pH.

Control efficiency increases as column height increases since there is greater

opportunity for
contact between the steam and the wastewater. The column height is determined by
the number
of theoretical stages required to achieve the desired removal efficiency. The
number of
theoretical stages is a function of the equilibrium coefficient of the pollutants
and the efficiency
of mass transfer in the column, and this number can be computed by either the McCabe-
Thiele
graphical method or the Kremser analytical method.

The column diameter determines the required cross-sectional area for liquid and
vapor flow
through the column. The smaller the cross-sectional area, the higher the
superficial gas velocity,
which increase turbulence and mixing resulting in high column efficiencies.
However, the
column cross-sectional area must be sufficient to prevent flooding from excessive
liquid loading
or liquid entrainment. This area also affects the liquid retention time, with
higher retention times
resulting in higher efficiencies. These factors have to be weighed in selecting the
column
diameter and the design velocities.

The contacting media in the column also play an important role in determining
the mass
transfer efficiency. Packing or trays are used to provide contact between liquid
and vapor
phases. Packing provides for continuous contact while trays provide staged
contact. Trays are
usually more effective for wastewater containing dispersed solids because of the
plugging and
cleaning problems encountered with packing. Tray towers can also operate over a
wider range
of liquid flow rates than packed towers. Packed towers, on the other hand, are
often more cost
effective to install and operate when treating highly corrosive wastewater since
corrosion resistant
ceramic packing can be used. Also, the pressure drop through packed towers may be
less than
through tray towers.

The steam-to-feed ratio required for high removal efficiencies is affected by

the wastewater
temperature as it enters the column. If the feed temperature is lower than the
operating
temperature at the top of the column, part of the steam is required to heat the
feed. With good
column design, sufficient steam flow is provided to heat the feed as well as
volatilize the organic
constituents. Any steam in excess of this flow rate helps carry VOCs out of the top
of the
column with the overheads stream. Also, increasing the steam-to-feed ratio will
increase the ratio
of the vapor to liquid flow through the column, which increases the stripping of
VOCs into the
vapor phase.

Two other influences on VOC removal are the column temperature and wastewater
pH.
Temperature influences the solubility and equilibrium coefficients of the organic
compounds.
pH has an effect on the vapor liquid equilibrium characteristics of VOCs. To ensure
steam
stripping is successful, columns are operated at pressures slightly exceeding
atmospheric, and
operating temperatures are usually slightly higher than the normal boiling point of
water.
Wastewater pH is controlled by adding caustic to the feed.

4.1.2.2.3 Applicability. Steam stripping is most applicable to treating

wastewaters with
organic compounds that are highly volatile and have a low solubility in water. The
VOCs that
have low volatility tend not to volatilize and thus are not easily stripped out of
the wastewater by
the steam. Similarly, VOCs that are very soluble in water tend to remain in the
wastewater and
are not easily stripped by steam. Oil, grease, solids content and pH of wastewater
also affect
applicability. High oil, grease, and solids levels can cause operating problems for
steam
strippers, and extremes in pH may prove to be corrosive to equipment. Design or
wastewater
preconditioning techniques can be used to mitigate these problems.

4.1.2.3 Carbon Adsorbers. Adsorption is a mass-transfer operation involving

interaction
between gas- or liquid-phase components and solid-phase components. In this
operation, certain
components of a gas- or liquid-phase (or adsorbate) are transferred to the surface
of a solid
adsorbent. The transfer is accomplished by physical or chemical adsorption
mechanisms.
Physical adsorption takes place when intermolecular (van der Waals) forces attract
and hold the
gas molecules to the solid surface. Chemisorption occurs when a chemical bond forms
between
the gaseous- and solid-phase molecules. A physically adsorbed molecule can be
removed readily
from the adsorbent (under suitable temperature and pressure conditions); the removal
of a
chemisorbed component is much more difficult.
 Most industrial adsorption systems use activated carbon as the adsorbent.
Activated carbon
effectively captures certain organic vapors by physical adsorption. The vapors can
then be
released for recovery by regenerating the adsorption bed with steam or nitrogen.
Oxygenated
adsorbents such as silica gels or diatomaceous earth exhibit a greater selectivity
for capturing
water vapor than organic gases compared to activated carbon. They thus are of
little use for
high-moisture vent streams characteristic of some VOC-containing vent streams.

Among the factors influencing the design of a carbon adsorption system are the
chemical
characteristics of the VOC being recovered, the physical properties of the inlet
stream
(temperature, pressure, and volumetric flow rate), and the physical properties of
the adsorbent.
The mass of VOC that adheres to the adsorbent surface is directly proportional to
the difference
in VOC concentration between the gas phase and the solid surface. In addition, the
quantity of
VOC adsorbed depends on the adsorbent bed volume, the surface area of adsorbent
available to
capture VOC, and the rate of diffusion of VOC through the gas film at the gas- and
solid-phase
interface (the mass transfer coefficient). It should be noted that physical
adsorption is an
exothermic operation that is most efficient within a narrow range of temperature and
pressure.

4.1.2.3.1 Types of Adsorbers. There are five types of adsorption equipment

used in
gas collection: 1) fixed regenerable beds; 2) disposable/rechargeable canisters; 3)
traveling bed
adsorbers; 4) fluid bed adsorbers; and 5) chromatographic baghouses. The fixed-bed
type is the
one most commonly used for control of VOCs, so this section addresses this type only.

Fixed-bed units can be sized for controlling continuous, VOC-containing streams

over a wide
range of flow rates, ranging up to several thousand cubic meters per minute (100,000
scfm).
VOC concentrations in streams that can be treated by fixed-bed units can range from
several
parts per billion by volume (ppbv) to 10,000 ppmv.

Fixed-bed adsorbers can be operated in two modes: intermittent or continuous.

In
intermittent mode, the adsorber removes VOCs for a specified time (called "the
adsorption
time"), which corresponds to the time during which the controlled source is emitting
VOCs. In
continuous mode, a regenerated carbon bed is always available for adsorption, so
that the
controlled source can operate continuously without shutting down. While continuous
operation
allows for more adsorption over the same period of time because it does not need to
be shut
down, more carbon must be provided. This is necessary since a bed for desorbing
must be
provided along with the adsorbing bed in order to recover the captured VOC from the
carbon.

4.1.2.3.2 Control Efficiency. Well designed and operated carbon adsorption

systems
can achieve control efficiencies of 95 to 99 percent for a variety of solvents
including ketones
such as methyl ethyl ketone and cyclohexanone. The VOC control efficiency depends
on factors
such as inlet vent stream characteristics (temperature, pressure, and velocity), the
physical
properties of the compounds present in the vent stream, the physical properties of
the adsorbent,
and the condition of the regenerated carbon bed.

The adsorption capacity of the carbon and the resulting outlet concentration are
dependent
upon the temperature of the inlet vent stream. High vent stream temperatures
increase the
kinetic energy of the gas molecules, causing them to overcome van der Waals forces
and release
from the surface of the carbon. At vent stream temperatures above 38 degrees
Celsius, both
adsorption capacity and outlet concentration may be adversely affected.

Increasing vent stream pressure improves VOC removal efficiency. Increased

stream
pressure results in higher VOC concentrations in the vapor phase and increased
driving force for
mass transfer to the carbon surface. Decreased stream pressure, on the other hand,
is often used
to regenerate carbon beds. Reduced pressure in the carbon bed effectively lowers the
concentration of VOCs in the vapor phase, desorbing the VOCs from the carbon surface
to the
vapor phase.

Vent stream velocity entering the carbon bed must be quite low to allow time for
diffusion
and adsorption. Typical inlet vent stream velocities range from 15 to 30 meters per
minute (50
to 100 feet per minute). If inlet VOC concentrations are low, the bed area required
for the
volume needed usually permits a velocity at the high end of this range. The
required depth of
the bed for a given compound is directly proportional to the carbon granule size and
porosity
and to the inlet vent stream velocity. For a given carbon type, bed depth must
increase as the
vent stream velocity increases. Generally, carbon adsorber bed depths range from
0.40 to 0.95
meter (1.5 to 3.0 feet). The condition of the regenerated carbon bed will change
with use. After
repeated regeneration, the carbon bed loses activity, resulting in reduced VOC
removal
efficiency.

4.1.2.3.3 Applicability. Carbon adsorption cannot be used universally for

distillation
or process vent streams. It is not recommended under the following conditions,
common with
many VOC-containing vent streams: 1) high VOC concentrations, 2) very high or low
molecular
weight compounds, 3) mixtures of high and low boiling point VOCs, and 4) high
moisture
content.

Absorbing vent streams with VOC concentrations above 10,000 ppmv may result in
excessive temperature rise in the carbon bed due to the accumulated heat of
adsorption resulting
from the VOC loading. If flammable vapors are present, insurance company
requirements may
limit inlet concentrations to less than 25 percent of the LEL.

The molecular weight of the compounds to be adsorbed should be in the range of

45 to 130
gm/gm-mole for effective adsorption. High molecular weight compounds that are
characterized
by low volatility are strongly adsorbed on carbon. The affinity of carbon for these
compounds
makes it difficult to remove them during regeneration of the carbon bed.
Conversely, highly
volatile materials (i.e., molecular weight less than about 45 gm) do not adsorb
readily on carbon,
thus adsorption is not typically used for controlling streams containing such
compounds.

Adsorption systems can be very effective with homogeneous vent streams but much
less so
with streams containing a mixture of light and heavy hydrocarbons. The lighter
organic
compounds tend to be displaced by the heavier compounds, greatly reducing system
efficiency.

Humidity is not a factor in adsorption at adsorbate concentrations above 1,000

ppmv.
Below this level, however, water vapor competes with VOCs in the vent stream for
adsorption
sites on the carbon surface. In these cases, vent stream humidity levels exceeding
50 percent
(relative humidity) are not desirable.

4.1.2.4 Condensers. Condensation is a separation technique in which one or

more volatile
components of a vapor mixture are separated from the remaining vapors through
saturation
followed by a phase change. The phase change from gas to liquid can be achieved in
two ways:
1) by increasing the system pressure at a given temperature or 2) by lowering the
temperature at
a constant pressure. The latter method is the more common to achieve the specified
phase
change, and it alone is addressed here.

The basic equipment includes a condenser, refrigeration unit(s), and auxiliary

equipment
such as a pre-cooler, recovery/storage tank, pump/blower, and piping. The two most
commonly
used condenser types are surface condensers and direct contact condensers. In
surface
condensers, the coolant fluid does not contact the vent stream; heat transfer occurs
through the
tubes or plates in the condenser. As the vapor condenses, a film forms on the
cooled surface
and drains away to a collection tank for storage, reuse, or disposal. Because the
coolant from
surface condensers does not contact the vapor stream, it is not contaminated and can
be recycled
in a closed loop. Surface condensers also allow for direct recovery of VOCs from the
gas stream.

Most refrigerated surface condensers are the shell-and-tube type, which

circulates the coolant
fluid on the tube side. The VOCs condense on the outside of the tube (the shell
side). Plate-
type heat exchangers are also used as surface condensers in refrigerated systems.
Plate
condensers operate under the same principles as the shell-and-tube systems, for
there is no
contact between the coolant and vent stream), but the two streams are separated by
thin, flat
plates instead of cylindrical tubes.

In contrast to surface condensers, direct contact condensers cool the vapor

stream by
spraying a liquid at ambient or lower temperature directly into the vent stream.
Spent coolant
containing VOCs from direct contact condensers usually cannot be reused directly.
Additionally,
VOCs in the spent coolant cannot be recovered without further processing. The
combined
stream could present a potential waste disposal problem, depending upon the coolant
and the
specific VOCs.

A refrigeration unit generates the low-temperature medium necessary for heat

transfer for
recovery of VOCs. Typically in refrigerated condenser systems two kinds of
refrigerants are used,
primary and secondary. Primary refrigerants such as ammonia and chlorofluorocarbons
(e.g.,
chlorodifluoromethane) are those that undergo a phase change from liquid to gas
after absorbing
heat. Secondary refrigerants, such as brine solutions, have higher boiling points
and thus act
only as heat carriers and remain in the liquid phase.

There are some applications that require auxiliary equipment. If the vent
stream contains
water vapor or if the VOC has a high freezing point (e.g., benzene or toluene), ice
or frozen
hydrocarbons may form on the condenser tubes or plates. This will reduce the heat
transfer
efficiency of the condenser and thereby reduce the removal efficiency. Formation of
ice will also
increase the pressure drop across the condenser. In such cases, a precooler may be
used to
remove the moisture before the vent stream enters the condenser. Alternatively, ice
can be
melted during an intermittent heating cycle by circulating ambient temperature brine
through the
condenser or using radiant heating coils.

It is necessary in some cases to provide a recovery tank for temporary storage

of condensed
VOC before its reuse, reprocessing, or transfer to a large storage tank. Pumps and
blowers are
typically used to transfer liquid (e.g., coolant and recovered VOC) and gas streams,
respectively,
within the system.

4.1.2.4.1 Control Efficiency. The major parameters that affect the removal
efficiency of
refrigerated surface condensers designed to control air/VOC mixtures are: 1)
Volumetric flow
rate of the VOC-containing vent stream; 2) Inlet temperature of the vent stream; 3)
Concentrations of the VOCs in the vent stream; 4) Absolute pressure of the vent
stream; 5)
Moisture content of the vent stream; and 6) properties of the VOCs in the vent
stream, such as
dew points, heats of condensation, heat capacities, and vapor pressures.

Any operator of a condenser should remember that a condenser cannot lower the VOC
concentration to levels below the saturation concentration at the coolant
temperature. Removal
efficiencies above 90 percent can be achieved with coolants such as chilled water,
brine
solutions, ammonia, or chlorofluorocarbons.

4.1.2.4.2 Applicability. Condensers are widely used as product recovery

devices.
They may be used to recover VOCs upstream of other control devices or they may be
used alone
for controlling vent streams containing relatively high VOC concentrations (usually
greater than
5,000 ppmv). In these cases, the removal efficiencies of condensers can range
widely, from 50
to 95 percent.
 Since the temperature necessary for condensation depends on the properties and
concentration of VOCs in the vent stream, streams having either low VOC
concentrations or
more volatile compounds require lower condensation temperatures. Also, depending on
the type
of condenser used, disposal of the spent coolant can be a problem. If cross-media
impacts are a
concern, surface condensers would be preferable to direct contact condensers.

Condensers used as emission control devices can process flow rates as high as
about 57
m3/min (120,000 scfm). Condensers for vent streams with greater volumetric flow
rates and
having high concentrations of noncondensibles will require significantly larger heat
transfer areas.

4.1.2.5 Vapor Collection Systems for Loading Racks. When liquids are
transferred into a
transport vessel, vapors in the head space of that vessel can be lost to the
atmosphere. The
principal factors affecting emissions from transfer operations are the vapor
pressure of the
chemical being transferred. Other factors that influence emissions from transfer
operations
include the transfer rate and the purge rate of nitrogen (or other inert gas)
through the vessel
during transfer.

The vapor pressure of the chemical being transferred has the greatest influence
on emissions
from transfer operations. For pure materials, the vapor pressure gives a measure of
the amount of
organic compound lost during transfer. The total potential emissions from any
transfer is related
to the void volume of the transport vessel and the concentration of the VOC in the
head space.

The mode of transfer is also an important factor in determining emissions from

transfer
operations. Top splash loading creates the most emissions because it enhances the
agitation of
the liquid being transferred, creating a higher concentration of the compound in the
vapor space.
With alternate loading techniques, such as submerged fill or bottom loading, the
organic liquid is
loaded under the surface of the liquid, which reduces the amount of agitation and
suppresses the
generation of excess vapor in the head space of the transport vessel.

The rate of transfer has a more subtle influence on emissions; its greatest
effect is on air
quality. Transfer rate will dictate the short-term emission rate of the compound
being transferred,
thereby influencing exposure to the worker or public.

A nitrogen purge is used to reduce the potential for explosion of some chemicals
in air or to
keep some chemicals moisture-free. Using an inert gas purge increases the emission
rate of VOC
lost to the atmosphere because it creates a turnover rate of gas through the
transport vessel,
increasing the total volume of vapor discharged to the atmosphere.

Most vapor collection systems collect the vapors generated during transfer
operations and
transport them to either a recovery device for return to the process or a combustion
device for
destruction. In vapor balancing systems, vapors generated during transfer
operations are returned
directly to the storage facility for the material, and the system requires no
additional controls.

Vapor collection systems consist of piping that captures and transports to a

control device
VOCs in the vapor space of transport vessels that are displaced when liquids are
loaded. These
systems may use existing piping normally used to transport liquids under pressure
into the
transport vessel or piping separate from that for transfer. Collection systems
comprise very few
pieces of equipment and minimal piping. The principal piece of equipment in a
collection
system is a vacuum pump or blower, used to induce the flow of vapors from the
transport vessel
to the recovery or combustion system.

Blowers can also be used to remove vapors from the head space of the tank car as
liquid is
transferred into the tank car. Standard recovery techniques such as condensation or
refrigeration/condensation systems, or combustion can be applied to the captured
vapors.

Vapor balancing is another means of collecting vapors and reducing emissions

from transfer
operations. Vapor balancing is most commonly used where storage facilities are
adjacent to the
loading facility. In this collection system, an additional line is connected from
the transport
vessel to the storage tank to return any vapor in the transport vessel displaced by
the liquid that
is loaded to the vapor space of the storage vessel left by the transferred liquid.
Since this is a
direct volumetric change, there are no losses to the atmosphere.

4.1.2.5.2 Efficiency. The three factors affecting the efficiency of a vapor

collection
system are:

1) Operating pressure of the collection system;

2) Volume of piping between the loading arm and the transport vessel; and
3) The efficiency of the ultimate control device.
 The first factor influences the efficiency of collection through the VOC
concentration
remaining in the line after transfer. The VOC concentration for systems operating
at low
pressures or under vacuum is decreased, thus lowering the total amount of VOC in the
piping.
This effectively reduces the amount of VOC lost to the atmosphere when disconnecting
transfer
lines. The opposite occurs for systems operating at higher pressures.

The second factor establishes the quantity of VOC not delivered to the transport
vessel and
not collected for treatment. Systems that minimize the piping between the transfer
loading arm
and the transport vessel are more efficient than those with larger piping
connections, because
there is less open piping to the atmosphere. The third factor is the most
important, for it affects
the overall efficiency of the collection system and the control system.

4.1.2.5.2 Applicability. Applicability of vapor collection systems depends

on four
factors:

1) Vapor pressure of the material;

2) Value of the product;
3) Physical layout of the facility; and
4) OSHA considerations.

Materials with vapor pressures greater than atmospheric are stored and loaded
under
pressure. Loading under pressure eliminates the losses associated with atmospheric
transfer
operations and limits losses to those associated with connections and disconnections.

For purely economic considerations, expensive products are candidates for more
extensive
collection and recovery systems. Further, it is unlikely that combustion techniques
will be used
to control emissions of products whose value is high enough to warrant recovery
efforts.

The third factor, physical layout of the facility, is the most important. The
shorter the
distance between the vapor balancing system and the storage tank, the fewer meters
of piping
required, and the more affordable a vapor balancing system is. Because vapor
balancing is a
simple and cost effective control technique for transfer operations, it is often
used in RACT
(reasonably available control technology) requirements and has been used in many
instances as a
control measure to meet the emission requirements of many State air toxic
regulations.

OSHA limitations on work place exposure to chemicals being transferred are

additional
considerations. Some chemical compounds being transferred are more toxic than
others, and
thus must be more tightly controlled. Highly toxic or carcinogenic compounds
require stringent
control measures such as transferring VOCs under vacuum, vapor compression,
refrigeration, and
combustion.

4.1.3 Leak Detection and Repair

Leak detection and repair (LDAR) programs have been required by EPA for a number
of
years. They have been undertaken to reduce emissions due to leaking equipment.
These
emissions occur when process fluid (liquid or gaseous) is released through the
sealing
mechanisms of equipment in the chemical plant. This section discusses the sources of
equipment leak emissions and control techniques that can be applied to reduce
emissions from
equipment leaks, including the applicability of each control technique and its
associated
effectiveness in reducing emissions.

Many potential sources of equipment leak emissions exist in a refinery. The

following
sources are covered in this section: pumps, compressors, pressure relief devices,
open-ended
lines, sampling connections, process valves, connectors, instrumentation systems,
and product
accumulator vessels.

The techniques for reducing emissions from equipment leaks are as diverse as the
types of
sources. The three major categories for techniques are: 1) equipment
(modifications); 2) closed
vent systems; and 3) work practices. The selection of a control technique and its
effectiveness in
reducing emissions depends on a number of factors including: 1) type of equipment;
2)
equipment service (gas, light liquid, heavy liquid); 3) process variables
influencing equipment
selection (temperature, pressure); 4) process stream composition; and 5) costs.

4.1.3.1 Pumps. Pumps are used widely in the petroleum refining industry for the
movement of organic liquids. Liquids transferred by pump can leak at the point of
contact
between the moving shaft and the stationary casing. Consequently, all pumps require
a seal at
the point where the shaft penetrates the housing in order to isolate the pumped
fluid from the
environment.

Two generic types of seals, packed and mechanical, are used on pumps. Packed
seals can
be used on both reciprocating and rotary action (centrifugal) pumps. A packed seal
consists of a
cavity (or "stuffing box") in the pump casing filled with packing material that is
compressed with
a packing gland to form a seal around the shaft. Coolant is required to remove the
frictional heat
between the packing and shaft. The necessary lubrication is provided by a coolant
that flows
between the packing and the shaft. Deterioration of the packing can result in
leakage of the
process liquid.

Mechanical seals are limited in application to pumps with rotating shafts.

There are single
and double mechanical seals, with many variations to their basic design, but all
have a lapped
seal face between a stationary element and a rotating seal ring. In a single
mechanical seal, the
faces are held together by the pressure applied by a spring on the drive and by the
pump
pressure transmitted through the pumped fluid on the pump end. An elastomer O-ring
seals the
rotating face to the shaft. The stationary face is sealed to the stuffing box with
another elastomer
O-ring or gasket.

For double mechanical seals, two seals are arranged back-to-back, in tandem, or
face to face.
In the back-to-back arrangement, a closed cavity is created between the two seals.
A seal liquid,
such as water or seal oil, is circulated through the cavity. This seal liquid is
used to control the
temperature in the stuffing box. For the seal to function properly, the pressure of
the seal liquid
must be greater than the operating pressure of the pump. In this manner, any
leakage would
occur across the seal faces into the process or the environment.

Double mechanical seals are used in many process applications, but there are some
conditions for which their use is not indicated. Such conditions include service
temperatures
above 260 degrees Celsius, and pumps with reciprocating shaft motion. Further,
double
mechanical seals cannot be used where the process fluid contains slurries,
polymeric, or
undissolved solids.

Another type of pump used in the petroleum refining industry is the seal-less
pump. Seal-
less pumps are used primarily in processes where the pumped fluid is hazardous,
highly toxic, or
very expensive and where every effort must be made to prevent all possible leakage
of the fluid.
Canned-motor, diaphragm, and magnetic drive pumps are three common types of seal-less
pumps.

Canned-motor pumps have interconnected cavity housings, motor rotors, and pump
casings.
Because the process liquid is the bearing lubricant, abrasive solids in the process
lines cannot be
tolerated. Canned-motor pumps are widely used for handling organic solvents,
organic heat
transfer liquids, and light oils.

Diaphragm pumps contain a flexible diaphragm of metal, rubber, and plastic as

the driving
member. The primary advantage of this arrangement is the elimination of all packing
and seals
exposed to the process liquid provided the diaphragm's integrity is maintained.
This is important
when handling hazardous or toxic liquids. Emissions from diaphragm pumps can be
large,
however, if the diaphragm fails. In magnetic-drive pumps, no seals contact the
process fluid. An
externally-mounted magnet coupled to the pump motor drives the impeller in the pump
casing.

4.1.3.2 Compressors. Compressors move gas through a process unit in much the
same way
that pumps transport liquid. Compressors are typically driven with rotating or
reciprocating
shafts. Thus, the sealing mechanisms for compressors are similar to those for
pumps, i.e., packed
and mechanical seals. Emissions from this source type may be reduced by improving
the seals'
performance or by collecting and controlling the emissions from the seal. Emissions
from
mechanical contact seals depend on the type of seal or control device used and the
frequency of
seal failure.

Shaft seals for compressors are of several different types: labyrinth,

restrictive carbon rings,
mechanical contact, and liquid film. All of these seal types restrict leaks,
although none of them
completely eliminates leakage. Compressors can be equipped with ports in the seal
area to
evacuate collected gases, which could then be controlled.

A buffer or barrier fluid may be used with these mechanical seals to form a
buffer between
the compressed gas and the environment, similar to barrier fluids in pumps. This
system requires
a clean, external gas supply that is compatible with the gas being compressed.
Barrier gas can
become contaminated and must be disposed of properly, for example by venting to a
control
device. Compressors can also be equipped with liquid film seals. This seal is
formed by a film
of oil between the rotating shaft and stationary gland.

4.1.3.3 Agitators. Agitators are used to stir or blend chemicals. As with

pumps and
compressors, emissions from agitators can occur at the interface of a moving shaft
and a
stationary casing. Emissions from this source type may be reduced by improving the
seal or by
collecting and controlling emissions. There are four seal arrangements commonly
used with
agitators: packed seals, mechanical seals, hydraulic seals, and lip seals. Packed
seals for
agitators are similar in design and application to the packed seals for pumps.

While mechanical seals are more costly than other seal arrangements, they
provide better
leakage rate reduction. Also, the maintenance frequency of properly installed and
maintained
mechanical seals is one-half to one-fourth that of packed seals. Mechanical seals
can be
designed specifically for high pressure applications (i.e., greater than 1,140 kPa
or 165 psia). As
with packed seals, the mechanical seals for agitators are similar to the design and
application of
mechanical seals for pumps.

The hydraulic seal is the simplest and least-used agitator shaft seal. In this
type of seal, an
annular cup attached to the process vessel contains a liquid that contacts an
inverted cup
attached to the rotating agitator shaft. The primary advantage of this seal is that
it is a noncontact
seal. However, this seal is limited to low temperatures and pressures and can only
handle very
small fluctuations. Process chemicals may contaminate the seal liquid and then be
released into
the atmosphere as equipment leak emissions.

Lip seals, which are relatively inexpensive and easy to install, can be used on
a top-entering
agitator as a dust or vapor seal. Once the seal has been installed, the agitator
shaft rotates in
continuous contact with the lip seal. Emissions can be released through this seal
when it wears
excessively or when the operating pressure surpasses the pressure limitation of the
seal.

4.1.3.4 Pressure Relief Devices. Insurance, safety, and engineering codes

require that
pressure relief devices or systems be used in applications where the process
pressure may exceed
the maximum allowable working pressure of the process equipment. Pressure relief
devices
include rupture disks and safety/relief valves. The most common pressure relief
device is a
spring-loaded valve designed to open when the operating pressure of a piece of
process
equipment exceeds a set pressure. Equipment leak emissions from spring-loaded
relief valves
may be caused by failure of the valve seat or valve stem, improper reseating after
overpressure
relief, or process operation near the relief valve set pressure which may cause the
relief valve to
frequently open and close or "simmer."

Rupture disks are designed to burst at overpressure to allow the process gas to
vent directly
to the atmosphere. Rupture disks allow no emissions as long as the integrity of the
disk is
maintained. They must be replaced after each pressure relief episode to restore the
process to an
operating pressure condition. Although rupture disks can be used alone, they are
sometimes
installed upstream of a relief valve to prevent emissions through the relief valve
stem.

Combinations of rupture disks and relief valves require certain design

constraints and criteria
to avoid potential safety hazards. For example, appropriate piping changes must be
made to
prevent disk fragments from lodging in damaging the relief valve when relieving
overpressure. A
block valve upstream of the rupture disk can be used to isolate the rupture disk/
relief valve
combination and permit in-service replacement of the disk after it bursts.
Otherwise, emissions
could result through the relief valve.

4.1.3.5 Open-Ended Lines. Emissions from open-ended lines are caused by

leakage through
the seat of an upstream valve in the open-ended line. Emissions that occur through
the stem and
gland of the valve are not considered "open-ended" emissions and are addressed in
the section
on process valves. Emissions from open-ended lines can be controlled by installing
a cap, plug,
flange, or second valve to the open end. Control efficiency of these control
measures is assumed
to be 100 percent.

4.1.3.6 Sampling Connections. Emissions from sampling connections occur as a

result of
purging the sampling line to obtain a representative sample of the process fluid.
These emissions
can be reduced by using a closed loop sampling system or disposing of the purged
process fluid
in a control device. The closed loop sampling system is designed to return the
purged fluid to
the process at a point of lower pressure. Closed loop sampling is assumed to be 100
percent
effective for controlling emissions from a sample purge. This purged fluid could
also be directed
to a control device such as an incinerator, in which case the control efficiency
would depend on
the efficiency of the incinerator in removing the VOC.
 4.1.3.7 Process Valves. There are many designs for valves, and most of the
designs contain
a valve stem which operates to restrict or allow fluid flow. Typically, the stem is
sealed by a
packing gland or O-ring to prevent leakage of process fluid to the atmosphere.
Emissions from
valves occur at the stem or gland area of the valve body when the packing or O-ring
in the valve
fails.

Valves that require the stem to move in and out or turn must utilize a packing
gland. A
variety of packing materials are suitable for conventional packing glands. The most
common
packing materials are the various types of braided asbestos that contain lubricants;
other packing
materials include graphite, graphite-impregnated fibers, and tetrafluorethylene.
The choice of
packing material depends on the valve application and configuration. Conventional
packing
glands can be used over a wide range of operating temperatures.

Emissions from process valves can be eliminated if the valve stem can be
isolated from the
process fluid. There are two types of sealless valves available: diaphragm valves
and sealed
bellows valves.

Diaphragm valves isolate the valve stem from the process fluid using a flexible
elastomer or
metal diaphragm. The position of the diaphragm is regulated by a plunger, which is
controlled
by the stem. Depending on the diaphragm material, this type of valve can be used at
temperatures as high as 205 degrees Celsius and in strong acid service. If the
diaphragm fails,
the valve can become a relatively larger source of emissions. In addition, use at
temperatures
beyond the operating limits of the material tends to damage or destroy the diaphragm.

Sealed bellows valves are another alternative leakless design. In this valve
type, metal
bellows are welded to the bonnet and disk of the valve, thereby isolating the stem
from the
process. These valves can be designed to withstand high temperatures and pressures
and can
provide leak-free service at operating conditions beyond the limits of diaphragm
valves.
However, they are usually dedicated to highly toxic services and the nuclear
industry.

The control effectiveness of both diaphragm and sealed bellows valves is

essentially 100
percent, although a failure of the diaphragm or bellows could cause temporary
emissions much
larger than those from other types of valves.
 4.1.3.8 Connectors. Connectors are flanges, threaded fittings, and other
fittings used to join
sections of piping and equipment. They are used wherever pipe or other equipment
(such as
vessels, pumps, valves, and heat exchangers) require isolation or removal.

Flanges are bolted, gasket-sealed connectors. Normally, flanges are used for
pipes with
diameters of 50 mm or greater and are classified by pressure rating and face type.
The primary
cause of flange leakage are poor installation and thermal stress, which results in
the deformation
of the seal between the flange faces.

Threaded fittings are made by cutting threads into the outside end of one piece
(male) and
the inside end of another piece (female). These male and female parts are then
screwed together
like a nut and bolt. Threaded fittings are normally used to connect piping and
equipment having
diameters of 50 mm or less. Seals for these fittings are made by coating the male
threads with a
sealant before joining it to the female piece. Emissions from threaded fittings can
occur as the
sealant ages and eventually cracks. Leakage can also occur as the result of poor
assembly or
application of the sealant, and thermal stress of the piping and fittings.

Emissions from connectors can be controlled by regularly scheduled maintenance.

Potential
emissions can be reduced by replacing the gasket or sealant materials. If
connectors are not
required for process modification or periodic equipment removal, emissions from
connectors can
be eliminated by welding the connectors together.

4.1.3.9 Instrumentation Systems. An instrumentation system is a group of

equipment
components used to condition and convey a sample of process fluid to analyzers and
instruments
for the purpose of determining process operating conditions (e.g., composition,
pressure, and
flow rate). Valves and connectors are the predominant types of equipment used in
instrumentation systems, although other equipment may be included. Emissions
resulting from
the components in the instrumentation system are controlled as they are for the same
component
in the process system.

Emissions from equipment leaks may be controlled by installed a closed vent

system around
the leaking equipment and venting the emissions to a control device. This method of
control is
only applicable to certain equipment types, i.e., pumps, compressors, agitators,
pressure relief
valves, and product accumulator vessels. Because of the many valves, connectors,
and open-
ended lines typically found in refineries, it is not practical to use this technique
for reducing
emissions from all of these potential sources for an entire process unit. However,
a closed vent
system can be used to control emissions from a limited number of components, which
could be
enclosed and maintained under negative pressure and vented to a control device.

LDAR methods are used to identify equipment components that are emitting
significant
amounts of VOC and to reduce these emissions. The emission reduction potential for
LDAR as a
control technique is highly variable and depends on several factors, the most
important of which
are the frequency of monitoring and the techniques used to identify leaks. Repair
of leaking
components is required only when the equipment leak emissions reach a set level þ
the leak
detection level. A low leak definition will initiate repair at lower levels,
resulting in a lower
overall emission rate.

Leak detection methods include individual component surveys, area (walk-through)

surveys,
and fixed point monitors. Individual component surveys form a part of the other
methods.

4.1.3.9.1 Individual Component Survey. Each source of equipment leak

emissions
(pump, valve, compressor, etc.) can be checked for VOC leakage by visual, audible,
olfactory,
soap bubble, or instrument techniques. Visual methods are good for locating liquid
leaks. A
visible leak does not necessarily indicate VOC emissions, however, because the
leaking material
may be non-VOC. High-pressure leaks may be detected by the sound of escaping
vapors, and
leaks of odorous materials may be detected by smell.

Soap spraying on equipment components can be used to survey individual

components in
certain applications. If the soap solution forms bubbles or blows away, a leak is
indicated, and
vice versa. Disadvantages of this method are that 1) it does not distinguish leaks
of hazardous
VOCs from nonhazardous VOCs; 2) it is only semiquantitative, since it requires the
observer to
determine subjectively the rate of leakage based on the behavior of the soap
bubbles; and 3) it is
limited to sources with temperatures below 100 degrees Celsius, because the water in
the soap
solution will evaporate at temperatures above this figure. This method is also not
suited for
moving shafts on pumps or compressors, because the motion of the shaft may interfere
with the
motion of the bubbles caused by a leak.

The best method for identifying leaks of VOC from components is using a portable
hydrocarbon detection instrument. Air close to the potential leak site is sampled
and analyzed
by a sampling traverse ("monitoring") over the entire are where leaks may occur. The
concentration of hydrocarbons in the sampled air is displayed on the instrument
meter and is a
rough indicator of the VOC emission rate from the component. If the concentration
is higher
than a specified figure ("action level"), then the leaking component is marked for
repair.

4.1.3.9.2 Area Survey. An area or walk-through survey requires the use of a

portable
hydrocarbon detector and a strip chart recorder. The procedure involves carrying
the instrument
within one meter of the upwind and downwind sides of process equipment. The
instrument is
then used for an individual component survey in a suspected leak area. The
efficiency of this
method for locating leaks is not well established. Problems with this method
include the fact
that leaks from overhead valves or relief valves will not be detected, and the
possibility of leaks
from adjacent units and adverse meteorological conditions affecting the results of
the walk-
through survey. Thus, the area survey is best for locating only large leaks at
small expense.

4.1.3.9.3 Fixed Point Monitors. This method consists of placing several

automatic
hydrocarbon sampling and analysis instruments at various locations in the process
unit. If
elevated hydrocarbon concentrations are detected, a leaking component is indicated.
Identifying
the specific leaking component requires an individual component survey. The
efficiency of fixed
point monitoring is not well established, but fixed point monitoring of VOCs is not
as effective as
a complete individual component survey. Fixed-point monitors are expensive,
multiple units
may be required, and the portable instrument is also needed to locate the particular
leaking
component. Calibration and maintenance costs may be high. Fixed-point monitors are
used
successfully to detect emissions of hazardous or toxic substances, and can provide
an increased
detection efficiency by selecting a particular compound as the sampling criterion.

4.1.3.9.4 Repair Methods. This section describes repair methods for possible
equipment emission sources in a refinery. These are not intended to be complete
repair
procedures.

Many pumps have in-line or parallel spares that can be used while the leaking
pump is
being repaired. Leaks from packed seals may be reduced by tightening the packing
gland. With
mechanical seals, the pump must be dismantled to repair or replace the leaking seal.
Dismantling pumps can result in spillage of some process fluid. If the seal leak is
small,
evaporative emissions of VOC from such spillage may be greater than the continued
leak from
the seal. Precautions must be taken to prevent or reduce these emissions.

Leakage from compressors with packed seals may be reduced by tightening the
packing
gland, as described for pumps. Repair of compressors with mechanical seals requires
the
compressor be removed from service. Since compressors usually do not have spares,
immediate
repair may not be practical or possible without a process unit shutdown.

Agitators, like pumps and compressors, can leak VOCs at the point where the shaft
penetrates the casing, and seals are required to minimize fugitive emissions. Leaks
from packed
seals may be reduced by the repair procedure described for pumps, while repair of
other types of
seals require the agitator to be out of service. In this latter case, process
shutdown or isolation of
the particular agitator being repaired is required.

Leaking repair valves usually must be removed for repair. To remove the relief
valve
without shutting down the process, a block valve may be required upstream of the
relief valve.
A spare relief valve should be attached while the faulty valve is repaired and
tested.

A rupture disk can be installed upstream from a pressure relief valve to

eliminate leaks until
an overpressure release occurs. Once a release occurs, the rupture disk must be
replaced to
prevent further leaks. A block valve is required to isolate the rupture disk for
replacement.

Most valves have a packing gland that can be tightened while in service.
Although this
procedure should decrease the emissions from the valve, it can actually increase the
emission
rate if the packing is old and brittle or has been over-tightened. Some types of
valves have no
means of in-service repair and must be isolated from the process and removed for
repair and
replacement. Most control valves have a manual bypass loop that allows them to be
isolated
and removed. Most block valves cannot be isolated easily, although temporary
changes in
process operation may allow isolation in some cases.

In some cases, leaks from connectors can be reduced by replacing the connector
gaskets, but
most connectors cannot be isolated to permit gasket replacement. Tightening of
connector bolts
also may reduce emissions from connectors. Where connectors are not required for
process
modification or periodic equipment removal, emissions from connectors can be
eliminated by
welding them.

4.1.4 Internal Floating Roofs

Internal floating roofs are commonly used in the petroleum refining industry to
control
emissions from fixed-roof storage tanks. As the name implies, it is a roof inside a
tank that floats
on the surface of the stored liquid.

The presence of a floating roof (or deck) inside a fixed roof tank significantly
reduces the
surface area of exposed liquid. It serves as a physical barrier between the
volatile organic liquid
and the air that enters the tank through vents.

Because evaporation is the primary emission mechanism associated with storage

tanks,
emissions from floating roof tanks as well as fixed roof tanks vary with the vapor
pressure of the
stored liquid. Thus, the control efficiency of retrofitting a fixed roof tank with
an internal floating
deck depends on the material being stored.

Other factors affecting emissions, and therefore control efficiency, are tank
size, number of
turnovers, and the type of deck and seal system selected. Installing an internal
floating roof can
reduce emissions by 61 to 98 percent. The relative effectiveness of one internal
floating roof
design over another is a function of how well the deck can be sealed. Probably the
most typical
internal floating roof design is the noncontact, bolted, aluminum internal floating
roof with a
single vapor-mounted wiper seal and uncontrolled fittings.

Loss of VOCs from internal floating roof tanks occurs in one of four ways:

1) Through the annular rim space around the perimeter of the floating roof (seal
losses),
2) Through the openings in the deck required for various types of fittings
(fitting losses),
3) Through the nonwelded seams formed when joining sections of the deck material
(deck
seam losses), and
4) Through evaporation of liquid left on the tank wall following withdrawal of
liquid from
the tank (withdrawal loss).
 4.1.4.1 Control of Seal Losses. Internal floating roof seal losses can be
minimized by
employing liquid-mounted primary seals instead of vapor-mounted seals and/or by
employing
secondary wiper seals in addition to primary seals.

Available emissions test data suggest that the location of the seal (i.e.,
vapor- or liquid-
mounted) and the presence of a secondary seal are the major factors affecting seal
losses. A
liquid-mounted primary seal has a lower emissions rate, and thus a higher control
efficiency, than
a vapor-mounted seal. A secondary seal, with either a liquid- or a vapor-mounted
primary seal,
provides an additional level of control.

The type of seal used plays a less significant role in determining the emissions
rate. The type
of seal is important only to the extent that the seal must be suitable for the
particular application.
For instance, an elastomeric wiper seal is commonly employed as a vapor-mounted
primary seal
or as a secondary seal for an internal floating roof. Because of its shape, this
seal is not suitable
for use as a liquid-mounted primary seal. Resilient foam seals, on the other hand,
can be used as
both liquid- and vapor-mounted seals.

4.1.4.2 Control of Fitting Losses. There are numerous fittings that penetrate
or are attached
to an internal floating roof. Among them are access hatches, column wells, roof
legs, sample
pipes, ladder wells, vacuum breakers, and automatic gauge float wells. Fitting
losses occur when
VOCs leak around these fittings. Fitting losses can be controlled with gasketing
and sealing
techniques or by the substitution of fittings that are designed to leak less.

The effectiveness of fitting controls at reducing the overall emission rate is a

function of the
number of fittings of each type employed on a given tank. For example, if using
controlled
fittings reduces total fitting loss by 36 percent, and if fitting losses are about
35 percent of the
total emissions from a typical internal floating roof tank, then the controlled
fittings reduce the
overall emissions by (.36*.35)= .126, or 12.6 percent over a similar tank without
fitting controls.
The usual increase in control efficiency achieved by installing controlled fittings
ranges from 0.5
to 1.0 percent.

4.1.4.3 Control of Deck Seam Losses. Deck seam losses are inherent in a number
of
floating roof types including internal floating roofs. Any roof constructed of
sheets or panels
fastened by mechanical fasteners (e.g., bolts) is expected to have deck seam
losses. Deck seam
losses are considered to be a function of the length of the seams and not the type
of mechanical
fastener or the position of the deck relative to the liquid surface. This is a
conclusion drawn
from a 1986 study on two roof types with significantly different mechanical
fasteners and
differences in the amount of contact with the liquid surface.

Deck seam losses are controlled by selecting a roof type with vapor-tight deck
seams. The
welded deck seams on steel pan roofs are vapor tight. Fiberglass lapped seams of a
glass fiber
reinforced polyester roof may be vapor tight as long as there is negligible
permeability of the
liquid through the seam lapping materials. Some manufacturers provide gaskets for
bolted metal
deck seams.

Selecting a welded roof (rather than a bolted roof) will eliminate deck seam
losses. For a
typical internal roof that has primary seals, secondary seals, and controlled
fittings already,
eliminating deck seam losses will raise the control efficiency as much as 1.5
percent.

4.1.4.4 Applicability. The applicability of any storage tank improvement in

order to reduce
VOC emissions is dependent upon the characteristics of the particular VOC. Since
floating decks
are often constructed primarily of aluminum, they may not be applicable to tanks
storing
halogenated compounds, pesticides, or other compounds that are incompatible with
aluminum.
Contact between these compounds and an aluminum deck could corrode the deck and cause
product contamination.

In addition, vapor pressures may affect the selection of tank improvements as an

applicable
control technology. For chemicals with very low vapor pressure, fixed roof tank
emissions will
already be so low that installing an internal floating roof may not significantly
reduce emissions
further. For chemicals with vapor pressures up to 65 kPa (9.4 psia), emission
reductions of 95
percent and above are achievable with this technology. Above this vapor pressure,
achievable
emission reduction starts to decrease with increasing vapor pressure. Thus, an
internal floating
roof may not be indicated for chemicals with relatively high vapor pressures.1

4.2 DESCRIPTION OF MACT AND SUMMARY OF REGULATORY ALTERNATIVES

The CAA requires that in designating regulatory options, the maximum degree of
reduction
in emissions that is deemed achievable shall be subject to a floor, which is
determined differently
for new and existing sources. For new sources, the standards must be set at levels
which are not
any less stringent than the emission control that is achieved in practice by the
best controlled
similar source. For existing sources, the standards may not be less stringent than
the average
emission limitation achieved by the best performing 12 percent of existing sources
in each
category or subcategory of 30 or more sources. In determining whether the standard
should be
more stringent than the floor and by how much, EPA is to consider, among other
things, the cost
of achieving such additional emission reductions. The options for achieving
reductions at each
emission point are presented separately in the following sections. The chosen
option and any
more stringent options are presented separately for each of the four emission points.

4.2.1 Miscellaneous Process Vents

This section summarizes the MACT floors as they relate to miscellaneous process
vents. EPA
used the percentage of miscellaneous process vents that are controlled by combustion
at a
refinery to determine which refineries represent the best performing 12 percent of
sources for
miscellaneous process vents. The average level of control for the top 12 percent of
sources is
combustion control of all miscellaneous process vents. Data analyses conducted in
developing
previous NSPSs and the HON determined that combustion controls can achieve 98 percent
organic HAP reduction or an outlet organic HAP concentration of 20 ppmv for all vent
streams.
This represents the MACT floor level of control for existing sources. Regulatory
options more
stringent than the floor were not investigated for miscellaneous process vents
because no
available technology that is generally applicable can achieve a more stringent level
of control
than the MACT floor. Therefore, the standard being proposed for miscellaneous
process vents at
existing sources is the MACT floor. The new source MACT floor also includes
reduction of
emissions from miscellaneous process vents by 98 percent or to a level of 20 ppmv.

4.2.2 Storage Vessels

This section summarizes the MACT floors for storage vessels. The information
that EPA used
in determining the floor level of control for existing storage vessels consisted of
the types of
storage vessels, vessel capacities, existing controls on vessels, and true vapor
pressures of stored
liquids reported by refineries responding to survey questionnaires. EPA compared
the baseline
level of control on each storage vessel at each refinery with the storage vessel
control
requirements (with the exception of fitting requirements for floating roof vessels)
of subpart Kb of
40 CFR 60. Subpart Kb represents the best control technology for storage vessels.
It requires
either floating roofs with specified seals and fittings or closed vent systems and
control devices.

Once the best performing 12 percent were identified, the average true vapor
pressure of the
stored liquids being controlled at these refineries was determined. The MACT floor
level of
control for existing sources is: vessels with capacities greater than or equal to
177 cubic meters
(1,115 barrels or 47,000 gallons) storing liquids with true vapor pressures greater
than or equal to
23 kilopascals (kPa) (3.4 psia) must be controlled to the requirements of subpart Kb
with the
exception of the controlled fitting requirements for floating roof vessels. EPA
determined, based
on the available data, that an emission reduction more stringent than the level
associated with
the floor is not cost effective.

To determine the MACT floor for storage vessels at new sources, EPA reviewed
other State
and Federal storage vessel regulations. The MACT floor and an option more stringent
than the
floor requiring control of storage vessels with vapor pressures above 0.014 kPa
(0.002 psia)
(which is the same as option 3 for existing sources) was also considered. The
proposed level of
control for new sources is the MACT floor. Vessels with capacities greater than or
equal to 151
m3 (950 barrels or 40,000 gallons) storing liquids with true vapor pressures greater
than or equal
to 3.4 kPa (0.5 psia), and vessels with capacities greater than or equal to 76 m3
(475 barrels or
20,000 gallons) storing liquids with vapor pressures equal to or greater than 77 kPa
(11.1 psia)
would be required to comply with the subpart Kb (including the controlled fitting
requirements).
The option more stringent than the floor was not selected because it would result in
high costs
relative to HAP emission reductions.

4.2.3 Wastewater Streams

This section summarizes the MACT floors for wastewater streams. The alternative
selected
for proposal is the floor level of control (compliance with the Benzene Waste
Operations
NESHAP (BWON)). The BWON controls 75 percent of the benzene in refinery wastewater
and
76 percent of the volatile organic HAP in refinery wastewater. The best performing
wastewater
control systems are those that are in place to comply with the BWON. These systems
control
not only benzene, but also the other organic HAPs in petroleum refinery wastewater.
The
BWON controls 75 percent of the benzene in refinery wastewater nationwide and 76
percent of
the volatile organic HAP in refinery wastewater. Benzene is an effective surrogate
for indicating
the presence of all HAP compounds in petroleum refinery wastewater because data show
that the
majority of the total HAP compound loading in wastewater consists of compounds that
are very
similar to benzene in terms of both chemical structure and volatility (from the
water phase to the
air phase).

Because the proposed standard for wastewater requires compliance with the
existing BWON,
no additional emission reduction, cost, energy, or other environmental or health
impacts are
associated with the proposed standard. Based on data provided to the EPA through
the BWON
90-day reports, the EPA determined that the BWON was applicable to 43 percent of the
refineries. No refineries are known to have more stringent controls than the BWON.
Therefore,
the MACT floor, or the average of the top performing 12 percent of sources, is
control to the
BWON level of control.

EPA also considered an alternative level of emission reduction more stringent

than the MACT
floor that would be achieved by controlling all wastewater streams with at least 10
ppmw
benzene at any refinery regardless of the size of its annual benzene loading. This
alternative
control option was not selected because the additional emission reduction achieved
through
further control was not significant, given the associated costs.

The floor alternative was selected as the proposed level of control for new
sources. As with
existing sources, the option more stringent than the floor was considered, but was
rejected for
new sources for the same reason described above for existing sources.

4.2.4 Equipment Leaks

The section summarizes the MACT floors for equipment leaks. EPA determined that
the
average control level of the best-controlled 12 percent of sources, the MACT floor
level of
control, is between the level of control required by the petroleum refinery CTG and
the
petroleum refinery NSPS. For costing purposes, the petroleum refinery NSPS level of
control was
used for the MACT floor option. (This was done because it would have been difficult
to
determine the requirements for an option in between the two items.) The NSPS level
of control
results in a conservative estimate of the cost associated with the MACT floor.

Two options above the floor were also considered based on the negotiated rule for
equipment leaks (40 CFR 63, subpart H). Option 1 was the negotiated rule without the
connector provisions, and option 2 was the negotiated rule. The proposed standard
is the
negotiated rule without the connector provisions (option 1), with a few exceptions.
The more
stringent option, requiring the same connector monitoring as the negotiated rule for
all refineries,
was not selected due to the small additional emission reductions and high
incremental costs.
The negotiated rule for equipment leaks implements the leak detection and repair
program for
pumps and valves in three phases, with lower leak definitions in the later phases.
For new
sources, EPA proposes to require refinery sources to meet the same requirements as
proposed for
existing sources. Because the equipment leak provisions of the proposed rule are
work practice
and equipment standards, monitoring, repairing leaks, and maintaining the required
records
constitutes compliance with the rule.2

4.2.5 Summary of Alternatives

Based on the determination of the MACT floor for each of the four emission
points, EPA
developed two regulatory alternatives. Alternative 1 is a hybrid option, referred
to as the
preferred alternative, which incorporates MACT floor level control for wastewater
streams,
storage vessels, and miscellaneous process vents, and an option above the floor for
equipment
leaks. Alternative 2 includes control levels above the floor for equipment leaks
and storage
vessels. Table 4-1 presents a summary of the options included in this analysis.

4.3 NO ADDITIONAL EPA REGULATION

E.O. 12866 requires that the rationale for regulation versus no regulation must
be addressed
in the decision process. To satisfy this requirement, this section presents the
alternatives to
regulation of HAP emissions from petroleum refineries. The alternatives include
reliance on the
judicial system for pollution control, or reliance on regulation by States and
localities.

4.3.1 Judicial System

 In the absence of governmental regulation, market systems fail to make the
generators of
pollution pay for the costs associated with that pollution. For an individual firm,
pollution is an
apparently unusable by-product that can be disposed of cheaply by venting it to the
atmosphere.
However, in the atmosphere, pollution causes real costs to others. The fact that
producers,
consumers, and others whose activities result in air TABLE 4-1.
SUMMARY OF REGULATORY ALTERNATIVES BY EMISSION POINT

Emission Point Alternative 1 Alternative 2 Description of Control Option Equipment

Leaks Option 1 Option 2 Floor = Compliance with the petroleum refinery NSPS.
Option 1 = Compliance with the HON, Subpart H of Part 63, without
connectors.
Option 2 = Option 1 compliance, with connectors. Miscellaneous Vents MACT Floor MACT
Floor Floor = Control to 20 ppm HAP or 98 percent reduction of HAP by
combustion. Wastewater Streams MACT Floor MACT Floor Floor = Compliance with the
BWON, for any refinery with > 10 Mg/yr
of benzene loading in waste. Controlling waste streams > 10 ppm
benzene by weight with flow rates > 0.02 l/min. Storage Vessels MACT Floor Option 1
Floor = Subpart Kb floating roof with specified seals or closed vent
systems and control devices for vessels > 117 m3 storing liquid with the
vapor pressures > 23 kPa.
Option 1 = Floating roof with subpart Kb specified seals and fittings for
vessels > 151 m3 storing liquids with true vapor pressure > 10.3 kPa. pollution do
not bear the full costs of their actions leads to a divergence between private costs
and social costs. This divergence is considered a market failure, since it results
in a misallocation
of society's resources. Too many resources are devoted to the polluting activity
when polluters
do not bear the full cost of their actions. Also, if there was no regulation, the
previous
regulations would be relied upon as the basis for making judicial decisions
regarding excess
emissions.

4.3.2 State and Local Action

The CAA requires each State to develop and implement measures to attain and
maintain
EPA's standards. Each State assembles these measures in a document called the State
Implementation Plan (SIP). SIPs must be approved by EPA, and EPA is empowered to
compel
revision of plans it believes are inadequate. EPA may assume enforcement authority
over air
pollution control programs any State fails to implement. The standards will become
parts of each
State's SIP, and enforcement authority will be delegated to the States. If the EPA
were not to
promulgate the standards, States would be responsible for making case-by case MACT
decisions
under Section 112 (g) and (j) whenever there is a major modification, or when the
date for
MACT promulgation has passed without action on EPA's part.
 EPA believes that reliance on State and local action is not a viable substitute
for the
standards. This belief holds even if EPA were to step up research and technology
transfer
programs to assist State and local governments.

4.4 ROLE OF COST EFFECTIVENESS IN CHOOSING AMONG REGULATORY ALTERNATIVES

EPA has often used cost effectiveness (C/E) analysis as a guide for selecting
among regulatory
alternatives. Regulatory alternatives can sometimes be ranked based on stringency
of control.
All else equal, alternatives yielding the same level of control but higher average C/
E (usually
control cost per ton of pollutant reduced) could be eliminated from consideration.
Incremental
C/E can then be calculated for each step up the stringency ranking. The selection
of a regulatory
alternative could then be made by choosing the most stringent alternative below some
agreed
upon C/E cutoff. The level of such a C/E cutoff would generally depend on the
pollutant being
controlled and other factors.

However, since the Petroleum Refinery NESHAP is to be a MACT standard, the role
of C/E
analysis for selecting a regulatory alternative for this regulation is somewhat
limited. A MACT
floor level of control stringency is required regardless of the C/E at this control
level. At
stringency levels beyond the MACT floor, cost effectiveness can be legally
considered, and EPA
believes cost-effectiveness of controls is a primary consideration for evaluating
stringency levels
beyond the MACT floor. The average cost effectiveness of the regulation ($/Mg of
pollutant
removed) is included as part of the cost analysis in Chapter 5.

4.5 ECONOMIC INCENTIVES: SUBSIDIES, FEES, AND MARKETABLE PERMITS

Economic incentive strategies, when designed properly, act to harness the

marketplace to
work for the environment. In deciding among regulatory options, EPA is required to
consider as
options such strategies which influence, rather than dictate, producer and consumer
behavior, in
order to achieve environmental goals. Economic incentive programs make environmental
protection of economic interest to producers and consumers. When feasible, properly
designed
systems can be employed to achieve any environmental goal at the least cost to
society.

Several types or categories of economic incentive strategies exist. One broad

category of
incentive programs is based of the use of fees or subsidies. Fee programs establish
and collect a
fee on emissions, providing a direct economic incentive for emitters to decrease
emissions to the
point where the cost of abating emissions equals the fee.3 Similarly, subsidy
programs provide a
direct incentive for emitters to decrease emissions by providing subsidy payments
for emission
reductions beyond some baseline.

A second broad category of economic incentive strategies is based on the concept

of
emissions trading. A wide range of variations in emissions trading programs are
possible. The
common idea in such programs is to allow sources with low abatement cost
alternatives to trade
or sell emission allowances to sources with higher abatement cost alternatives so
that the cost of
meeting a given total level of abatement is minimized.

There are two important constraints regarding the workability of economic

incentive
programs. The first constraint concerns the problem of emissions monitoring.
Without an
effective emissions monitoring system it is not possible to charge fees or use other
economic
incentive strategies. Only the traditional "command and control" approach of
requiring
employment of specific control technologies is feasible in this circumstance.

The second problem constraining the potential value of economic incentive

strategies is
legal. Various legal restrictions imposed by the CAA limit the applicability of
economic
incentive strategies to reduce air pollution.

Legal constraints imposed by Title III of the Act severely limit the usefulness
of economic
incentive strategies for reducing HAP emissions. Title III requires the
implementation of MACT.
Thus sources have little or no choice as to the type or level of control they
implement except
perhaps if going beyond the MACT floor control level. As a limited economic
incentive, it may
then be possible to impose, for example, an emissions fee on residual emissions
after the MACT
technology is employed to encourage additional control.

The applicability of economic incentive programs for the petroleum refinery

NESHAP is
therefore very limited. However, emissions averaging at the facility level may be
feasible and
legal given that each facility is considered an emissions source. This emissions
averaging strategy
allows facilities to trade emission reductions across emission points so as to
minimize control
costs for any given facility level emission reduction requirement. Thus, to this
extent, an
economic incentive strategy may be implemented for the Petroleum Refinery NESHAP
regulation.
The analysis of control costs (Chapter 5) does not incorporate emission averaging.
It is
recognized that if emissions averaging were incorporated into the standard,
facilities' costs of
control should fall. Thus, the costs calculated could be an overestimate.
REFERENCES

1. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Regulatory Impact Analysis for the

National
Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants for Source Categories: Organic
Hazardous
Air Pollutants from the Synthetic Organic Chemical Manufacturing Industry and
Seven Other
Processes. EPA-450/3-92-009. pp. 4-1 to 4-41. December 1992.

2. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Office of Air Quality Planning and

Standards. Draft
Preamble for the HON. December 1993.

3. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Office of Air Quality Planning and

Standards. Draft
Preamble for the Petroleum Refinery NESHAP. January 1994.

4. Reference 2.

5. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Office of Air Quality Planning

andStandards.
Municipal Waste Landfills - Regulatory Impact Analysis. March 1991.
5.0 COST ANALYSIS AND EMISSION REDUCTION

Section 5.1 of this chapter presents the methodology used to estimate the
regulatory
compliance costs for the options which were listed in Table 4-1. Section 5.2
presents total
compliance costs by emission point, the corresponding emission reductions for each
alternative,
and discusses the cost effectiveness of controlling each of the four petroleum
refinery emission
points. Section 5.4 presents any cost categories not directly associated with a
control technique,
including monitoring, reporting, and recordkeeping costs.

5.1 APPROACH FOR ESTIMATING REGULATORY COMPLIANCE COSTS

This section explains the methods used for estimating the emissions associated
with
petroleum refineries and the impact associated with controlling existing petroleum
refinery
emission sources using various alternative control technologies. These estimates
are used to
compare different control alternatives and select the provisions for the proposed
NESHAP for
petroleum refineries.
 Emissions and control impacts were estimated for each of the four petroleum
refinery
emission points: storage vessels, wastewater collection and treatment systems,
equipment leaks,
and miscellaneous process vents. The control impact estimates include estimates of
emission
reductions, control costs, and where applicable, energy impact. A qualitative
assessment of the
possible impact of secondary air pollution, water pollution, or solid waste
generation is also
included.

The emissions calculations involved three steps: (1) development of a database

characterizing refineries, (2) development and assignment of scaling factors for
each kind of
emission point to use for estimating emissions for refineries that provided no data,
and
(3) calculation of nationwide emissions and control impacts.

The database included the processes and technology used to produce refinery
products and
controls used to reduce emissions. This information came from responses to survey
questionnaires sent out under section 114 of the CAA and information collection
requests.
Refineries across the United States responded to the questionnaires and provided
control and
process information for process vents, storage vessels, wastewater treatment
systems, and leaking
equipment. In addition, information on existing regulations was compiled to
determine the
control requirements that apply to petroleum refineries.

Because site-specific data were not available for every refinery, scaling
factors relating
refinery process parameters or emissions to the charge capacity of refinery
processes were
derived from the available data. Estimates of emissions and control impacts for
refineries for
which data were lacking were derived using scaling factors. Scaling factors could
be used
because the emission mechanisms and applicable control technologies are well
understood for
the kinds of sources to be regulated by the petroleum refinery NESHAP, and these
characteristics
are similar from refinery to refinery.

Baseline emissions represent emission levels from petroleum refineries that

would occur in
the absence of a refinery MACT standard. Baseline emissions were estimated using
calculation
algorithms based on known, previously published, well-established methods from the
process
charge capacities of the refineries in the database and the data reported in the
questionnaire
responses. The impact of each alternative control level was estimated using
previously
developed cost algorithms and control efficiencies for commonly used control
technologies. The
control technologies included in the analysis were chosen because they can achieve
emission
reductions at least as stringent as the MACT floor. While the selected control
technologies were
used as the basis of the control impacts estimates, the proposed standards are
written using
formats that would allow use of other control technologies if the equivalent
emission reduction is
achieved.

The impact estimates are based on average, representative, or typical emissions

and control
requirements for each kind of source. Thus, the estimates do not reflect the impact
that would
be observed at any particular refinery. However, they do provide a reasonable
estimate of
nationwide emission reductions and represent the range of control costs that
refineries might
incur under different regulatory alternatives.

The specific procedures used to estimate baseline emissions and the costs and
emission
reductions for the different control alternatives for each kind of emission point
are described
separately for new and existing sources.

5.1.2 Calculations for Existing Sources

For existing petroleum refinery sources, baseline emissions and control impacts
were
calculated for the four sources for individual refineries and aggregated to
determine nationwide
impacts. Some sources were not as well characterized as others. In these cases,
the available
information was extrapolated to derive nationwide estimates.

5.1.2.1 Storage Vessels. Emissions and emission reductions from storage

vessels are a
function of the volatility of the material stored and the type of storage vessel.
Responses to
questionnaires sent to refineries provided information on the volatility and HAP
content of
materials stored and the types of vessels used to store materials. Based on
information in the
questionnaire responses, factors for storage vessel population and VOC emissions were
developed and used to estimate baseline emissions of HAPs and VOC, emission
reductions at the
floor level of control and above, and costs for controlling emissions to the floor
level of control
and to levels more stringent than the floor. Thirteen "major" petroleum liquids
were included in
this analysis: crude oil, gasoline, naphtha, asphalt, alkylate, reformate, jet
kerosene/kerosene,
heavy gas oil, aviation gasoline, diesel/distillate, jet fuel (#4), residual fuel
oil, and slop oil. In a
previous analysis using all available information, these 13 petroleum liquids
accounted for more
than 80 percent of the estimated nationwide baseline VOC emissions.

The storage vessel population factors were used to estimate the total number of
vessels at
each refinery. The storage vessels reported in the questionnaire responses were
divided into
groups based on storage vessel type (e.g., fixed roof), refinery crude capacity
(greater than or less
than 150,000 barrels per calendar day (bbls/cd)), and petroleum liquid stored (e.g.,
gasoline,
naphtha, etc.). The average number of vessels in each group per barrel of crude
capacity at a
refinery was the tank population factor. For example, the questionnaire responses
indicated that
the number of internal floating roof vessels storing gasoline at refineries with
crude capacities
greater than 150,000 bbls/cd was 1.2 x 10-5 storage vessels per barrel of crude
capacity per day.
That is, a refinery of 267,000 barrels per day would have two internal floating roof
tanks storing
gasoline.

VOC emission factors were calculated for each storage vessel grouping. To
calculate the
VOC factor, VOC emissions from the storage vessels reported in the questionnaire
responses
were estimated using equations in chapter 12 of AP-42. Where data were missing or
insufficient,
default values, developed from information in the questionnaire responses, were
used. Average
VOC emission factors at the baseline level of control were then calculated for each
vessel
grouping. For example, for internal floating roof vessels storing gasoline at
refineries with crude
capacities greater than 150,000 bbls/cd, an average VOC emission factor of 15,000
lbs VOC
emitted/vessel was calculated.

The number of vessels and the baseline VOC emissions nationwide were estimated
in the
following way. The crude capacity of each refinery in the nation, as listed in OGJ,
was
multiplied by the population factor for each applicable type of vessel to estimate
the numbers
and types of vessels at each refinery. This yielded the nationwide storage vessel
population. The
baseline VOC emission factor (lb VOC emitted/vessel) corresponding to each vessel
type was
multiplied by the number of vessels of that type to calculate the baseline VOC
emissions at each
refinery. For example, for internal floating roof vessels storing gasoline at
refineries with crude
capacities greater than 150,000 bbls/cd the refinery crude capacity, times the tank
population
factor of 1.2 x 10-5 vessels per barrel, times the VOC emission factor of 15,000 lb
VOC
emitted/vessel yielded the estimated VOC emissions. Certain petroleum liquids (e.
g., asphalt,
alkylate, and reformate) are directly associated with specific process units. If
OGJ did not list
capacities for these specific process units, then the vessel population factor
corresponding to that
process unit was not applied to that refinery. (For more information, refer to
"Summary of
Nationwide Volatile Organic Compound and Hazardous Air Pollutant Emission Estimates
from
Petroleum Refineries," in the docket).

Emissions of HAPs were estimated by multiplying the VOC emissions calculated for
each
type of material stored by the average HAP weight fraction in the vapor phase of the
material.
Average vapor phase HAP weight fractions were calculated from the HAP liquid
concentrations
(obtained from industry questionnaire responses) using Raoult's Law and the vapor
pressure of
the individual HAPs.

Emission reductions and costs for control options were estimated using the
extrapolated
nationwide storage vessel population. For all control options, factors for average
emission
reduction and costs were developed by calculating specific emission reductions and
costs for the
3,400 storage vessels reported in the questionnaire responses. Average emission
reduction and
cost factors were then calculated for each storage vessel group.

An analysis of refinery storage vessels indicated that the MACT floor level of
control for
existing sources is an internal floating roof with seals that comply with the NSPS
for and with the
hazardous organic NESHAP (HON) storage. Costs were estimated for equipping existing
fixed
roof storage vessels with an internal floating roof and seals that comply with
specifications in the
storage NSPS (40 CFR 60 subpart Kb) and HON (40 CFR 63 subpart G). For existing
external
and internal floating roof vessels, costs were estimated for installing seals that
comply with the
proposed HON seal requirements. The MACT floor level of control for existing
floating roof
storage vessels does not include complying with the fitting requirements in the
proposed HON.

More stringent controls were not identified for existing fixed roof storage
vessels. For
existing external and internal floating roof vessels, the more stringent control
alternative is to
comply with the fitting requirements in the proposed HON in addition to the seal
requirements.

The emission reduction assigned to each of the 3,400 storage vessels was
calculated as a
function of the emission reductions presented in the EPA publication "NSPS VOC
Emissions from
VOL Storage Tanks--Background Information for Proposed Standards". This document
provided
the emission reduction (in percent) of various seal and fitting configurations
compared with fixed
roof vessels. For example, an internal floating roof vessel with a liquid mounted
primary seal
and controlled fittings has an average emission reduction of 96.2 percent over a
similar sized
fixed roof vessel. Adding a rim-mounted secondary seal increases this emission
reduction to
96.6 percent. Therefore, the incremental emission reduction gained by adding the
rim mounted
secondary seal is 0.4 percent. The emission reduction applied to each storage
vessel was
calculated as the difference between the level of control required by the control
option and the
baseline level of control.

The cost equations for converting existing fixed roof vessels to internal
floating roof vessels
were taken from the "Control of Volatile Organic Compound Emissions from Volatile
Organic
Liquid Storage in Floating and Fixed Roof Tanks" (Draft, July 1992), and "Internal
Instruction
Manual for ESD Regulation-Storage Tanks" (January 1993). The cost equations for
adding seals
and controlled fittings to existing external and internal floating roof vessels were
also taken from
these two documents.

5.1.2.2 Wastewater Collection and Treatment Systems. Emissions and emission

reductions
from wastewater collection and treatment systems are both a function of wastewater
stream flow,
the HAP compound concentration in the wastewater, and the volatility of the HAP
compounds in
the wastewater. Emission reductions are also a function of the design and operating
parameters
of the control device.

EPA gathered data for the wastewater stream flow rate and the concentration of
HAPs in
petroleum refinery wastewater to develop models of wastewater from process units
found at
refineries. Each model process unit was assigned representative values for the
concentration and
volatility of the HAPs in its wastewater stream. A ratio of wastewater stream flow
to refinery
crude capacity was also developed for each model process unit and applied to the
capacities
reported in OGJ for each process unit at each refinery. (For more information,
refer to "Data
Summary for Petroleum Refinery Wastewater," in the docket). Mass loadings of
volatile HAP in
wastewater were determined by multiplying volatile HAP concentrations by capacity-
based
wastewater stream flow rates for each process unit at each refinery in the nation.
The results of
prior EPA analyses developed for the HON were judged to be appropriate to use to
estimate the
cumulative mass fraction of HAPs emitted from wastewater collection and treatment
systems.

Uncontrolled emissions were determined by multiplying the mass fraction of HAPs

emitted
by the mass loading of volatile HAPs. However, many petroleum refineries control
their
wastewater collection and treatment systems in accordance with the BWON. (For more
information, refer to "The Effectiveness of the BWON in Controlling Volatile HAP
Mass Loading
in Petroleum Refinery Wastewater," in the docket). These controls were credited in
the national
baseline emissions calculations by applying the applicability criteria of the BWON
(i.e.,
wastewater streams with flows greater than 0.02 l/min and benzene concentration of
10 ppmw or
greater at a facility with at least 10 Mg/yr total annual benzene loading in wastes
and wastewater)
to each refinery and wastewater stream and by assuming that the control requirements
of the
BWON (i.e., 99 percent reduction of benzene) were met for those streams requiring
control.

An analysis of existing refinery wastewater collection and treatment systems

indicated that
the MACT floor for wastewater is the BWON. (For more information, refer to ["Maximum
Achievable Control Technology Floor for Process Wastewater Streams at Petroleum
Refineries,"]
in the docket). Existing refineries are already required to comply with the BWON,
so no
emission reductions or costs would be associated with the floor option for refinery
wastewater
sources. In considering a control option more stringent than the BWON, the EPA
assessed the
effects of lowering the applicability threshold of the BWON, by eliminating the
cutoff of 10
Mg/yr TAB loading in facility wastes and wastewater. The additional wastewater
streams
requiring control (those streams with at least 10 ppmw benzene at refineries with a
TAB under
the 10 Mg/yr loading criterion) were assumed to be steam stripped to achieve
reductions
equivalent to the requirements of the BWON (e.g., 99 percent reduction of benzene).
The
overheads from the steam stripper were assumed to be sent to a combustion device.
(For more
information, refer to ["Control Option Above the Floor for Petroleum Refinery Process
Wastewater,"] in the docket). The results of prior EPA analyses were used to
estimate the mass
fraction of HAPs removed from a wastewater stream by a steam stripper as well as the
costs
associated with the stripper system. (For more information, refer to "Steam
Stripper Removals
and Costing for Petroleum Refinery Wastewater," in the docket). The results of
those analyses
indicate that the selected steam stripper design and operating parameters achieve a
95 to
99 percent removal, depending on the volatility of the HAPs in the stream.
5.1.2.3 Equipment Leaks. Emissions and emission reductions from leaking
equipment are a
function of the component counts and the control program used to reduce emissions.
The
questionnaires were designed to obtain equipment leak information for 18 different
refinery
process units because the controls required may vary from process unit to process
unit. The
questionnaire responses included information on component counts, the HAP content of
refinery
process streams, and the monitoring frequencies and leak definitions used for leak
detection and
repair programs for each refinery process unit. The monitoring frequencies and leak
definitions
reported for each process unit were matched to the requirements of existing LDAR
programs to
determine which control program was being used to reduce emissions.

Data on equipment leaks were reported by approximately 70 percent of the

refineries in the
nation. For those refineries not reporting information, the characteristics of
model process units
(for each of the 18 process units of interest) were assigned to the refinery based
on information in
OGJ. The model process units were developed as the median component count of the
process
units from refineries reporting information in the surveys. If OGJ data indicated
that a refinery
contained a specific process unit, then the median counts for the model representing
that process
unit was assigned to the refinery. If the refinery was determined to be in an ozone
nonattainment area, the EPA assumed that the refinery would be controlled to the
level of control
in the petroleum refinery CTG.

Uncontrolled HAP emissions from each of the 18 different refinery process units
were
estimated by multiplying the uncontrolled VOC emissions from each unit by the average
HAP-to-VOC ratio of the streams associated with each unit. Uncontrolled VOC
emissions from
leaking equipment were estimated on a process unit basis by multiplying the
component counts
for the process unit by VOC emission factors for each equipment component. The VOC
emission factors relate VOC emissions to the type of component leaking (e.g., pumps,
valves,
etc.) in units of lb/hr/component type. The emission factors used for the impacts
analysis were
taken from a previous EPA study on leaking refinery equipment and presented in
chapter 9 of
AP-42. These emission factors are currently being reviewed by EPA based on new
industry data.
The emission estimates may be revised at promulgation if new factors are developed
by EPA
based on the new industry data.

Baseline emissions of HAPs and VOC were estimated by multiplying the uncontrolled
emissions by one minus the control efficiencies associated with each LDAR program
reported by
or assigned to each refinery. The "Equipment Leaks Enabling Document" (in the
docket)
provides information on the control efficiencies that may be achieved by monitoring
components
under various LDAR programs. (For more information, refer to "Summary of Nationwide
Volatile
Organic Compound and Hazardous Air Pollutant Emission Estimates from Petroleum
Refineries,"
in the docket).

An analysis of existing controls on refinery equipment leaks indicated that the

MACT floor
level of control for refinery equipment leaks was the control required by the
Petroleum Refinery
NSPS. For more information refer to ["Maximum Achievable Control Technology Floor
for
Equipment Leaks at Petroleum Refineries," in the docket]. Two more stringent
control options
were also analyzed: (1) compliance with the negotiated equipment leaks regulation
included in
the HON, without the monitoring requirements for connectors, and (2) compliance with
the
negotiated equipment leaks regulation included in the HON. Each of these options
requires
specific leak monitoring frequencies for components and control devices. Emission
reductions
for controlling leaking equipment to the level of control required by the NSPS and
the two more
stringent options were calculated from the difference between baseline emissions and
the
emissions calculated using the percent reductions associated with the petroleum
refinery NSPS
and the HON equipment leaks negotiated rule. Similarly, the cost impact of
controlling leaking
equipment to the level required by the NSPS and the two more stringent control
options was
calculated from the cost of control devices and labor associated with the petroleum
refinery
NSPS and the negotiated rule. The cost methodology was based on procedures provided
in the
"Equipment Leaks Enabling Document." (For more information, refer to ["Costs for
the MACT
Floor Level of Control and Control Options Above the Floor for Controlling Emissions
from
Leaking Refinery Equipment,"] in the docket).

5.1.2.4 Miscellaneous Process Vents. The miscellaneous process vent group

includes most
miscellaneous process vents that emit organic HAPs at refineries other than FCCU
catalyst
regeneration vents, catalyst reformer catalyst regeneration vents, and sulfur plant
vents. The
baseline HAP emissions from miscellaneous process vents were estimated by
multiplying HAP
emission factors by the charge capacities of refinery processes. Specific HAP
emission factors
were developed by dividing the HAP emissions reported in questionnaire responses by
the
charge capacities of those refineries reporting the specific HAP. (For further
information, refer to
"Summary of Nationwide Volatile Organic Compound and Hazardous Air Pollutant Emission
Estimates from Petroleum Refineries," in the docket).

The MACT floor level of control for these vents was combustion. EPA has
determined that
combustion of emissions can achieve 98 percent organic HAP reduction, so emission
reductions
were calculated by applying this percent reduction to emissions from miscellaneous
process
vents that are uncontrolled at baseline. The cost for controlling emissions from
miscellaneous
vents includes the cost for piping emissions to existing control devices and an
additional
compressor for the refinery. EPA assumed that refineries would already have an
existing fuel gas
or flare system that could be used to reduce emissions from miscellaneous process
vents. Further
information on costing procedures and specific assumptions is contained in "Costing
Methodology for Controlling Emissions for Miscellaneous Process Vents," in the
docket.

5.1.3 Calculations for New Sources

This section explains the methodology used for estimating emissions and control
impacts in
the first 5 years after the promulgation of this rule. These costs represent
control of new process
units and equipment built within the first 5 years after promulgation. It should be
noted for
regulatory purposes, that some of these units and equipment will be considered "new
sources"
and others will be considered part of an "existing source". It is not possible to
determine how
many new units will fall into each of these categories; however, controls will be
required for the
emission points in either case.
 Costs for controlling new process units were estimated from the costs calculated
for existing
sources and the number of new process units that are expected to be constructed in
the 5-year
period after the standard is enacted. The costs for applying control technologies
to existing
sources were calculated as previously described. The results are documented in the
four
memoranda presenting cost impacts (in the docket). The cost information was scaled
up to
account for new emission points that may need to be controlled in the first 5 years
after the
petroleum refinery NESHAP has been promulgated. Reductions of emissions of HAPs and
VOC
from controlling existing emission points were also presented in the costing
memorandum. The
emission reduction information was scaled up to account for controls on new emission
points
using the same methodology that was used to scale up cost data. (For further
information, refer
to "Estimation of Annual Costs for New Petroleum Refinery Emission Points in the
Fifth Year After
Promulgation," in the docket).

OGJ provided estimates of annual refinery construction projects. This

information was used
to determine an average number of process units constructed in a year.

5.1.3.1 Storage Vessels. The MACT floor for storage vessels at new sources is
application of
seals and fittings equivalent to those required by 40 CFR 60 subpart Kb (the NSPS
for VOL
storage) to storage vessels larger than 151 m3 (947 bbl) with vapor pressures above
3.5 kPa
(0.50 psia). (These seals and fittings are the same as those required by the HON.)
The
petroleum refinery NESHAP would result in no costs or emission reductions for those
storage
vessels required to comply with subpart Kb (all new vessels with a capacity greater
than or equal
to 40 m3 or 250 bbl). This methodology may overestimate the impact of the
regulation in the
5 years after promulgation because, as previously stated, many vessels constructed
in that period
may be considered part of existing sources for regulatory purposes. Because the
requirements for
existing sources are equivalent to the NSPS, there will be no costs or emission
reductions for
existing storage vessels. Therefore, the fifth year impacts on vessels at new
sources would be
lower than the impact estimated here because the number of vessels at new sources is
probably
overestimated.

5.1.3.2 Wastewater Collection and Treatment Systems. A MACT floor analysis

performed
on wastewater collection and treatment systems indicated that the MACT floor level
of control for
wastewater streams at new sources is compliance with the BWON. Therefore, no costs
are
anticipated for sources built in the 5 years after promulgation to reach the MACT
floor level of
control. The control option more stringent than the floor that was considered was
the same as
the option considered for existing sources: assessing the effects of lowering the
applicability
threshold of the BWON by eliminating the cutoff of 10 Mg/yr TAB loading in facility
wastes and
wastewater.

The average annual number of newly constructed process units that will generate
wastewater
is expected to be approximately 34. The distribution of these new units across
refinery processes
was based on OGJ data. (For more information, refer to the docket). Using the same
approach
for applying controls and estimating costs for new sources as for existing sources,
costs for the
newly constructed units were estimated. The total estimated capital investment for
controls by
the fifth year (considering 34 new units per year over the 5-year period) would be
approximately
$42 million. The total annual cost to be expended in the fifth year (considering
all 170 new
units) would be approximately $18 million per year.

5.1.3.3 Equipment Leaks. OGJ provides annual construction projects in petroleum

refineries and expected dates of completion. This information, for a 5-year period
from 1988 to
1992, was used to develop an average count of new construction projects 5 years after
promulgation of the refinery NESHAP. From this information, it was determined that
an average
of 34 process units would be built annually. Each of these process units is
expected to require
control under the NSPS for refineries. Therefore, the only cost associated with
controlling these
units is the extra cost required to go from the NSPS control requirements (the MACT
floor for
equipment leaks at new sources) to the two options more stringent than floor. The
two options
are the same as for existing sources: (1) the negotiated regulation for equipment
leaks in the
HON (40 CFR 63 subpart H) without the monitoring requirements for connectors and (2)
the
HON negotiated regulation.

The average capital investment cost and annual cost of upgrading from the NSPS
to the
HON negotiated regulation without connector monitoring were determined to be $20,000
and
$7,000/yr per process unit, respectively. The average capital investment and annual
cost of
upgrading from the NSPS to the HON negotiated regulation were determined to be
$17,000 and
$6,200/yr per process unit, respectively. For each option, the capital investment
cost and
average annual cost for controlling the 34 process units constructed each year was
calculated by
multiplying the average cost per process unit by the number of new process units.

5.1.3.4 Miscellaneous Process Vents. The MACT floor level of control for
miscellaneous
process vents at new sources was determined to be combustion. The annual cost for
controlling
emissions from miscellaneous vents consisted the cost for piping to an existing
combustion
system (to a flare or to the fuel gas system) and for an additional compressor for
each refinery.
The average capital cost for piping for each vent and a compressor for each refinery
was
determined to be $9,910 and $66,100, respectively, and the average annual cost of
piping for
each vent and compressor for each refinery was determined to be $2,170 and $37,800,
respectively.

As previously stated, the average annual number of newly constructed process

units is
expected to be 34. The number of miscellaneous vents requiring control was
calculated from the
average number of uncontrolled vents per process unit, as presented in the baseline
emissions
estimation memorandum (refer to docket). Based on this information, one vent for
each of the
34 process units is estimated to require control (that is, a total of 34 new vents
will require
control each year). This number of vents per year was multiplied by the average
cost per vent to
estimate national costs for miscellaneous process vents for process units
constructed in the
5 years after promulgation of this rule.

5.2 TOTAL COMPLIANCE COST ESTIMATES, REDUCTIONS, AND COST EFFECTIVENESS

The annualized compliance costs by emission point are shown in Table 5-1 for the
preferred
alternative. The total national cost of Alternative 1 in the fifth year is $81
million, compared
with a cost of $97 million for Alternative 2. The difference between the two
alternatives are the
increased costs associated with more stringent control techniques for equipment
leaks and
storage vessels. Table 5-2 presents the costs, HAP emission reductions, and cost
effectiveness for
the control options by emission point. The average cost effectiveness of the
regulation ($/Mg of
pollutant removed) is determined by dividing the annual cost by the annual emission
reduction.
Table 5-3 presents a summary of the HAP emission reductions, total cost, and cost
effectiveness
values for each of the two regulatory alternatives. The emission reductions
associated with each
alternative in Table 5-3 were calculated by summing the HAP emission reductions
listed in Table
5-2 for the control option chosen at each emission point. The annual costs are as
reported in
Table 5-1, and the cost effectiveness values were calculated as described above.
The incremental
cost effectiveness represents the increase in cost from Alternative 1 to Alternative
2 divided by
the increased HAP emission reduction. Table 5-4 reports similar information for VOC
emissions.
TABLE 5-1. SUMMARY OF TOTAL COSTS IN THE FIFTH YEAR FOR THE PETROLEUM REFINING
NESHAP

Annual Fifth Year Costs (1000$/yr)4

(1992 Dollars)
Emission Point
Option Existing Sources New
Construction
Total
Alternative 1
Alternative 2 Equipment Leaks

Miscellaneous Process Vents

Wastewater Systems

Storage Vessels Floor

Option 11
Option 22

Floor3

Floor1
Option 1

Floor1
Option 12 $69,000
$66,000
$78,000

$11,000

$ 0
$120,000

$3,700
$6,200 $ 0
$(210)
$840
$370

$ 0
$18,000

$98
$550 $69,000
$65,790
$78,840

$11,370

$ 0
$138,000

$3,798
$6,750
$65,790

$11,370

$ 0

$3,798

$78,840

$11,370

$ 0

$6,750 TOTAL COST $80,958 $96,960

NOTES:1Alternative 1.
2Alternative 2.
3EPA did not choose an option above the MACT floor for miscellaneous process
vents.
4Costs are in 1992 dollars. Monitoring, recordkeeping, and reporting costs
are not incorporated in the cost estimates shown in the
table. TABLE 5-2. CONTROL OPTIONS AND IMPACTS BY EMISSION
POINT

HAP Cost Effectiveness ($/Mg HAP)

Emission Point Baseline HAP

Emissions
(Mg/yr)
Control
Option Emission
Reduction
(Mg/yr) Percent
Emission
Reduction Annual
Cost
($1,000/yr)b

Average

Incremental Miscellaneous Process Vents Existing Sources 8,900 Floor* 7,600

85 $11,000 $1,500 N/A New Sourcesa 900 Floor* 770 85 $370 $480 N/A Storage
Vessels Existing Sources 9,000 Floor* 670 7 $3,700 $5,500 N/A Option 1
1,300 14 $6,200 $4,800 $4,000 Option 2 1,800 20 $8,400 $4,700 $4,400 Option 3
2,600 29 $32,000 $12,000 $30,000 New Sourcesa 290 Floor* 4 1.4 $98 $24,000 N/A
Option 1 14 4.8 $550 $39,000 $45,000 Wastewater Systems Existing Sources
9,200 Floor* 0 N/A 0 N/A N/A Option 1 7,700 93 $120,000 $15,000 $15,000 New
Sourcesa 960 Floor* 0 N/A 0 N/A N/A Option 1 930 97 $18,000 $20,000 $20,000
Equipment Leaks Existing Sources 50,000 Floor 35,000 69 $69,000 $2,000 N/
A Option 1* 44,000 87 $66,000 $1,500 $(330) Option 2 46,000 91 $78,000 $1,700
$6,000 New Sources 1,300 Floor 0 0 0 0 0 Option 1* 640 49 $(210) $(330)
$(330) Option 2 760 59 $840 $1,100 $8,300
NOTES: aImpacts were estimated for new process units constructed in the 5 years
after promulgation. For regulatory purposes, some of these units may be considered
new sources
while others may be considered part of an existing source.
bThe costs for monitoring, recordkeeping, and reporting (MRR) requirements
are not available on an emission point basis. The costs in this table reflect costs
for operation and
maintenance of control equipment only.
N/A = Not applicable.
Brackets indicate negative values.
* = Control option chosen for preferred alternative. TABLE 5-3. COST, HAP
EMISSION REDUCTION, AND COST EFFECTIVENESS BY ALTERNATIVE

HAP Emissions
(Mg/Yr) Cost Effectiveness ($/Mg)
Regulatory Alternative
Reduction Annual Cost
(Million $, 1992)1
Average
Incremental Alternative 1 53,684 $81.0 $1,509 N/A Alternative 2 56,444 $97.0 $1,719
$5,797
NOTES: N/A = Not applicable.
1Cost estimates do not include costs associated with monitoring,
recordkeeping, and reporting requirements.

TABLE 5-4. COST, VOC EMISSION REDUCTION, AND COST EFFECTIVENESS BY ALTERNATIVE

Cost Effectiveness VOC Emission Annual Cost ($/Mg) Regulatory Alternative

Reduction (Mg/Yr)1 (Million $, 1992)2 Average Incremental Alternative 1 322,153
$81.0 $251 N/A Alternative 2 333,767 $97.0 $290 $1,378
NOTES: N/A = Not applicable.
1Emission reduction estimates do not incorporate reductions occurring at
new sources.
2Cost estimates do not include the costs associated with monitoring,
recordkeeping, and reporting requirements.
5.3 MONITORING, RECORDKEEPING, AND REPORTING COSTS

In addition to provisions for the installation of control equipment, the

proposed regulation
includes provisions for MRR. EPA estimates that the total annual cost for
refineries to comply
with the MRR requirements is $30 million. After incorporating MRR costs, the total
cost of
compliance of Alternative 1 is $111 million, and Alternative 2's total cost is $127
million. For
Alternative 1, the incorporation of MRR costs into total annual cost results in a
cost effectiveness
of $345 for each megagram of VOC reduced and $2,068 for each megagram of HAP
reduced.
For Alternative 2, the cost effectiveness with the incorporation of MRR costs is
$381 per
megagram of VOC reduced and $2,250 per megagram of HAP reduced. The incremental
change
from Alternative 1 to Alternative 2 is $1,378 per megagram of VOC reduced and $5,797
per
megagram of HAP reduced.

In order to calculate the costs of MRR associated with the petroleum refinery
NESHAP,
estimates of hours per item (i.e., a required MRR action), frequency of required
action per year,
and number of respondents (i.e., total number of individuals required to submit
compliance
reports) were estimated based on the requirements in the proposed rule for all of
the emission
points. To compute the costs associated with the burden estimates, a wage rate of
$32 per hour
(in 1992 dollars) was assumed. This assumption was based on an estimate that 85
percent of the
labor will be accomplished by technical personnel (typically by an engineer with a
wage rate of
$33 per hour), 10 percent will be completed by a manager (at $49 per hour), and 5
percent by
clerical personnel (at $15 per hour). All of the wage rates include an additional
110 percent for
overhead. Costs were annualized assuming an expected remaining life for affected
facilities of
15 years from the date of promulgation of the subject NESHAP, and using an interest
rate of 7
percent.

Compliance requirements vary in terms of frequency. This variance is taken into

account in
the annualization of costs. Performance tests to demonstrate compliance with the
control device
requirements are required once. Compliance requirements also include monitoring of
operating
parameters of control devices and records of work practice and other inspections.
These
activities must be reported semiannually. The compliance requirements that must be
met only
once are annualized over the time from the year in which they are to take place to
the expected
end of facility life.

The MRR requirements are outlined separately in the regulation for each emission
point.
The proposed compliance determination provisions for storage vessels include
inspections of
vessels and roof seals. If a closed vent system and control device is used for
venting emissions
from storage vessels, the owner must establish appropriate monitoring procedures.
For
wastewater stream and treatment operations, the MRR requirements are outlined in the
rule for
the BWON.

For miscellaneous process vents, the proposed standard specifies the performance
tests,
monitoring requirements, and test methods necessary to determine whether a
miscellaneous
process vent stream is required to apply control devices and to demonstrate that the
allowed
emission levels are achieved when controls are applied. The format of these
requirements, as
with the format of the miscellaneous process vent provisions, depends on the control
device
selected. The MRR requirements for miscellaneous process vents are summarized by
control
device in Table 5-5.

For equipment leaks, because the provisions of the proposed rule are work
practice and
equipment standards, monitoring, repairing leaks, and maintaining the required
records
constitutes compliance with the rule. The HON equipment leak provisions are
appropriate to
determine continuous compliance with the petroleum refinery equipment leak
standards. In
summary, these provisions require periodic monitoring with a portable hydrocarbon
detector to
determine if equipment is leaking.

TABLE 5-5. MISCELLANEOUS PROCESS VENTS þ MONITORING, RECORDKEEPING, AND REPORTING

REQUIREMENTS FOR
COMPLYING WITH 98 WEIGHT-PERCENT REDUCTION OF TOTAL ORGANIC HAP EMISSIONS OR A LIMIT
OF 20 PARTS PER
MILLION BY VOLUME

Control Device Parameters to be

Monitoreda
Recordkeeping and Reporting Requirements for Monitored Parameters Thermal
Incinerator Firebox temperatureb
[63.644(a)(1)(i)] 1. Continuous recordsc
2. Record and report the firebox
temperature averaged over the full period
of the performance test - NCSd

3. Record the daily average firebox

temperature for each operating daye

4. Report all daily average temperatures

that are outside the range
established in the NCS or operating
permit and all operating days when
insufficient monitoring data are
collectedf - PRg Catalytic Incinerator Temperature upstream and
downstream of the catalyst
bed [63.644(a)(1)(ii)] 1.Continuous
records

2. Record and report the upstream and

downstream temperatures and the
temperature difference across the
catalyst bed averaged over the full
period of the performance test - NCS

3. Record the daily average upstream

temperature and temperature
difference across catalyst bed for each
operating daye

4. Report all daily average upstream

temperatures that are outside the
range established in the NCS or
operating permit - PR 5.Report all daily average temperature differences across
the catalyst bed
that are outside the range established
in the NCS or operating permit -
PR

6. Report all operating days when

insufficient monitoring data are
collectedf Boiler or Process
Heater with a design
heat input capacity
less than
44 megawatts and
Vent Stream is not
introduced with or as
the primary fuelh,i Firebox temperatureb
[63.644(a)(4)] 1.Continuous records

2. Record and report the firebox

temperature averaged over the full period
of the performance test - NCS

3. Record the daily average firebox

temperature for each operating daye
4. Report all daily average firebox
temperatures that are outside the range
established in the NCS or operating
permit and all operating days when
insufficient monitoring data are
collectedf - PR Flare Presence of a flame at the
pilot light [63.644(a)(2)] 1.Hourly
records of whether the monitor was continuously operating and
whether the pilot flame was
continuously present during each hour

2. Record and report the presence of a

flame at the pilot light over the full
period of the compliance determination
- NCS

3. Record the times and durations of all

periods when a pilot flame is
absent or the monitor is not operating

4. Report the times and durations of all

periods when all pilot flames of a
flare are absent - PR All Control
Devices Presence of flow diverted
to the atmosphere from the
control device
[63.644(c)(1)] or 1.Hourly records of
whether the flow indicator was operating and whether
flow was detected at any time during
each hour.

2. Record and report the times and

durations of all periods when the vent
stream is diverted through a bypass
line or the monitor is not operating -
PR Monthly inspections of
sealed valves [63.644(c)(2)] 1.Records
that monthly inspections were performed

2. Record and report all monthly

inspections that show the valves are not
closed or the seal has been changed -
PR
NOTES: aRegulatory citations are listed in brackets.

bMonitor may be installed in the firebox or in the ductwork immediately

downstream of the firebox before any substantial heat exchange is encountered.

c"Continuous records" is defined in 63.641 of this subpart.

dNCS = Notification of Compliance Status described in 63.652(e) of this

subpart.

eThe daily average is the average of all recorded parameter values for the
operating day. If all recorded values during an operating day are within the range
established in the NCS or operating permit, a statement to this effect can
be recorded instead of the daily average.

fWhen a period of excess emission is caused by insufficient monitoring data,

as described in 63.552(f)(3)(i)(C) of this subpart, the duration of the period when
monitoring data were not collected shall be included in the Periodic Report.

gPR = Periodic Reports described in 63.652(f) of this subpart.

hNo monitoring is required for boilers and process heaters with heat input
capacities >44 megawatts or for boilers and process heaters where the vent stream is
introduced with or as the primary fuel. No recordkeeping or reporting
associated with monitoring is required for such boilers and process heaters.

iProcess vents that are routed to refinery fuel gas systems are not
regulated under this subpart. No monitoring, recordkeeping, or reporting is
required for boilers
and process heaters that combust refinery fuel gas.
6.0 ECONOMIC IMPACTS AND SOCIAL COSTS

The goal of the RIA is to evaluate the potential benefits and costs of specific
pollution
control standards on our nation's economy. Potential regulatory benefits relate to
reduced HAP
and VOC emissions that have detrimental effects on the health and well-being of
members of
society. Social costs associated with the regulation are those costs borne by
consumers and
producers of refined petroleum products and by society at large as a result of the
proposed
standards. A comparison of the costs and benefits or net benefits (social benefits
less social costs)
of alternative control measures serves as a basis for rational and effective
environmental
policymaking.

The emission control measures considered in this analysis will require domestic
petroleum
refineries to incur increased investment costs for control equipment and the
associated annual
operation and maintenance expenses. Increased costs of production may impact the
domestic
petroleum refining market in a number of ways. Primary market impacts resulting
from the
control measures include increases in the market equilibrium price for refined
petroleum
products, decreases in output levels for products produced and sold nationally,
changes in the
value of domestic shipments or revenues for refineries in the industry, and possible
plant
closures. Predicted changes in the market equilibrium price and quantity of refined
petroleum
products produced and sold will result in additional market modifications or
secondary market
impacts. The secondary effects relate to the likely labor market adjustments (job
losses), energy
input market changes (decrease in the energy used as an input in the production of
petroleum
products) and foreign trade effects (decrease in net exports). Control measures may
also have a
detrimental influence on the capital availability and financial position of firms in
the petroleum
refining industry. Welfare changes for consumers, producers, and society at large or
the social
costs of the proposed emission controls will also be evaluated. Additionally, the
Regulatory
Flexibility Act (RFA) requires that an assessment be made of the effect of control
measures on
small entities.

This chapter will briefly describe the methods used to estimate the primary
impacts,
secondary effects, and small business impacts of the emission controls on the
petroleum refining
industry. A more detailed description of the methods used in the analysis is
available in the
Economic Impact Analysis of the Petroleum Refinery NESHAP (1994). A profile of the
petroleum
refining industry, the primary market impacts, capital availability consequences,
secondary
market impacts, small business impacts, and social costs of the control measures
will be
presented in this chapter.

6.1 PROFILE OF THE PETROLEUM REFINING INDUSTRY

The petroleum industry can be divided into five distinct sectors: (1)
exploration,
(2) production, (3) refining, (4) transportation, and (5) marketing. Refining, the
process subject to
this NESHAP, is the process which converts crude oil into useful fuels and other
products for
consumers and industrial users. The Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) code
for all
petroleum refineries is 2911. Although petroleum refineries produce a diverse slate
of products,
the five primary output categories are (1) motor gasoline, (2) jet fuel, (3)
residual fuel, (4)
distillate fuel, and (5) liquefied petroleum gases (LPGs), which in total accounted
for 93 percent
of all domestically refined petroleum products in 1992. This analysis is concerned
only with
these five main product categories.

A brief overview of the petroleum refining industry is presented in this

section. Economic
and financial data which characterize conditions in the refining industry and that
are likely to
influence the economic impacts associated with the implementation of the alternative
NESHAPs
are discussed. The information in this section represents the data inputs to the
economic model
used in the EIA. More details concerning the industry are provided in the Economic
Impact
Analysis of the Petroleum Refinery NESHAP (1994) and Industry Profile of the
Petroleum
Refinery NESHAP (1993).

6.1.1 Profile of Affected Facilities

A brief description of the facilities affected by the proposed emission controls

is presented in
this section. The processes and product market characteristics of the petroleum
refining industry
are discussed. Refineries subject to the regulations are identified by geographical
location,
capacity, and complexity.

6.1.1.1 General Process Description. The refining process transforms crude oil
into a wide
range of petroleum products which have a variety of applications. The refining
industry has
developed a complex variety of production processes used to transform crude oil into
its various
final forms, many of which are already subject to some CAA controls.

There are numerous refinery processes from which HAP emissions occur. Separation
processes (such as atmospheric distillation and vacuum distillation), breakdown
processes
(thermal cracking, coking, visbreaking), change processes (catalytic reforming,
isomerization), and
buildup processes (alkylation and polymerization) all have the potential to emit
HAPs. HAP
emissions may occur through process vents, equipment leaks, or from evaporation from
storage
tanks or wastewater streams. The NESHAP will address emissions from all of these
refinery
emission points.

6.1.1.2 Product Description and Differentiation. Most petroleum refinery

output consists of
motor gasoline and other types of fuel, but some non-fuel uses exist, such as
petrochemical
feedstocks, waxes, and lubricants. The output of each refinery is a function of its
crude oil
feedstock and its preferred petroleum product slate.

Motor gasoline is defined as a complex mixture of relatively volatile

hydrocarbons that has
been blended to form a fuel suitable for use in spark-ignition engines. Residual
fuel oil is a
heavy oil which remains after the distillate fuel oils and lighter hydrocarbons are
distilled away in
refinery operations. Uses include fuel for steam-powered ships, commercial and
industrial
heating, and electricity generation. Distillate fuel oil is a general
classification for one of the
petroleum fractions produced in conventional distillation operations. It is used
primarily for
space heating, on- and off-highway diesel engine fuel (including railroad engine
fuel and fuel for
agricultural machinery), and electric power generation. Jet fuel is a low freezing
point distillate
of the kerosene type used primarily for turbojet and turboprop aircraft engines.
LPGs are defined
as ethane, propane, butane, and isobutane produced at refineries.

Product differentiation is a form of non-price competition used by firms to

target or protect a
specific market. The extent to which product differentiation is effective depends
on the nature of
the product. The more homogenous the overall industry output, the less effective
differentiation
by individual firms becomes. Each of the five petroleum products in this analysis
are by nature
quite homogenous þ there is little difference between Exxon premium gasoline and
Shell
premium gasoline þ and, as a result, differentiation does not play a major role in
the
competitiveness among petroleum refineries.

6.1.1.3 Distinct Market Characteristics. The markets for refined petroleum

products vary by
geographic location. Regional markets may differ due to the quality of crude
supplied or the
local product demand. Some smaller refineries which produce only one product have
single,
local markets, while larger, more complex refineries have extensive distribution
systems and sell
their output in several different regional markets. In addition, because refineries
are the source of
non-hydrocarbon pollutants such as individual HAPs, volatile organic compounds
(VOCs), sulfur
dioxide (SO2), and nitrogen oxide (NOx), many Federal, State, and local regulations
are already in
place in some locations. Differences in the regional market structure may also
result in different
import/export characteristics.

The United States is segmented into five regions, called Petroleum

Administration for
Defense Districts (PADDs), for which statistics are maintained. PADDs were
initiated in the
1940s for the purpose of dividing the United States into five economically and
geographically
distinct regions. Relatively independent markets for petroleum products exist in
each PADD.

In addition to differences in regional markets, each of the five product

categories in this
analysis possesses its own individual market segment, satisfying demand among
different end-use
sectors. The substitutability of one of the products þ motor gasoline, for example
þ is not
possible with another refinery output, such as jet fuel. Thus, each of the products
in this analysis
is treated as a separate product with its own share of the market. From a refinery
standpoint,
however, if the production of one refined product were to become less costly after
regulation,
production of this product may increase at the expense of a product with a more
costly refining
process.

6.1.1.4 Affected Refineries and Employment. There are currently 192 operable
petroleum
refineries in the United States.1 Though refineries differ in capacity and
complexity, almost all
refineries have some atmospheric distillation capacity and additional downstream
charge
capacity. Most of the employment in the industry exists at larger refineries.
Slightly fewer than 4
percent of refinery employees work in establishments of fewer than 100 people, and
the
remaining 96 percent of the labor force in the industry works at establishments of
100 employees
or more.

6.1.1.5 Capacity and Capacity Utilization. Refineries have many different

specialties,
targeted product slates, and capabilities. Some refineries produce output only by
processing
crude oil through basic atmospheric distillation. These refineries have very little
ability to alter
their product yields and are deemed to have low complexity. In contrast, refineries
that have
assorted downstream processing units can substantially improve their control over
yields, and
thus have a higher level of complexity. Because of their differences in size and
complexity,
refineries can be grouped by two main structural features: (1) atmospheric
distillation capacity
(which denotes their size) and (2) process complexity (which characterizes the type
of products a
refinery is capable of producing).

Capacity utilization rates of petroleum refineries have been rising in recent

years, reaching a
high of 92 percent in 1991.2 This indicates that existing refineries are operating
closer to full
capacity than in the past, and will have limited opportunity to enhance production
by increasing
utilization.

During the past 23 years, the entire domestic refining industry has been
affected by crude oil
quantity changes and shifting petroleum demand patterns. A more complex and flexible
refining
industry has evolved domestically. Ownership of U.S. refineries has changed through
consolidation and foreign investments. Throughout the 1970s, the number of U.S.
refineries rose
rapidly in response to rising demand for petroleum products. In the early 1980s,
the petroleum
refining industry entered a period of restructuring, which continued through 1992.
A record
number of U.S. refineries were operating in 1981. A decline in petroleum demand in
the early
1980s caused many small refineries and older, inefficient plants to close. The
refinery shutdowns
resulted in improved operating efficiency, which enabled the refinery utilization
rate to increase,
despite lower crude oil inputs. Operable capacity has remained relatively constant
since 1985,
while capacity utilization has risen steadily.

6.1.1.6 Refinery Complexity. Complexity is a measure of the different

processes used in
refineries. It can be quantified by relating the complexity of a downstream process
with
atmospheric distillation, where atmospheric distillation is assigned the lowest
value, 1.0. The
level of complexity of a refinery generally correlates to the types of products the
refinery is
capable of producing. Higher complexity denotes a greater ability to enhance or
diversify
product output, to improve yields of preferred products, or to process lower quality
crude. By
defining refinery complexity, it is possible to differentiate among refineries
having similar
capacities but different process capabilities. In theory, more complex refineries
are more
adaptable to change, and are therefore potentially less affected by regulation. The
complexity of
a refinery usually increases as its crude capacity increases. (Lube plants are the
exception to this
rule.) Over 50 percent of the operable capacity (50,000 to 100,000 bbl/d) can be
found at
refineries with above-average complexity. Likewise, the smaller refineries are less
complex.

6.1.2 Market Structure

The market structure of an industry will influence the magnitude of market

impacts resulting
from emission controls. A perfectly competitive market is characterized by many
sellers, no
barriers to entry or exit, homogeneous output, and complete information. A perfectly
competitive market is one in which producers have small degrees of market power and
pricing is
determined by market forces, rather than by the producers. Alternatively an industry
with
monopoly power has more discretion over the market price charged. Producers in such
an
industry have greater market power. A profile of the market structure of the
petroleum refining
industry is provided in the following sections, including an assessment of the
number of domestic
operating refineries, the market concentration, and the extent of vertical
integration, and
diversification.

6.1.2.1 Market Concentration. Market concentration is a measure of the output

of the
largest firms in the industry, expressed as a percentage of total national output.
Market
concentration is usually measured for the 4, 8, or 20 largest firms in the
industry. A firm's
concentration in a market provides some indication of the firm's size distribution.
For example,
on one extreme, a concentration of 100 percent would indicate monopoly control of
the industry
by one firm. On the other extreme, concentration of less than 1 percent would
indicate the
industry was comprised of numerous small firms. Concentration is measured based on
refining
capacity. Until recently, the top four firms in the refining industry have
consistently comprised
over 30 percent of the market share, but most market concentration ratios have
marginally
decreased in recent years.

Market concentration may also be evaluated using the Herfindahl-Hirschman index,

which is
defined as the sum of the squared market shares (expressed as a percentage) for all
firms in the
industry. If a monopolist existed, with market share equal to 100 percent, the
upper limit of the
index (10,000) would be attained. If an infinite number of small firms existed, the
index would
equal zero. An industry is considered unconcentrated if the Herfindahl-Hirschman
index is less
than 1,000. Ratings are also developed for moderately concentrated (between 1,000
and 1,800)
and highly concentrated (greater than 1,800) industries. The petroleum refining
Herfindahl-
Hirschman index in recent years has been less than 500. Thus the refining industry
is considered
unconcentrated.3

6.1.2.2 Industry Integration and Diversification. Vertical integration exists

when the same
firm supplies input for several stages of the production and marketing process.
Firms that operate
petroleum refineries are vertically integrated because they are responsible both for
exploration
and production of crude oil (which supplies the input for refineries) and for
marketing the
finished petroleum products after refining occurs. To assess the level of vertical
integration in the
industry, firms are generically classified as major or independent. Generally
speaking, major
energy producers are defined as firms that are vertically integrated. There are
currently 20 major
energy companies. The crude capacity of the major, vertically integrated firms
represents almost
70 percent of nationwide production.

For the major oil companies, horizontal integration exists because these firms
operate several
refineries which are often distributed around the nation. Seventy-three of the 109
firms in the
industry operate only one refinery each. These are the smaller independent firms.
The major
firms operate several refineries, and the largest, Chevron, operates 13. Fourteen
firms operate
four or more refineries each.

Diversification exists when firms produce a wide array of unrelated products.

In the short
run, diversification may indirectly benefit firms that engage in petroleum refining,
since the costs
of control in petroleum refining may be dispersed over other unaffected businesses
operated by
the firm. Over the long term, however, firms will not subsidize petroleum product
production
with profit from other operations, but will shut down unprofitable operations
instead.
Diversification within the energy industry may mitigate some of the effects of
regulation at least
in the short run.

6.1.2.3 Financial Profile. The financial performance of firms in the petroleum

refining
industry is particularly relevant to an evaluation of the impact of regulation on
the industry. In
order to evaluate the financial condition of the refinery operations of firms, a
sample of the
petroleum refining industry's major firms financial operations were evaluated.
Annual reports to
stockholders were used as a source of data for the analysis. While this sample is
too small and
diverse to be considered representative of the aggregate industry, the data
presented are more
recent and more refinery-specific than American Petroleum Institute data.

The sample of annual report data analyzes refinery-specific data in order to

provide a
preliminary assessment of the financial condition of firms in the industry. This 12-
firm sample as
a whole operated 59 refineries in 1991, and represented 45.3 percent of the
industry's total
refining capacity. Refining capacity in the sample ranges from 165,000 bbl/d to
2,139,000 bbl/d.
Over the 5-year period from 1987 to 1991, operating income per dollar of revenue
increased
from 1 percent to 4 percent. Capital expenditures increased steadily, while refined
product sales
continued a period of decline. The consolidation taking place in the refining
industry is reflected
in the decreasing crude oil capacity and refinery runs.

Refined product margins are a good indicator of overall refinery financial

performance.4 The
difference between refined product costs and refined product revenues is the refined
product
margin. During the 1980s, refined product margins were affected by a shift in
product slates to
gasoline and jet fuels, the decrease in crude oil prices, fluctuations in demand,
and an increase
in refinery utilization rates.5 In constant 1982 dollars, the refined product
margin fluctuated over
this time frame, decreasing between 1985 and 1987 and then increasing significantly
in 1988.
The fluctuations in the refined product margins reflect the volatility of the market
and the degree
to which refineries' revenues are often subject to significant change over short
time periods. In
the early half of 1990, the margin between overall U.S. refined product prices and
crude oil
import costs rose to record levels, given falling crude oil prices and stable
gasoline prices.6 After
the invasion of Kuwait, U.S. refined product prices did not keep pace with crude oil
prices for
the remainder of the year. This negatively impacted refinery revenues for 1991.

Firms have three sources of funding for the capital necessary to purchase
emission control
equipment required by the NESHAP. These sources include (1) internal funds, (2)
borrowed
funds, and (3) stock issues. Typically, firms seek a balance between the use of
debt and stock
issues for financing investments. Debt-to-equity ratios reflect a measure of the
extent to which
the firm has balanced the tax advantages of borrowing with the financial safety of
stockholder
financing. Based on information obtained in the annual reports of the 12 companies
in the
refinery sample, firms anticipate that internally generated funds will fund most of
their capital
expenditures. Other firms recognize the need to also draw on available credit lines
and
commercial paper borrowing. Overall, capital expenditures of refiners have doubled
since
1977, although spending peaked in 1982 and has since been in a period of decline.

Planned uses of investment funds by the 12 firms in the financial sample over
the next few
years include construction of diesel desulfurization units, expansion of existing
units, and
construction of units to manufacture methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) and
oxygenated fuels. In
a 1991 study, Cambridge Energy Research Associates (CERA) surveyed refiners and
oxygenate
producers to evaluate the ability of the refining industry to meet CAA provisions.7
Among the
firms in the CERA survey, the majors and some large independents plan to fund their
investments
primarily or entirely from internally generated cash flows, while most of the small
refineries
surveyed are planning on resorting to the debt market for funds.

6.1.3 Market Supply

Refiners have increased production of most refined products almost every year
since 1984.
Historically, motor gasoline has been the product that is supplied in the greatest
quantities to
meet increased demand. Most of the other petroleum products show a modest net
increase in
supply over the past few years. The lack of significant change in the yield for
most refined
petroleum products indicates a relatively stable supply slate, but significant
regulatory costs could
force some reshuffling of product yield.

Refinery production of motor gasoline has increased each year, with the
exception of periods
of economic recession. Production remained relatively steady from 1988 to 1992.
Distillate fuel
oil output peaked at 3.3 million barrels per day in 1977, then fell through 1983.
Output has
increased slightly almost every year since, reaching 3 million barrels per day in
1992. Jet fuel
production grew during the 1970s and 1980s, and almost doubled by 1990 before
declining to
1.4 million barrels per day in 1992. Residual fuel oil production generally
declined from 1980
through 1985, and was 1 million barrels per day in 1992, compared to 0.7 million
barrels per
day in 1970.

6.1.3.1 Supply Determinants. The most important short-run production decision

for an oil
refinery is the determination of how much crude oil to allocate for the production
of each of the
refinery's products. The production decision depends on the profit each of the oil
products can
generate for the firm. Profits, in turn, depend on the productivity of the oil
refinery þ its ability
to produce each oil product as effectively as possible from a barrel of crude oil.
The quantity of
crude oil a refinery will refine depends on the capacity of the refinery and the
cost of production.
The marginal costs of production of each product will determine any future changes in
production. Crude oil is the primary material input to the refining process; as a
result, the
production of refined products is vulnerable to fluctuations in the world crude oil
market.

In the long run, production decisions are based on the cost of capacity
expansion relative to
existing price levels and expected future price levels. A refinery uses different
processing units to
turn crude oil into finished products, so when a particular processing unit reaches
capacity,
output can be increased only by substituting a more expensive process. Firms will
typically
utilize sufficient crude oil to fill the appropriate processing unit until the price
increases
substantially. At this point, the firm would calculate whether the increased price
warrants using
an additional, more expensive processing unit.8

6.1.3.2 Exports of Petroleum Products. Some measure of the extent of foreign

competition
can be obtained by comparing exports to domestic production. Export levels and
domestic
refinery output for the past decade were analyzed. Exports as a percentage of
domestic refinery
output steadily increased from 1984 to 1991 and then fell slightly to 5.6 percent in
1992.
Distillate oil, residual fuel oil, motor gasoline, and petroleum coke are exported
in the highest
volumes. The combined export volumes of these products represent 75 percent of
domestic
refinery output shipped overseas.

6.1.4 Market Demand Characteristics

The end-use sectors that contribute to demand for refined petroleum products are
classified
in the following four economic sectors: (1) household and commercial, (2)
industrial, (3)
transportation, and (4) electric utilities. Petroleum products used as
transportation fuel include
motor gasoline, distillate (diesel) fuel, and jet fuel, and accounted for an
estimated 64 percent of
all U.S. petroleum demand in 1990. Since mobile source emissions will be regulated
by Title II
regulations, this output from petroleum refineries will be most affected by the
CAA. The
industrial sector constitutes the second highest percentage of demand for petroleum
products,
followed by household and electric utility demands.

Petroleum is used most widely in the transportation sector. In the household and
commercial sector, light heating oil and propane are used for heating and energy
uses, and
compete with natural gas and electricity. Petroleum fuels in the industrial sector
compete with
natural gas, coal, and electricity. In the industrial sector, residual and
distillate heating oils are
used for boiler and power fuel. In the electric utility sector, petroleum products
supply energy in
the form of heavy residual fuel oil and smaller amounts of bulk light distillate
fuel oil.9
 In terms of refined products, the motor gasoline and jet fuel markets are
associated with the
transportation sector. The markets for distillate fuel oil are associated with the
transportation
sector (diesel engine fuel as a trucking fuel), household (space heating),
industrial (fuel for
commercial burner installations), and electric utilities (power generation). The
sectors that are
sources of demand for residual fuel oil include the commercial and industrial
sectors (heating),
utilities (electricity generation), and the transportation sector (fuel for ships).
Nonutility use of
residual fuel has been decreasing due to interfuel substitution in the commercial
and industrial
sectors. Because LPGs cover a broad range of gases, demand levels are attributable
to various
end users.

6.1.4.1 Demand Determinants. The demand for refined petroleum products is

primarily
determined by price level, the price of available substitutes, and economic growth
trends. The
degree to which price level influences the quantity of petroleum products demanded
is referred
to as the price elasticity of demand, which is explored later in this report.
Prices of refined
petroleum products affect the willingness of consumers to choose petroleum over
other fuels, and
may ultimately cause a change in consumer behavior. In the transportation sector,
the effect of
high gasoline prices on fuel use could reduce discretionary driving in the short
term and, in the
long term, result in the production of more fuel-efficient vehicles.

In the market for jet fuel, demand is primarily determined by a combination of

price
concerns and the overall health of the airline industry. In the residential sector,
demand for
home heating (distillate) is determined in part by price level, and also by
temperature levels and
climate. Temperature in different areas of the country may determine the degree to
which
buildings and houses are insulated. Temperature and insulation are exogenous
factors which will
determine heating needs regardless of the price level of fuel. High prices for home
heating oil
provide incentive for individuals to conserve by adjusting thermostats, improving
insulation, and
by using energy-efficient appliances. In some cases, higher oil prices also provide
incentive for
switching to natural gas or electric heating. (Adjusting thermostats is a short-run
response, while
changing to more energy-efficient appliances or fuels are long-run responses.)

In the industrial sector, fuel oil competes with natural gas and coal for the
boiler-feed
market. High prices relative to other fuels tend to encourage fuel-switching,
especially at electric
utilities and in industrial plants having dual-fired boilers. Generally speaking,
in choosing a
boiler for a new plant, management must choose between the higher capital/lower
operating
costs of a coal unit or the lower capital/higher operating costs of a gas-oil unit.
In the utility
sector, most new boilers in the early 1980s were coal-fired due to the impact of
legislative
action, favorable economic conditions, and long-term assured supplies of coal.10
Today, because
the CAA will require utilities to scrub or use a low-sulfur fuel, oil will
eventually become more
competitive with coal as a boiler fuel, although a significant increase in oil-fired
capacity is not
expected until 2010.11

Demand levels in each of the end-use sectors are also affected by the economic
environment. Periods of economic growth and periods of increased demand for
petroleum
products typically occur simultaneously. For example, in an expanding economy, more
fuel is
needed to transport new products, to operate new production capacity, and to heat
new homes.
Conversely, in periods of low economic growth, demand for petroleum products
decreases.

6.1.4.2 Past and Present Consumption. Total consumption of all types of

petroleum
products has fluctuated over the past 20 years, reflecting the volatility of this
market. The
consumption level has been sporadic and has shown an overall decline in recent
years. Demand
for individual petroleum product types has also fluctuated over this period. The
percentage of
total demand is highest for motor gasoline followed by demand for distillate fuel
oil. Over the
23-year period from 1970 to 1992, the demand for residual fuel oil has decreased by
50 percent,
showing the greatest percentage of change over time of any of the petroleum
products. It has also
been the only fuel to show a decline in use. This decrease in residual fuel demand
reflects a
move in the industry from heavier fuels toward lighter, more refined versions. This
trend is
expected to continue into the future as efforts to control air emissions go into
effect.

All other types of fuel show increases in use, with the most growth occurring in
the market
for jet fuel. Substantial gains in airplane fuel efficiency in the last two
decades, which have
resulted from improved aerodynamic design and a shift toward higher seating
capacities, have
been exceeded by even faster growth in passenger miles traveled.12 The other
categories show
an average growth rate of approximately 23 percent over this time period. All major
petroleum
products registered lower demand in 1991 than in 1990, except LPGs. This was the
first time
since 1980 that demand for all major petroleum products fell simultaneously in the
same year.
In this case, decreased demand was brought on by warmer winter temperatures, an
economic
slowdown, and higher prices resulting from the Persian Gulf situation.13

Motor gasoline demand increased from a 1970 low to a high of 7.4 million barrels
per day
in 1978. The increase reflected a 31 percent growth in the number of automobiles in
use and a
25 percent growth in vehicle miles traveled. From 1985 to 1992, motor gasoline use
accounted
for about 42 percent of all petroleum products consumed.

Changes in demand for distillate fuel oil were similar to motor gasoline in that
consumption
reached its lowest and highest levels in 1970 and 1978, respectively. Between 1985
and 1992,
consumption was relatively stable and accounted for about 18 percent of total U.S.
petroleum
consumption. Residual fuel oil demand, in response to lower-priced natural gas and
other
factors, fell 64 percent, from a high in 1977 of 3.1 million barrels per day to 1.1
million barrels
per day in 1992.

Between the period from 1970 to 1990, expanding air travel spurred a 57 percent
growth in
jet fuel demand. Demand increased from a 1970 low of 1.0 million barrels per day to
1.5
million barrels per day in 1990.

The variation in U.S. petroleum product demand has been linked to changes in the
prices of
petroleum products relative to one another, and relative to other energy sources.
Dramatic
petroleum price increases and eventual steep drops were in response to wars,
political upheaval
in crude oil producing areas, and supply disruptions during the past two decades.
During this
period, the more stable and lower prices of alternative fuels led consumers to
switch from
petroleum as their fuel of economic choice.

6.1.4.3 Imports of Refined Petroleum Products. Imports as a percentage of

domestic
consumption have fluctuated during the period 1981 through 1992, although in 1992
levels
were 10.6 percent, or roughly the same level as in 1981. The import to export ratio
has
decreased since 1981, due primarily to steady increases in exports.

6.1.4.4 Pricing. Prices for petroleum products have shown volatility over the
time period
from 1978 through 1992. This volatility is mainly attributable to the fluctuations
in the global
market for crude oil and the inelastic demand for petroleum products. Inelastic
demand allows
refiners to pass crude oil price increases on to consumers. Since petroleum
products are
essentially commodity products and are produced by a large number of refineries,
refineries
have little ability to differentiate products or their prices.

6.1.5 Market Outlook

Quantitative production, demand, and price projections are available from the
literature.
Projections are important to the economic impact analysis since future market
conditions
contribute to the potential impacts of the NESHAP which are assessed for the fifth
year after
regulation.

6.1.5.1 Supply Outlook (Production and Capacity). The refining industry was
operating
near maximum capacity in 1991, with an average annual utilization rate of
approximately 92
percent.14 This is an increase from levels of previous years. In the market for
motor gasoline, for
example, production capacity is nearly at full capacity. As a result, any increases
in demand will
have to be met by imported products. This will result in an increase in worldwide
competition
for gasoline. East Coast refiners, accounting for more than 90 percent of all
unleaded gas imports
to the United States, will be most affected by this increased competition.15 DOC
predicts that,
although U.S. refinery output will remain relatively unchanged, net imports of
refined petroleum
products are expected to increase by 15 percent.16 DOE predicts net petroleum
imports will rise
to at least 10 million bbl/d in 2010, and perhaps as high as 15 million bbl/d from
the 1990 level
of 7 million bbl/d as domestic oil production is expected to decline. Imports are
expected to
supply between 53 and 69 percent of U.S. petroleum consumption by 2010, compared
with 42
percent in 1990. Refined products will account for much of this increase because
most of the
expansion in the world's refinery system is expected to take place outside the
United States.17

Over the next 5 years, the petroleum industry as a whole plans to increase crude
oil
distillation capacity by an additional 2 percent, or 272,000 bbl/d, of which 44
percent would be
produced by new facilities.18 (The other 56 percent includes reactivations and
expansions.) The
level of added demand will determine if this added capacity is sufficient to satisfy
the market
without driving up prices.

Companies that operate refineries with greater complexity factors (often the
largest refineries)
will presumably be in a more favorable position to make the necessary capital
investments for
the transition to cleaner fuels. Such refineries will most likely be those large
enough to benefit
from the economies of scale, and with basic downstream configurations to facilitate
compliance
with the new regulations. A financial analysis of major petroleum refineries in the
1980s
conducted by DOE concluded that vertically integrated firms benefitted in a period
characterized
by increased regulatory activity and price instability.19 The report found that the
larger
companies could offset a loss in one segment with gains in another. (It is
important to note,
however, that in the long run, both large and small firms would close refineries
which operate at
a loss over time.)

In contrast, smaller, independent, and less complex refineries will face higher
marginal
compliance costs, and may not find it economical to spend the required environmental
capital.
Generally not as flexible as the larger, integrated companies, these firms operate
at greater risk
from the effects of market instability. As a result, an industry which has seen a
high level of
consolidation in past years will be likely to see more concentration.20

Overall, the effect of the CAA on individual refineries is dependent upon

production
capacity, economies of scale, degree of self-sufficiency, capital cost, and ability
of refiners to
"pass through" higher costs to consumers. Predictions of the effect on the
aggregate industry are
difficult at this time because of the uncertainty of the ability of some refineries
to develop plans
for compliance pending resolution of key issues affecting their operations. A
recent Harvard
University study, however, predicted that the promulgation of environmental
regulations was
likely to result in the early phase out of older, less sophisticated facilities,
combined with the
upgrade and expansion of more efficient, complex refineries at a faster rate.21

6.1.5.2 Demand Outlook. DOC projects the demand for all petroleum products to
rise
slowly and steadily over the next 5 years, with domestic demand for refined products
increasing
by 2.1 percent in 1992, assuming an economic recovery and a return to "normal"
weather.
DOC's longer term demand prediction is for a steady growth rate of 1 percent through
1996.22, 23
Given that two-thirds of petroleum product demand is attributable to the
transportation sector,
projected demand growth for motor gasoline will have the greatest effect on
refiners. Industrial
demand for distillate fuel reflects the strongest projected growth. According to
DOE projections,
the consumption of diesel fuel in the transportation sector is expected to grow by
over 40
percent between 1990 and 2010.24 Residential and commercial sectors are expected to
show a
decrease in demand for petroleum products.

DOE has also projected future levels of demand. Motor gasoline will remain the
leading
end use of petroleum products throughout DOE's chosen time frame, dropping off
during 1990
and 1995, and rising again to higher levels by 2010. DOE predicts the demand for
residual oil
to rise, level off, and then begin to decline in 2010. Jet fuel and distillate fuel
are both projected
to rise steadily through 2010.

6.1.5.3 Price Outlook. Given that the demand for motor gasoline is price
inelastic, the
added capital investment that refineries will be required to undertake in the
production of
reformulated gasolines is likely to be passed on to consumers in the form of a price
increase.
DOC has estimated this price increase to be a 5 to 10 cent-per-gallon rise in the
price of motor
gasoline.25 In a recent study undertaken by the National Petroleum Council, the
impacts of air
quality regulations on petroleum refineries were assessed. One of the conclusions
of the study
was that the costs of controlling air emissions are likely to be passed along to
consumers as
increases in the final price of refined products. (The study offered no
quantitative projections,
however.)26

DOE has projected the domestic prices of petroleum products for 2010. DOE
projects the
average price for all petroleum prices to increase at a rate in the range of 0.4
percent to 2.1
percent annually. These price increases are due to projected increases in both
domestic demand
and crude oil prices. DOE also accounted for higher refining and distribution
expenses in
making these projections. The real price of motor gasoline is projected to rise
from $1.17 per
gallon in 1990 to between $1.30 and $1.74 in 2010, depending on the level of world
crude oil
prices. On-highway diesel fuel is projected to increase to between $1.27 and $1.69
per gallon,
primarily because of the added refinery costs of desulfurization. The average
retail price of
residual fuel oil, the least expensive petroleum product, is projected to be within
the range of
$25.52 to $40.79 per barrel in 2010.

If refineries are able to accommodate projected increases in demand, the price

level will
remain fairly stable. However, because the price level in this industry is
contingent upon so
many factors independent of the industry, any price predictions necessarily have
their limitations.
In the long run, therefore, price predictions will need to be modified with the
occurrence of any
world events which will affect the supply of crude oil to the refineries and
therefore to the
supply of refined petroleum products. Refineries will also be faced with increasing
levels of
emission restrictions, escalating their pollution abatement costs, and consequently,
the price of
their products.

6.2 MARKET MODEL

A partial equilibrium model is the analytical tool used to estimate the impact
of the
proposed NESHAP on the petroleum refining industry. Five refined petroleum products
were
modeled. Collectively, these products represent over 90 percent of the refined
petroleum
products sold in the nation annually. These products include motor gasoline, jet
fuel, residual
fuel oil, distillate fuel oil, and liquified petroleum gases (LPGs). It is assumed
that firms in the
petroleum refining industry operate in a perfectly competitive market. Although the
petroleum
refinery industry does not meet the strictest definition of a perfectly competitive
industry, perfect
competition seems a more applicable characterization of the market than pure
monopoly. The
assumption of perfect competition results in a worst case scenario of model results
from the
perspective of the impact of the regulation on the petroleum refinery industry.

6.2.1 Market Supply and Demand

The partial equilibrium model approach estimates the baseline market supply and
demand
relationship that provides the framework for evaluating market changes likely to
occur from
emission controls. The baseline or pre-control petroleum refining market is defined
by a domestic
market demand equation, a domestic market supply equation, and a foreign market
supply
equation. It is further assumed that the markets will clear or achieve an
equilibrium. The
following equations identify the market demand, supply, and equilibrium conditions
for the
petroleum refinery industry:

where:
Q = annual output or quantity of petroleum products purchased and sold in the
United
States
QD = quantity of the petroleum products domestically demanded annually
QSd= quantity of the products produced by domestic suppliers annually
QSf= quantity of the products produced by foreign suppliers annually
P = price of the petroleum product
î = price elasticity of demand for the product
þ = price elasticity of supply for the product
à, þ, and þ are parameters estimated by the model.

The constants à, þ, and þ are computed such that the baseline equilibrium price is
normalized to
one. The market specification assumes that domestic and foreign supply elasticities
are the same.
This assumption was necessary because data were not readily available to estimate
the price
elasticity of supply for foreign suppliers.

6.2.2 Market Supply Shift

The domestic supply equation shown above may be solved for the price of the
petroleum
product, P, to derive an inverse supply function that will serve as the baseline
supply function for
the industry. The inverse domestic supply equation for the industry is as follows:
A rational profit maximizing business firm will seek to increase the price of
the product it
sells by an amount that recovers the capital and operation costs of the regulatory
control
requirements over the useful life of the emission control equipment. This
relationship is identified
in the following equation:

where:
C = increase in the supply price
Q = output
V = measure of annual operating and maintenance control costs
t = marginal corporate income tax rate
S = capital recovery factor
D = annual depreciation (assumes straight line depreciation)
k = investment cost of emission controls

Thus, the model assumes that individual refineries will seek to increase the product
supply price
by an amount (C) that equates the investment costs in control equipment (k) to the
present value
of the net revenue stream (revenues less expenditures) related to the equipment.
Solving the
equation for the supply price increase (C) yields the following equation:

Estimates of the annual operation and maintenance control costs and of the
investment cost
of emission controls (V and k, respectively) were obtained from engineering studies
conducted by
the engineering contractor for EPA and are based on first quarter 1992 price
levels. The
variables depreciation and capital recovery factor, D and S, respectively, are
computed as
follows:

where r is the discount rate faced by producers and is assumed to be a rate of 10

percent, and T
is the life of the emission control equipment, 10 years for most of the emission
control
equipment proposed.

Emission control costs will increase the supply price for each refinery by an
amount
equivalent to the per unit cost of the annual recovery of investment costs and
annual operating
costs of emission control equipment, or Ci (i denotes domestic refinery 1 through
192). The
baseline individual refinery cost curves are unknown because production costs for
the individual
refineries are unknown. Therefore, an assumption is made that the refineries with
the highest
after-tax per unit control costs are marginal in the post-control market, or that
those firms with
the highest after tax per unit control costs also have the highest per unit
production costs. This is
a worst case scenario model assumption and may not be the case in reality. Based
upon this
assumption, the post-control supply function becomes the following:

where:
C (Ci,qi)=a function that shifts the supply function to reflect control costs
Ci = vertical shift that occurs in the supply curve for the ith refinery to
reflect the
increased cost of production in the post-control market
qi = quantity produced by the ith refinery

This industry pre-control and post-control supply and demand is illustrated in

Figure 6-1.
6.2.3 Impact of Supply Shift on Market Price and Quantity

The impact of the proposed control standards on market equilibrium price and
output are
derived by solving for the post- control market equilibrium and comparing the new
equilibrium
price and quantity (P1 and Q1, respectively) to the pre-control equilibrium (P0 and
Q0). The
change in value of domestic product is simply the difference in the industry revenue
(P1 * Q1) at
the post-control market equilibrium and the revenue (P0 * Q0) at the pre-control
equilibrium.

Those firms that lie on the industry supply curve at price and quantity levels
above the post-
control equilibrium (P1,Q1) are subject to closure. This assumption is consistent
with the
assumption of perfect competition. Firms in a competitive market are price takers
and are unable
to sell their products at prices above the market equilibrium.

Predicted primary market impacts become the basis for assessing economic surplus
changes;
secondary labor, energy, and foreign trade market impacts; and the capital
availability
consequences expected to result from the emission controls.

6.2.4 Trade Impacts

Trade impacts are reported as the change in both the volume and dollar value of
net exports
(exports minus imports). It is assumed that exports comprise an equivalent
percentage of
domestic production in the pre- and post-control markets. The supply elasticities
in the domestic
and foreign markets have also been assumed to be identical. As the volume of
imports rises and
the volume of exports falls, the volume of net exports will decline. However, the
dollar value of
net exports may rise or fall when demand is inelastic, as is the case for the
petroleum products of
interest. The dollar value of imports will increase since both the price and
quantity of imports
increase. Alternatively, the quantity of exports will decline, while the price of
the product will
increase. Price increases for products with inelastic demand result in revenue
increases for the
producer. Consequently, the dollar value of exports is anticipated to increase.
Since the dollar
value of imports and exports rise, the resulting change in the value of net exports
will depend on
the magnitude of the changes for imports relative to exports. The following
functions are used to
compute the trade impacts:

where:
þQSf = change in the volume of imports
þVIM = change in the dollar value of imports
þQxSf = change in the volume of exports
þVX = change in the dollar value of exports
QxSd= quantity of exports by domestic producers in the pre-control market

The subscripts 1 and 0 refer to the post- and pre-control equilibrium values,
respectively. All
other terms have been previously defined.

The change in the quantity of net exports, þNX, is simply the difference between
the change
in the volume of exports and the change in volume of imports, or þQxSd - þQSf. The
reported
change in the dollar value of net exports, þVNX, is the difference between the
equations for
change in value of exports and the change in value of imports, or þVX - þVIM.

6.2.5 Changes in Economic Welfare

Regulatory control requirements will result in changes in the market equilibrium

price and
quantity of petroleum products produced and sold. These changes in the market
equilibrium
price and quantity will affect the welfare of consumers of petroleum products,
producers of
petroleum products, and society as a whole.

Consumer surplus is a measure of the well-being of consumers of a particular

product and it
represents the net benefit (total benefits derived from consuming a good less the
expenditure
necessary to purchase the good) associated with consuming a particular product.
Consumers of
refined petroleum products will bear a loss in consumer surplus as a result of
proposed emission
controls. This loss in consumer surplus (þCS) represents the amount consumers would
have been
willing to pay over the pre-control price for production eliminated and a loss due
to the increase
in the market price consumers must pay for the quantity of petroleum products
purchased.

The change in consumer surplus includes losses of surplus incurred by foreign

consumers
and domestic consumers. Although the change in domestic consumer surplus is the
object of
interest, no method is available to distinguish the marginal consumer as domestic or
foreign.
Therefore, an assumption is made that the consumer surplus change is allocable to
the foreign
and the domestic consumer in the same ratio as the division of sales between foreign
and
domestic consumers in the pre-control market. The variable, þCSd, represents the
change in
domestic consumer surplus that results from the change in market equilibrium price
and quantity
resulting from the imposition of regulatory controls. While þCS is the change in
consumer
surplus from the perspective of the world economy, þCSd is the change in consumer
surplus
relevant to the domestic economy.
 Producer surplus is a measure of well-being of producers in an industry. The
change in
producer surplus resulting from emission controls is composed of two elements. The
first element
relates to output eliminated as a result of controls. The second element is
associated with the
change in price and cost of production for the new market equilibrium quantity. The
total change
in producer surplus is the sum of these elements. After-tax measures of surplus
changes are
required to estimate the impacts of controls on producers' welfare. The after-tax
surplus change
is computed by multiplying the pre-tax surplus change by a factor of 1 minus the tax
rate, (1-t)
where t is the marginal tax rate. Every dollar of after-tax surplus loss represents
a complimentary
loss in tax revenues of t/(1-t) dollars.

Output eliminated as a result of control costs cause producers to suffer a

welfare loss in
producer surplus. Refineries remaining in operation after emission controls realize
a welfare gain
on each unit of production for the incremental increase in the price and realize a
decrease in
welfare per unit for the capital and operating cost of emission controls. The total
change in
producer surplus (þ PS) is the sum of each individual change in producer surplus.

Since domestic surplus changes are the object of interest, the welfare gain
experienced by
foreign producers due to higher prices is not considered. This procedure treats
higher prices
paid for imports as a dead-weight loss in consumer surplus. Higher prices paid to
foreign
producers represent simply a transfer of surplus from the United States to other
countries from a
world economy perspective, but a welfare loss from the perspective of the domestic
economy.

The changes in economic surplus as measured by the change in consumer and

producer
surplus previously discussed must be adjusted to reflect the true change in social
welfare
resulting from the emission controls. Adjustments must be made to consider tax
effects and to
adjust for the difference between the social discount rate and the private discount
rate. These
adjustments result in a number referred to as the residual surplus to society since
these surplus
changes do not relate specifically to consumers or producers of refined petroleum
products, but
rather reflect losses that must be borne by all members of society.

Two adjustments are necessary to adjust changes in economic surplus for tax
effects. The
first relates to the per unit control cost (Ci) that reflects after-tax control
costs and is used to
predict the post-control market equilibrium. True cost of emission controls must be
measured on
a pre-tax basis. A second tax-related adjustment is required because changes
reflect the after-tax
welfare impacts of emission control costs on affected refineries. As noted
previously, a one
dollar loss in pre-tax surplus imposes an after-tax burden on the affected refinery
of (1-t) dollars.
Alternatively, a one dollar loss in after-tax producer surplus causes a
complimentary loss of t/(1-t)
dollars in tax revenue.

Economic surplus must also be adjusted because the private and social discount
rates differ.
The private discount rate is used to shift the supply curve of firms in the industry
since this rate
reflects the marginal cost of capital to affected firms. The shift in the supply
curve for the
refining industry is used to estimate primary and secondary market impacts. A
private cost of
capital of 10 percent is assumed for the analysis.

In contrast, the economic costs of regulation must consider the social cost of
capital rather
than the private cost of capital. A social cost of capital of 7 percent is assumed
for the analysis.
This rate reflects the social opportunity cost of resources displaced in the economy
by
investments required for emission controls. The adjustment for the two tax effects
and the social
cost of capital are referred to as the residual change in economic surplus to
society (þRS).

The total economic costs of the proposed regulations are the sum of the changes
in
consumer surplus, producer surplus, and the residual surplus to society. This
relationship is
defined by the following equation:

where EC is the economic cost of the proposed controls and all other variables have
been
previously defined.

6.2.6 Labor Market and Energy Market Impacts

Emission control costs will result in a decrease in the market equilibrium

quantity of refined
products produced and sold domestically. This reduction in output or production
will directly
cause the level of inputs used in production to decrease. Quantification of the
input reduction
affecting the labor and energy markets are of particular interest.

Two adjustments in the labor market may result from the emission controls. The
first
involves monitoring and maintenance of the emission control equipment that may cause
employment increases. Information necessary to quantify potential employment
increases for
monitoring and maintenance of emission controls is not readily available.
Consequently ,
possible employment increases are not considered in the analysis. Additionally, job
losses may
occur as a result of decreases in the level of production for firms in the
industry. Probable job
losses due to the estimated decrease in refined petroleum output are quantified by
multiplying
the decrease in industry output by an industry ratio of employees per unit of
production. This
quantification of possible job losses in the refining industry is likely to be
overstated due to the
omission of potential job increases for monitoring and maintenance of emission
control
equipment.

Reduction in the utilization of energy inputs associated with the proposed

standard result
from decreases in output in the industry. The expected change in expenditures on
energy by
firms in the industry is calculated by multiplying the ratio of baseline energy
expenditure per
dollar refined petroleum output by the estimated decrease in annual output. The
quantification
of energy input changes reflects energy expenditure decreases per year occurring as
a result of
the reduced production of refined petroleum products.

6.2.7 Baseline Inputs

The partial equilibrium model requires, as data inputs, baseline values for
variables and
parameters that characterize the petroleum refining market. These data inputs
include the
number of domestic refineries in operation in 1992, the annual production per
refinery for 1992,
and the relevant control costs per refinery. All monetary values are based upon
1992 price
levels. Specific details concerning the data inputs and the sources of the data are
available in the
Economic Impact Analysis of the Petroleum Refinery NESHAP (1994).

Two data inputs crucial to the estimation of partial equilibrium are the price
elasticity of
demand and the price elasticity of supply. The price elasticity of supply and
demand is briefly
discussed in the following section.

6.2.8 Price Elasticities of Demand and Supply

Price elasticities of demand and supply are measures of the responsiveness of

buyers and
sellers of a product to changes in the market price. Elasticity measures may be
categorized as
elastic, unitary elastic, and inelastic to price changes in the market. Products
with elastic price
elasticity values are very responsive to changes in the price of the product
( percent quantity
decrease exceeds percent price increase) while products with inelastic price
elasticity measures
are not very responsive to changes in price (percent quantity decrease is less than
percent price
increase). Unitary elasticity measures have equal percent changes in price and
quantity. The
ultimate increase in market equilibrium price and decrease in market equilibrium
quantity
resulting from emission controls are dependent upon the magnitude of the per unit
control costs
and elasticity measures in the market. The relative burden of emission control
costs between
consumers and producers will be determined by the comparative magnitudes of the
supply and
demand elasticities prevailing in a market, all other factors being equal. The more
inelastic
demand is for a product, the larger the share of emission control costs that will be
paid by
consumers of the product in the form of higher product prices. Alternatively, the
more inelastic
the supply curve, the larger the share of emission control costs that will be paid
by suppliers.

6.2.8.1 Price Elasticity of Demand. The price elasticity of demand represents

the
percentage change in the quantity demanded resulting from each 1 percent change in
the price
of the product. Petroleum products represent a very important energy source for the
United
States. Many studies have been conducted which estimate the price elasticity of
demand for
some or all of the petroleum products of interest and numerous published sources of
the price
elasticity of demand for petroleum products exist. These elasticity measures are
used in the
analysis and are listed in Table 6-1. Sources of these data are discussed in detail
in the Industry
Profile for the Petroleum Refinery NESHAP (1993).

TABLE 6-1. ESTIMATES OF PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND

FUEL TYPE ELASTICITY

RANGE MID-POINT
ELASTICITY Motor Gasoline
Jet fuel
Residual Fuel Oil
Distillate Fuel Oil
Liquified Petroleum Gas -0.55 to -0.8227
-0.1528
-0.61 to -0.7427
-0.50 to -0.9927
-0.60 to -1.027 -0.69
-0.15
-0.675
-0.745
-0.80

The elasticity estimates for each of the products reflect that each of these
products have
inelastic demand. The only exception is the upper end of the range of elasticities
for LPGs that is
unitary elastic. As previously stated, regulatory control costs are more likely to
paid by
consumers of products with inelastic demand when compared to elastic demand, all
other things
held constant. Price increases for products with inelastic demand lead to revenue
increases for
producers of the product. Thus, one can predict that price increases resulting from
implementation of regulatory control costs will lead to higher revenues for the
petroleum refining
industry, all other factors held constant. The market changes resulting from the
regulations are
based upon the midpoint of the range of demand elasticities. A sensitivity analysis
of this
assumption was made using the upper and lower bounds of the range of elasticities.

6.2.8.2 Price Elasticity of Supply. The price elasticity of supply or own-

price elasticity of
supply is a measure of the responsiveness of producers to changes in the price of a
product. The
price elasticity of supply indicates the percentage change in the quantity supplied
of a product
resulting from each 1 percent change in the price of the product.

Published sources of the price elasticity of supply using current data were not
readily
available. It was determined that the price elasticity of supply should be estimated
econometrically using time series data. Several estimation approaches were
considered and are
discussed in detail in the Economic Impact Analysis of the Petroleum Refinery NESHAP
(1994).
The approach actually used to estimate the price elasticity of supply was a time
series model of
the production function for the petroleum refining industry. Relevant factors of
production in the
model included labor, capital, and materials (crude oil). The econometric results
of the
production function estimation and efficient market assumptions were used to derive
a price
elasticity of supply for the petroleum products of interest of 1.24. This estimate
of the price
elasticity of supply for the five petroleum products reflects that the petroleum
refinery industry in
the U.S. will increase production of gasoline, jet fuel, residual fuel oil,
distillate fuel oil and
LPGS jointly by 1.24 percent for every 1.0 percent increase in the price of these
products.
Elasticity measures for the individual products were not calculated due to
statistical modeling
problems. Limitations of the elasticity measure estimate are discussed in detail in
the Economic
Impact Analysis and in a limited manner in 6.4 Limitations of the Economic Model.

6.3 CAPITAL AVAILABILITY ANALYSIS

It is necessary to estimate the impact of the proposed emission controls on the

financial
performance of affected petroleum refineries and on the ability of the refineries to
finance the
additional capital investment in emission control equipment. Financial data were
not available
for the majority of the refineries in the industry. Available data were obtained
only for the
largest publicly held petroleum refining companies. For this reason, the capital
availability
analysis has been conducted on an industrywide basis.

One measure of financial performance frequently used to assess profitability of

a firm is net
income before interest expense as a percentage of firm assets or rate of return on
investment.
The pre-control rate of return on investment (roi) is calculated as follows:

where ni is income before interest payments and ai is total assets. A five-year

average is used to
avoid annual fluctuations that may occur in income data. The proposed regulations
potentially
could have an effect on income before taxes (n)i for firms in the industry and on
the level of
assets for firms in the industry (ai.) Since firm specific data were unavailable
for all of the
affected firms, sample financial data collected by the American Petroleum Institute
(API) were
used.29 Data from the API study are available in Industry Profile for the Petroleum
Refinery
NESHAP. The sample studied by API represents 71 percent of net income in the
industry and 70
percent of total industry assets. These percentages are considered to estimate
changes in the
financial ratios and are necessary to allocate changes in income and assets
resulting from
emission controls to the study sample. There is a great diversity among the
refineries in the
industry; therefore, individual firm financial performance may vary greatly from the
sample
estimate. The post-control return on investment (proi) is calculated as follows:

where:
proi= the post-control return on investment
þn = the change in income before interest resulting from implementation of
emission controls for firms in the sample
 þk = capital expenditures associated with emission controls.

The equation proi will tend to overstate the impact of the control measure on the
rate of return
on investment for the industry over the life of the emission controls. This is true
because net
capital investment in emission controls will decline as capital is depreciated.

The ability of affected firms to finance the capital equipment associated with
the emission
control is also relevant to the analysis. Numerous financial ratios can be examined
to analyze
the ability of a firm to finance capital expenditures. One such measure is
historical profitability
measures such as rate of return on investment. The analysis approach for this
measure has been
previously described. The bond rating of a firm is another indication of the credit
worthiness of
a firm or the ability of a firm to finance capital expenditures with debt capital.
Such data are
unavailable for many of the firms subject to the regulation, and consequently bond
ratings are
not analyzed. Ability to pay interest payments is another criterion sometimes used
to assess the
capability of a firm to finance capital expenditures. Coverage ratios provide such
information.
The interest coverage ratio, or the number of times income (before taxes and
interest) will pay
interest expense, is a ratio that provides some information about the ability of a
firm to cover or
pay annual interest obligations. The pre-control measure of coverage ratio is as
follows:

where:
tc = number of times earnings will pay annual interest charges
ebit = earnings before interest payments and taxes
interesti=annual interest expense

Post-control coverage ratios may be estimated as follows:

where:
þebit = estimated change in earnings before interest and taxes of the firm
þinteresti= anticipated change in interest expense

All other variables have been previously described. The þinterest is calculated by
multiplying
the capital expenditures for the proposed controls (þk) by the assumed private cost
of capital (10
percent). This is generally lower than the overall cost of capital for a firm.
Again the interest
coverage ratios of individual petroleum refineries may differ from the average
significantly.

Finally, the degree of debt leverage or debt-equity ratio of a firm is

considered in assessing
the ability of a firm to finance capital expenditures. The pre-control debt-equity
ratio is the
following:
where:
d/e= debt equity ratio
d = debt capital
e = equity capital

Since capital information is less volatile than earnings information, it is

appropriate to use the
latest available information for this calculation. If one assumes that the capital
costs of control
equipment are financed solely by debt, the debt-equity ratio becomes:
where pd/e is the post-control debt-equity ratio assuming that the control equipment
costs are
financed solely with debt. Obviously, firms may choose to issue capital stock to
finance the
capital expenditure or to finance the investment through internally generated
funds. The
assumption that the capital costs are financed solely by debt may be viewed as a
worse case
scenario.

The methods used to analyze the capital availability do have some limitations.
The
approach matches 1990 debt and equity values with estimated capital expenditures for
control
equipment. Average 1986 through 1990 income and asset measures are matched with
changes
in income and capital expenditures associated with the control measures. The
control cost
changes and income changes reflect 1992 price levels. The financial data used in
the analysis
represents the most recent data available. It is inappropriate to simply index the
income, asset,
debt, and equity values to 1992 price levels for the following reasons. Assets,
debt, and equity
represent embedded values that are not subject to price level changes except for new
additions
such as capital expenditures. Income is volatile and varies from period to period.
For this
reason, average income measures are used in the study. The analysis reflects a
conservative
approach to analyzing the changes likely in financial ratios for the petroleum
industry. Some
decreases the cost of production expected to result from implementation of emission
controls
have not been considered. These include labor input and energy input cost
decreases.
Annualized compliance costs are overstated from a financial income perspective since
these costs
include a component for earnings or return on investment. In general, the approach
followed is
a worst case scenario approach that overstates the negative impact of the proposed
emission
controls on the financial operations of the petroleum refining industry.

6.4 LIMITATIONS OF THE ECONOMIC MODEL

 Several qualifications of the model presented must be made. First, the partial
equilibrium
model estimated for each of the five petroleum products assumes that a single
homogeneous
product is sold in a national market. In the actual market, there may be some
differentiation of
the refined petroleum products sold throughout the country and regional barriers to
trade may
exist in the petroleum refinery market. Product differentiation and regional
barriers to trade
would allow firms in the industry to have greater market power. Market power
enables firms to
have more control over the market price of the product sold and would lessen the
impact of
emission controls costs on firms in the industry.

Next, an assumption is made in the model that refineries with the highest per
unit control
cost are marginal in the post-control market. Firms with the highest per unit
control costs are
assumed to have the highest underlying cost of production. This assumption was
necessary due
to lack of available information concerning the cost of production on an individual
refinery basis.

Additionally, a review of the data indicates refineries that are marginal in the
post-control
market have per unit control costs that significantly exceed the average. This may
be the result
of the engineering method used to assign costs to individual refineries. Moreover,
the cost
allocation methodology assigns all of the control costs to the five petroleum
products of interest.
These products represent less than one hundred percent of the refined petroleum
products
produced domestically.

Finally, some plants may find that the price increase resulting from the
regulations make it
profitable to expand production. This would occur if a firm found its post-control
incremental
cost to be less that the post-control market price. Expansion by these firms would
result in a
smaller decrease in output and increase in price than otherwise would occur. The
foregoing list
of qualifications tend to overstate the impacts of the proposed emission controls on
the market
equilibrium price and quantity, revenues, and plant closures.

Estimates of model results are dependent on the price elasticity measures

assumed for
demand and supply. A sensitivity analysis of the price elasticity of demand
reflects minimal
changes in the market results with alternative lower and upper bound elasticity
measures. (See
the Economic Impact Analysis for the Petroleum Refinery NESHAP for details.)

The methodology used to estimate the price elasticity of supply also must be
qualified. The
elasticity measure does not estimate the supply elasticities for the individual
products or directly
consider the interrelationships between products. The assumption implicit in use of
this supply
elasticity estimate is that the elasticities of the individual petroleum products
will not differ
significantly from the elasticity of the products combined. This does not seem a
totally
unreasonable assumption since the same factor inputs are used to produce each of the
petroleum
products. The methodology also does not explicitly consider the cross-price
elasticities for the
petroleum products. Since these products are joint products, changes in the price
of one product
will have an effect on the quantity supplied of the other products.

The uncertainty of the supply estimate is acknowledged. It is possible to

conduct a
sensitivity analysis of the price elasticity supply. Such an analysis would quantify
the impact of
this assumption on the reported market results. Given the magnitude of market
impact results,
reasonable variations in the price elasticity of supply are unlikely to alter the
model results
significantly.

The estimates of the secondary impacts associated with the emission controls are
based on
changes predicted by the partial equilibrium model. The limitations previously
described are
applicable to primary and secondary economic impacts. As previously noted, the
estimated
employment losses do not consider potential employment gains for operating the
emission
control equipment. It is important to note that the potential job losses predicted
by the model are
only those directly linked to predicted production losses in the petroleum refining
industry.
Likewise, the gains or losses in markets indirectly affected by the regulations,
such as substitute
product markets, complement products markets, or in markets that use petroleum
products as
inputs have not been considered in this analysis.

The capital availability analysis also has limitations. Some of these

limitations have been
previously noted. Future baseline performance may not resemble past levels. Future
financial
performance of the petroleum refining industry will be affected by market
considerations other
than emission control measures, and these factors are not readily estimated.
Additionally, the
tools used in the analysis are limited in scope and do not fully describe the
financial position of
individual firms within the industry but are more reflective of industry averages.
Finally, the
approach used to estimate the impact of the control costs on the financial ratios
tends to
overstate the effect of emission control costs on these ratios.

6.5 PRIMARY IMPACT, CAPITAL AVAILABILITY ANALYSIS, AND SECONDARY IMPACT

RESULTS

Estimates of the primary economic impacts, secondary impacts, and capital

availability
consequences associated with the chosen option or preferred alternative are
presented. As
previously discussed, Alternative 1 requires MACT floor controls on all emission
points other
than equipment leaks where Option 1 controls are less costly. Primary impacts
related to control
cost associated with Alternative 1 include changes in the market equilibrium price
and output
levels, changes in the value of shipments or revenues to domestic producers, and
plant closures.
Secondary impacts relate to labor market, energy market and international trade
effects likely to
occur as a result of the emission control requirements. The capital availability
analysis assesses
the ability of affected firms to raise capital, and the impacts of control costs on
plant profitability.
Finally, there are social costs associated with the incurrence of the emission
control costs of
Alternative 1 and for Alternative 2.

6.5.1 Estimates of Primary Impacts

The partial equilibrium model is used to analyze the market outcome of the
proposed
regulation. The purchase of emission control equipment will result in an upward
vertical shift in
the domestic supply curve for refined petroleum products. The height of the shift
is determined
by the after-tax cash flow required to offset the per unit increase in production
costs. Since the
control costs vary for each of the domestic refineries, the post-control supply
curve is segmented,
or a step function. Underlying production costs for each refinery are unknown;
therefore, a
worst case scenario has been assumed. The plants with the highest control costs per
unit of
production are assumed to also have the highest pre-control per unit cost of
production. Thus,
firms with the highest per unit cost of emission control are assumed to be marginal
in the post-
control market.
 Foreign supply is assumed to have the same price elasticity of supply as
domestic supply.
The United States had a negative trade balance for each of the refined products in
1992 with the
exception of distillate fuel oil that had a slightly positive trade balance of $1.1
million. Therefore
net exports are negative for all products except distillate fuel oil in the baseline
model. Foreign
and domestic post-control supply are added together to form the total post-control
market supply.
The intersection of this post-control supply with market demand will determine the
new market
equilibrium price and quantity. Post-control domestic output is derived by
deducting post-
control imports from the post-control output.

Table 6-2 reveals the primary impacts predicted by the partial equilibrium model
for
Alternative 1. The range of anticipated price increases for the five products vary
from $0.03 to
$0.14 per barrel produced for residual fuel oil and jet fuel, respectively. The
percentage
increases for each product are less than 1 percent and range from 0.26 percent to
0.53 percent.

Production is expected to decrease by 12.5 million barrels per year for all
products, an
overall decrease in domestic production of 0.24 percent. The estimated annual
reductions in
production of the individual products range from 0.65 million barrels to 5.67
million barrels for
jet fuel and motor gas, respectively. The production percentage decreases range
from 0.13
percent to 0.58 percent for jet fuel and residual fuel oil, respectively.

Value of domestic shipments or revenues for domestic producers are expected to

increase for
the five products approximately $107 million annually. The predicted changes in
revenues for
individual products range from an increase of $56 million in motor gasoline revenues
to a
decrease in residual fuel revenues of approximately $12 million annually. The
percent changes
range from an increase of 0.41 percent in jet fuel to a decrease of 0.26 percent in
residual fuel
oil revenues. Economic theory predicts that revenue increases are expected to occur
when prices
are increased for inelastic goods, all TABLE 6-2. SUMMARY OF
PRIMARY IMPACTS

Estimated Impacts

Refined Product
Price
Increases1
Production
Decreases2 Value of Domestic
Shipments3 Motor gasoline
Amount
Percentage

Jet fuel
Amount
Percentage

Residual fuel
Amount
Percentage

Distillate fuel
Amount
Percentage

LPGs
Amount
Percentage

TOTAL
$0.09
0.29%

$0.14
0.53%

$0.03
0.24%

$0.08
0.29%

$0.07
0.26%
(5.67)
(0.22%)

(0.65)
(0.13%)

(1.62)
(0.50%)

(2.78)
(0.26%)
(1.80)
(0.25%)

(12.52)
$55.63
0.07%

$53.22
0.41%

($11.92)
( 0.26%)

$8.06
0.03%

$2.42
0.01%

$107.41

NOTES: ( ) indicate decreases.

1Prices are shown in price per barrel ($1992).
2Annual production quantities are shown in millions of barrels.
3Values of domestic shipments are shown in millions of 1992 dollars.
other factors held constant. This phenomenon results from the percentage increase
in price
exceeding the percentage decrease in quantity for goods with inelastic demand. All
of the
refined petroleum products follow the expected trend except residual fuel oil.
Residual fuel oil
has the highest trade deficit of the five products with over 40 percent of domestic
demand being
imported. The magnitude of residual fuel oil imports causes a decrease in domestic
residual fuel
oil revenues to occur in the post-control market.

It is anticipated that seven refineries may close as a result of the decrease in

production
predicted by the model. Those refineries with the highest per unit control costs
are assumed to
be marginal in the post-control market. Refineries that have post-control supply
prices that
exceed the market equilibrium price are assumed to close. This assumption is
consistent with
the perfect competition theory that presumes all firms in the industry are price
takers. Firms with
the highest per unit control costs may not have the highest underlying cost of
production. This is
a worst case assumption that likely biases the results to overstate the likely
number of plant
closures and other adverse effects of the proposed emission controls.
 The estimated primary impacts reported depend on the set of parameters used in
the partial
equilibrium model. One of the parameters, the price elasticity of demand, consisted
of a range
for four of the five refined products. The midpoint of the range of elasticities
was used to
estimate the reported primary and secondary impacts. A sensitivity analysis of this
assumption
was conducted. The low and high end of the range of elasticities are inputs in the
sensitivity
analysis. In general, the sensitivity analysis shows that the estimated primary
impacts are
relatively insensitive to reasonable changes of price elasticity of demand
estimates. Estimates of
market impacts with lower elasticity measures shift relatively more of the burden of
the emission
controls to consumers in the form of slightly higher price increases and lower
output decreases.
Higher elasticity measures shift more of the burden to producers in the form of
slightly lower
price increases and higher output decreases.

6.5.2 Capital Availability Analysis

The capital availability analysis involves examining pre- and post-control

values of selected
financial ratios. These ratios include rate of return on investment, times interest
earned coverage
ratio, and the debt-equity ratio. Data were not available to estimate the ratios
for many refineries
in the industry. Consequently, these ratios have been analyzed on an industrywide
basis. Since
the industrywide ratios represent an average for the industry, individual firms
within the industry
may have financial ratios that differ significantly from the average. Net income
was averaged for
a five year period (1986 through 1990) to avoid annual fluctuations in income that
may occur
due to changes in the business cycle. Debt and equity capital are not subject to
annual
fluctuations; therefore, the most recent data available (1990) were used in the
analysis.

The financial statistics provide insight regarding firms' ability to raise

capital to finance the
investment in emission control equipment. Table 6-3 shows the estimated impact on
financial
ratios for the industry.

TABLE 6-3. ANALYSIS OF FINANCIAL RATIOS

Financial Ratios Pre-Control Ratios Post-Control Ratios Rate of return on investment

5.91%
5.91% Coverage Ratio (or Times
Interest Earned)
 7.08 7.07 Debt-Equity Ratio 62.75% 62.76%

The financial ratios remain virtually unchanged as a result of the proposed

emission controls.
The magnitude of the income changes and the capital expenditures necessary for the
emission
control measures do not significantly alter the financial position of the industry.
The impact of
the standards on individual refineries, however, may vary greatly from the industry
averages used
in this analysis.

6.5.3 Labor Market Impacts and Energy Market Impacts

The estimated labor impacts associated with the NESHAP are based on the results
of the
partial equilibrium analyses of the five refined petroleum products and are reported
in Table 6-4.
The number of workers employed by firms in SIC 2911 is estimated to TABLE
6-4. SUMMARY OF SECONDARY REGULATORY IMPACTS

Estimated Impacts Refined Product Labor Input1 Energy Input2 Motor gasoline
Amount
Percentage

Jet fuel
Amount
Percentage

Residual fuel
Amount
Percentage

Distillate fuel
Amount
Percentage

LPGs
Amount
Percentage

Total five products

Amount
(52)
(0.22%)

(6)
(0.13%)

(15)
(0.50%)

(25)
(0.26%)

(16)
(0.25%)

(114)
($5.79)
(0.22%)

($0.52)
(0.13%)

($0.71)
(0.50%)

($2.27)
(0.26%)

($1.56)
(0.25%)

($10.85)
NOTES: ( ) Indicates decreases.
1Indicates estimated reduction in number of jobs.
2Reduction in energy use in millions of 1992 dollars.
decrease by approximately 114 workers as a result of the proposed emission
controls. The loss
in number of workers depends primarily on the estimated reduction in production.
Gains in
employment anticipated to result from operation and maintenance of control equipment
have not
been included in the analysis due to lack of reliable data. Estimates of employment
losses do not
consider potential employment gains in industries that produce substitute products.
Similarly,
losses in employment in industries that use petroleum products as an input or in
industries that
provide complement goods are not considered. The changes in employment reflected in
this
analysis are only direct employment losses due to reductions in domestic production
of refined
petroleum products.

The loss in employment of 114 jobs annually is small relative to the total
employment in the
industry. The magnitude of predicted job losses is a direct results of from the
relatively small
decrease in production estimated by the model, and by the relatively low labor
intensity in the
industry.

The method used to estimate reductions in use of energy inputs relates the
energy
expenditures to the level of production. An estimated decrease in energy input use
of nearly $11
million annually is expected for the industry. The individual product energy use
changes are
reported in Table 6-4. As production decreases, the amount of energy input utilized
by the
refining industry also declines. The changes in energy use do not reflect the
increased energy
use associated with operating and maintaining emission control equipment.
Insufficient data
were available to consider such changes in energy costs.

6.5.4 Foreign Trade Impacts

The implementation of the NESHAP will increase the cost of production for
domestic
refineries relative to foreign refineries, all other factors being equal. This
change in the relative
price of imports will cause domestic imports of refined petroleum products to
increase and
domestic exports to decrease. The balance of trade overall for refined petroleum
products is
currently negative (imports exceed exports). The NESHAP will likely cause the trade
deficit to
increase. Net exports are likely to decline by 2.3 million barrels per year. The
range of net
export decreases vary from 0.21 million barrels to 0.91 million barrels for LPGs
and residual
fuel oil, respectively. The related percent decreases range from 0.54 percent to
40.9 percent for
LPGs and distillate fuel oil, respectively. The large percentage decrease in
exports of distillate is
the result of the product having a very small positive trade balance in the pre-
control market.
The dollar value of the total decline in net exports is expected to amount to $68.2
million
annually. The predicted changes in the trade balance are reported in Table 6-5.

6.5.5 Regional Impacts

No significant regional impacts are expected from implementation of the NESHAP.

Approximately 7 refineries are estimated to close nationwide. Due to the manner
used to
estimate control costs for the individual refinery and the method of allocating the
costs to
products, the facilities predicted to close do not necessarily represent the
facilities most likely to
close. However, the facilities postulated in the model are dispersed throughout the
United States
and are not specific to a particular geographical region. Employment impacts are
directly related
to plant closure and production decreases. Employment impacts are also dispersed
throughout
the country.

6.6 SUMMARY

The estimated market changes resulting from the proposed emission controls are
relatively
small. Predicted price increases and reductions in domestic output are less than 1
percent for
each of the refined products. The value of domestic shipments or revenues to
domestic
producers are anticipated to increase for the 5 product categories by a total of
$107 million
annually ($1992). Emission controls costs are small relative to the financial
resources of affected
producers, and on average, refineries should not find it difficult to raise the
capital necessary to
finance the purchase and installation of emission controls. Approximately seven
refineries may
close as a result of the proposed controls.

The estimated secondary economic impacts are also relatively small.

Approximately 114 job
losses may occur nationwide. Energy input reductions are estimated to be
approximately $11
million annually. A decrease is net exports of 2.3 million barrels annually in
refined products is
anticipated to occur. No regional impacts are expected.
TABLE 6-5. FOREIGN TRADE (NET EXPORTS) IMPACTS

Estimated Impacts
Refined Product
Amount1
Percentage Dollar Value of Net
Export Change2 Motor Gasoline

Jet fuel

Residual fuel

Distillate fuel

LPGs

Total (0.43)

(0.23)

(0.91)

(0.48)

(0.21)

(2.26) (0.54%)
(1.41%)

(0.81%)

(40.92%)

(0.54%) ($21.92)

($8.14)

($16.81)

($12.67)

($8.68)

($68.22)

NOTES: ( ) indicates decreases.

1Millions of barrels.
2Millions of dollars ($1992).
6.7 POTENTIAL SMALL BUSINESS IMPACTS

6.7.1 Introduction

The RFA requires that special consideration be given to the effects of all
proposed
regulations on small business entities. The Act requires that a determination be
made as to
whether the subject regulation will have a significant impact on a substantial
number of small
entities. A substantial number is considered to be greater than 20 percent of the
small entities
identified. The following criteria are provided for assessing whether the impacts
are significant.
The impact on small business entities is considered significant whenever any of the
following
criteria are met:

1. annual compliance costs (annualized capital, operating, reporting, etc.)

increase as a
percentage of cost of production for small entities for the relevant process
or product by
more than 5 percent;

2. compliance costs as a percent of sales for small entities are at least 10

percent higher
than compliance costs as a percent of sales for large entities;

3. capital costs of compliance represent a significant portion of capital

available to small
entities, considering internal cash flow plus external financing
capabilities; and

4. the requirements of the regulation are likely to result in closure of small

entities.
6.7.2 Methodology

Data are not readily available to estimate the small business impacts for two of
the criteria (1
and 3) listed in the previous section. The information necessary to make such
comparisons are
generally considered proprietary by small business firms. Consequently, the
analysis will focus
on remaining two (2 and 4) criteria of the potential for adverse impacts. Closure
of small
businesses and a comparison of the compliance costs as a percentage of sales for
small and large
business entities will be examined.

The closure method of analysis will focus on the number of petroleum refineries
expected to
close as a result of the proposed emission controls and the relative size of the
firms at risk.
Alternatively, a measure of annual compliance costs as a percentage of sales will
also be
considered. The ratio of costs to sales will be compared for small refineries to
the same ratio for
all other refineries.

6.7.3 Categorization of Small Businesses

Consistent with Title IV, Section 410 of the CAA, a petroleum refinery is
classified as a small
business if it has less than 1,500 employees or has annual production less than
50,000 barrels
produced per day. A refinery must also be unaffiliated with another large business
entity.
Information necessary to distinguish refinery size by number of employees was not
readily
available. However, daily production data were available from the Oil and Gas
Journal, U.S.
Refinery Survey (1-1-92). Based upon the production size criterion, there were 63
operating
refineries in 1992 that could be categorized as small business entities.

6.7.4 Small Business Impacts

The results of the partial equilibrium analysis lead to the conclusion that
approximately
seven refineries are at risk of closure. This estimate represents approximately
four percent of the
domestic refineries in operation and 11 percent of those designated to be small
businesses. The
estimated number of closures is therefore less than 20 percent of the small
refineries. However,
it is important to note that the firms designated in the model as being at the
greatest risk for
closure were small refineries.

Compliance costs as a percentage of sales were computed both for the small
refineries and
for those refineries that are not considered small. The cost to sales ratio for the
small refineries
was 0.19 percent of sales while the cost to sales ratio for all other refineries was
0.08 percent.
The differential between these two rates exceeds ten percent, and consequently, a
conclusion is
drawn that a significant number of small businesses are adversely affected by the
proposed
regulations.

6.8 SOCIAL COSTS OF REGULATION

The social costs of regulation are those costs borne by society for pollution
abatement. From
an economic perspective, the social costs of regulation represent the opportunity
costs of scarce
resources utilized for pollution control, or the economic costs. Scarce resources
used in
pollution control could alternatively be used by society for purposes other than
emission
control. Thus, a social loss or economic cost occurs. Consumers, producers, and
all of society
bear the costs of pollution controls. Economic losses to consumers result from the
higher prices
paid for goods consumed and the lesser quantity goods consumed. Producers benefit
from a
higher price paid by consumers for each unit of product sold but incur compliance
costs for each
unit of production. Producers also sell a smaller quantity of the good after
controls are
implemented. Finally, it is necessary to adjust the preceding changes in consumer
and producer
surplus to reflect the regulation's cost to society. The change in residual surplus
represent tax
revenues that may be gained or lost from the emission controls and the differential
in the private
cost of capital and the social cost of capital. The economic costs of regulation
(EC) as previously
defined consists of the sum of the change in domestic consumer surplus (þCSd), the
change in
producer surplus (þPS), and the change in the residual surplus to society (þRS)
resulting from
the proposed emission controls.

6.8.1 Social Cost Estimates

The components of the social costs of regulation have been previously

discussed. More
details on the exact methodology for calculating for these values are contained in
the Economic
Impact for the Petroleum Refinery NESHAP (1994). The economic costs of Alternatives
1 and 2
of the NESHAP are displayed in Table 6-6. The social costs of Alternative 1 are
estimated from
the partial equilibrium model and are divided into changes in consumer, producer,
and residual
surplus. The social costs of Alternative 2 are calculated by adding the
differential in the
compliance costs for the two alternatives to the social costs of Alternative 1.
This approach was
used because the partial equilibrium model results were available only for
Alternative 1. This
method understates the social costs of Alternative 2, but it is the most accurate
approach
possible, given available data.

TABLE 6-6. ANNUAL SOCIAL COST ESTIMATES FOR THE PETROLEUM REFINING
REGULATION
(Millions of 1992 dollars)

Social Cost Category Net Costs1 Surplus Costs for Preferred Option:
Change in Consumer Surplus
Change in Producer Surplus
Change in Residual Surplus to Society2
$476.2
$(242.1)
$(101.7) Total Social Cost of Alternative 13 $132.4 Total Social Cost of Alternative
24 $148.4
NOTES: 1Brackets indicate negative surplus losses, or surplus gains.
2Residual surplus loss to society includes adjustments necessary to equate
the relevant discount rate to the social
cost of capital and to consider appropriate tax effect adjustments.
3Alternative 1 includes floor controls for all emission points except
equipment leaks. Option 1 is preferred to the
floor for equipment leaks because it is a less costly option than the floor.
4Alternative 2 includes Option 2 for Equipment Leaks, Option 1 for Storage
Tanks, and the Floor for Miscellaneous
process vents. Emission controls at other emission points were not
considered. Social costs were calculated by
adding incremental compliance costs for Alternative 2 to the social costs of
Alternative 1.
REFERENCES

1. Robert Beck and Joan Biggs. OGJ 300. Oil & Gas Journal. Vol. 89. No. 39.
Tulsa, OK.
September 1991.

2. U.S. Department of Commerce. Petroleum Refining þ U.S. Industrial Outlook 1992.

Washington, DC. January 1992.

3. American Petroleum Institute. Market Shares and Individual Company Data for U.
S. Energy
Markets, 1950-1989. Discussion Paper #014R. Washington, DC. October 1990.

4. U.S. Department of Energy. The U.S. Petroleum Refining Industry in the 1980's.
DOE/EIA-
0536. Energy Information Administration. October 1990.

5. U.S. Department of Energy. Annual Outlook for Oil and Gas. DOE/EIA-0517(91).
Energy
Information Administration. Washington, DC. June 1991.
6. U.S. Department of Energy. Performance Profiles of Major Energy Producers,
1990.
DOE/EIA-0206(90). Energy Information Administration. Washington, DC. December
1991.

7. Cambridge Energy Research Associates. The U.S. Refining Industry: Facing the
Challenges
of the 1990s. Prepared for U.S. Department of Energy. January 1992.

8. Robert S. Pindyck and Daniel L. Rubinfeld. Microeconomics. MacMillan

Publishing Co.
1989.

9. U.S. Department of Energy. The U.S. Petroleum Industry: Past as Prologue 1970-
1992.
DOE/EIA-0572. Energy Information Administration, Office of Oil and Gas.
Washington,
DC. September 1993.

10. Bonner & Moore Management Science. Overview of Refining and Fuel Oil
Production.
Houston, TX. April 29, 1982.

11. U.S. Department of Energy. Annual Report to Congress. DOE/EIA-0173(91). Energy

Information Administration. Washington, DC. March 1992.

12. Dermot Gately. New York University. Taking Off: The U.S. Demand for Air
Travel and Jet
Fuel. The Energy Journal. Vol. 9. No. 4. 1988.

13. U.S. Department of Energy. Petroleum Marketing Annual, 1990. DOE/EIA-0487(90).

Energy Information Administration. Washington, DC. December 1991.

14. Reference 2.

15. U.S. Department of Commerce. Petroleum Refining þ U.S. Industrial Outlook 1991.
Washington, DC. January 1991.

16. Reference 2.

17. U.S. Department of Energy. Annual Energy Outlook, 1992. DOE/EIA-0383(92).

Energy
Information Administration. Washington, DC. January 1992.

18. Reference 15.

19. Reference 4.

20. Reference 2.

21. Henry Lee and Ranjit Lamech. The Impact of Clean Air Act Amendments on U.S.
Energy
Security. Harvard University. Energy 93-01. Cambridge, MA. 1993.

22. Reference 2.
23. Reference 15.

24. Reference 17.

25. Reference 15.

26. National Petroleum Council. Estimated Expenditures by Petroleum Refineries to

Meet New
Regulatory Initiatives for Air Quality. For presentation at the 86th Annual Air
& Waste
Management Association Meeting. Denver, CO. 93-WA-78A.03. June 13-18, 1993.

27. U.S. Department of Energy, Short-term Energy Outlook, Vol. II. DOE/EIA-0202/42.
Energy
Information Administration. Washington, DC. August 1980.

28. Robert S. Pindyck and Daniel L. Rubinfeld. Microeconomics. MacMillan Publishing

Company. 1989.

29. American Petroleum Institute. Financial Trends for Leading U.S. Oil Companies
1968-1990.
Discussion Paper #017R. Washington, DC. October,1991. 7.0
QUALITATIVE ASSESSMENT OF BENEFITS
OF EMISSION REDUCTIONS

One rationale for environmental regulation is to provide benefits to society by

improving
environmental quality. In this chapter, and the two chapters which follow,
information is
provided on the types and levels of social benefits anticipated from the petroleum
refinery
NESHAP. This chapter examines the potential health and welfare benefits associated
with air
emission reductions projected as a result of implementation of the petroleum
refinery NESHAP.
The proposed regulation is expected to reduce emissions of HAPs emitted from storage
tanks,
process vents, equipment leaks, and wastewater emission points at refining sites.
Of the HAPs
emitted by petroleum refineries, some are classified as VOCs, which are ozone
precursors.

In general, the reduction of HAP emissions resulting from promulgation and

implementation
of the petroleum refinery NESHAP will reduce human and environmental exposure to
these
pollutants and thus, reduce potential adverse health and welfare effects. This
chapter provides a
general discussion of the various components of total benefits that may be gained
from a
reduction in HAPs through the subject NESHAP. HAP benefits are presented separately
from the
benefits associated specifically with VOC emission reductions.
7.1 IDENTIFICATION OF POTENTIAL BENEFIT CATEGORIES

The benefit categories associated with the emission reductions predicted for
this regulation
can be broadly categorized as those benefits which are attributable to reduced
exposure to HAPs,
and those attributable to reduced exposure to VOCs. The predicted emissions of a
few HAPs
associated with this regulation have been classified as probable or known human
carcinogens.
As a result, one of the benefits of the proposed regulation is a reduction in the
risk of cancer
mortality. Other benefit categories include: reduced exposure to noncarcinogenic
HAPs, and
reduced exposure to VOCs. In addition to health impacts occurring as a result of
reductions in
HAP and VOC emissions, there are welfare impacts which can also be identified. In
general,
welfare impacts include effects on crops and other plant life, materials damage,
soiling, and
visibility. Each category is discussed separately in the following section.

7.2 QUALITATIVE DESCRIPTION OF AIR RELATED BENEFITS

A summary of the range of potential physical health and welfare effects

categories that may
be associated with HAP emissions and also with concentrations of ozone formed by VOC
HAPs
is provided in Table 7-1. As noted in the table, exposure to HAPs can lead to a
variety of acute
and chronic health impacts as well as welfare impacts. The health and welfare
benefits of HAP
and VOC reductions are presented separately.

7.2.1 Benefits of Decreasing HAP Emissions

Human exposure to HAPs may occur directly through inhalation or indirectly

through
ingestion of food or water contaminated by HAPs or through dermal exposure. HAPs
may also
enter terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems through atmospheric deposition. HAPs can
be deposited
on vegetation and soil through wet or dry deposition. HAPs may also enter the
aquatic
environment from the atmosphere via gas exchange between surface water and the
ambient air,
wet or dry deposition of particulate HAPs and particles to which HAPs adsorb, and
wet or dry
deposition to watersheds with subsequent leaching or runoff to bodies of water.1
This analysis is
focused only on the air quality benefits of HAP reduction.

7.2.1.1 Health Benefits of Reduction in HAP Emissions. According to baseline

emission
estimates, this source category currently emits approximately 81,000 Mg of HAPs
annually. The
petroleum refinery NESHAP will regulate several of the 189 air toxics listed in
Section 112(b) of
the CAA. Exposure to ambient concentrations of these pollutants may result in a
variety of
adverse health effects considering both cancer and noncancer endpoints. TABLE 7-1.
POTENTIAL HEALTH AND WELFARE EFFECTS ASSOCIATED WITH EXPOSURE TO
HAZARDOUS AIR POLLUTANTS2

Effect Type Effect Category Effect End-Point Citation Health Mortality

Carcinogenicity
Genotoxicity
Non-Cancer lethality EPA (1990)3, Graham et al. (1989)4
Graham et al. (1989)5
Voorhees et al. (1989)6 Chronic Morbidity Neurotoxicity
Immunotoxicity
Pulmonary function decrement
Liver damage
Gastrointestinal toxicity
Kidney damage
Cardiovascular impairment
Hematopoietic (Blood disorders)
Reproductive/Developmental toxicity All morbidity end-points obtained from
Graham et al. (1989)7 Voorhees et al.
(1989)8, Cote et al. (1988)9 Acute Morbidity Pulmonary function decrement
Dermal irritation
Eye irritation
Welfare Materials Damage Corrosion/Deterioration NAS (1975)10 Aesthetic
Unpleasant odors
Transportation safety concerns Agriculture Yield reductions/Foliar injury Stern et
al. (1973)11 Ecosystem Structure Biomass decrease
Species richness decline
Species diversity decline
Community size decrease
Organism lifespan decrease
Trophic web shortening Weinstein and Birk (1989)12
Many HAPs are classified as known human carcinogens. Speciation of the HAP
emissions at
refining sites was available only for equipment leaks. Of those HAPs (presented in
Table 3-2),
only benzene is classified as known human carcinogens, according to an EPA system for
classifying chemicals by cancer risk. This means that there is sufficient evidence
to support that
exposure to this chemical causes an increased risk of cancer in humans. Benzene is
a concern to
EPA because long term exposure to this chemical has been known to cause leukemia in
humans.
While this is the most well known effect, benzene exposure is also associated with
aplastic
anemia, multiple myeloma, lymphonomas, pancytopenia, chromosomal breakages, and
weakening of bone marrow.13 Therefore, a reduction in human exposure to benzene
could lead
to a decrease in cancer risk and ultimately to a decrease in cancer mortality.

Both naphthalene and cresols are considered to be group C or possible human

carcinogens.
For these HAPs, there are limited data on animal carcinogenicity, but no data on
human
carcinogenicity. For naphthalene, the animal data are sufficient to derive a
quantitative upper-
bound estimate of cancer potency. On the other hand, data are currently inadequate
to
quantitatively estimate possible cancer risks associated with cresol exposure.

The remaining HAPs emitted by equipment leaks at refining sites have not been
shown to
cause cancer. However, exposure to these pollutants may still result in adverse
health impacts to
human and non-human populations. Noncancer health effects can be grouped into the
following
broad categories: genotoxicity, developmental toxicity, reproductive toxicity,
systemic toxicity,
and irritation. Genotoxicity is a broad term that usually refers to a chemical that
has the ability
to damage DNA or the chromosomes. Developmental toxicity refers to adverse effects
on a
developing organism that may result from exposure prior to conception, during
prenatal
development, or postnatally to the time of sexual maturation. Adverse developmental
effects
may be detected at any point in the life span of the organism. Reproductive
toxicity refers to the
harmful effects of HAP exposure on fertility, gestation, or offspring, caused by
exposure of either
parent to a substance. Systemic toxicity affects a portion of the body other than
the site of entry.
Irritation, for the purpose of this document, refers to any effect which results in
irritation of the
eyes, skin, and respiratory tract.14

For the HAPs covered by the petroleum refinery NESHAP, evidence on the potential
toxicity
of the pollutants varies. Given sufficient exposure conditions, each of these HAPs
has the
potential to elicit adverse health or environmental effects in the exposed
populations. It can be
expected that emission reductions achieved through the subject NESHAP will decrease
the
incidence of these adverse health effects.

7.2.1.2 Welfare Benefits of Reduction in HAP Emissions. The welfare effects of

exposure to
HAPs have received less attention from analysts than the health effects. However,
this situation
is changing, especially with respect to the effects of toxic substances on
ecosystems. Over the
past ten years, ecotoxicologists have started to build models of ecological systems
which focus
on interrelationships in function, the dynamics of stress, and the adaptive
potential for recovery.
This perspective is reflected in Table 7-1 where the end-points associated with
ecosystem
functions describe structural attributes rather than species specific responses to
HAP exposure.
This is consistent with the observation that chronic sub-lethal exposures may affect
the normal
functioning of individual species in ways that make it less than competitive and
therefore more
susceptible to a variety of factors including disease, insect attack, and decreases
in habitat
quality.15 All of these factors may contribute to an overall change in the
structure (i.e.,
composition) and function of the ecosystem.

The adverse, non-human biological effects of HAP emissions include ecosystem and
recreational and commercial fishery impacts. Atmospheric deposition of HAPs
directly to land
may affect terrestrial ecosystems. Atmospheric deposition of HAPs also contributes
to adverse
aquatic ecosystem effects. This not only has adverse implications for individual
wildlife species
and ecosystems as a whole, but also the humans who may ingest contaminated fish and
waterfowl. In general, HAP emission reductions achieved through the petroleum
refinery
NESHAP should reduce the associated adverse environmental impacts.

7.2.2 Benefits of Reduced VOC Emissions

Emissions of VOCs have been associated with a variety of health and welfare
impacts. VOC
emissions, together with NOx, are precursors to the formation of tropospheric
ozone. It is
exposure to ambient ozone that is most directly responsible for a series of
respiratory related
adverse impacts. Consequently, reductions in the emissions of VOCs will also lead
to reductions
in the types of health and welfare impacts that are associated with elevated
concentrations of
ozone. In this section, the benefits of reducing VOC emissions are examined in
terms of
reductions in ozone.

7.2.2.1 Health Benefits of Reduction in VOC Emissions. Human exposure to

elevated
concentrations of ozone primarily results in respiratory-related impacts such as
coughing and
difficulty in breathing. Eye irritation is another frequently observed effect.
These acute effects
are generally short-term and reversible. Nevertheless, a reduction in the severity
or scope of
such impacts may have significant economic value.

Recent studies have found that repeated exposure to elevated concentrations of

ozone over
long periods of time may also lead to chronic, structural damage to the lungs.16 To
the extent
that these findings are verified, the potential scope of benefits related to
reductions in ozone
concentrations could be expanded significantly.
 Major ozone health effects are: alterations in lung capacity and breathing
frequency; eye,
nose and throat irritation; reduced exercise performance; malaise and nausea;
increased
sensitivity of airways; aggravation of existing respiratory disease; decreased
sensitivity to
respiratory infection; and extrapulmonary effects (central nervous system, liver,
cardiovascular,
and reproductive effects).17 In general, it is expected that reductions in VOCs
through the
petroleum refinery NESHAP regulation is a mechanism by which the ambient ozone
concentration may be reduced and, in turn, reduce the incidence of the adverse
health effects of
ozone exposure. In this section, the benefits of reducing VOC emissions is examined
in terms of
reductions in ozone.

7.2.2.2 Welfare Benefits of VOC Reduction. In addition to acute and (possible)

chronic
health impacts of ozone exposure, there may also be adverse welfare effects. The
principal
welfare impact is related to losses in economic value for certain agricultural crops
and
ornamental plants. Over the last decade, a series of field experiments has
demonstrated a
positive statistical association between ozone exposure and reductions in yield as
well as visible
injury to several economically valuable cash crops, including soybeans and cotton.
Damage to
selected timber species has also been associated with exposure to ozone. The
observed impacts
range from foliar injury to reduced growth rates and premature death. Benefits of
reduced ozone
concentrations include both the value of avoided losses in commercially valuable
timber and
aesthetic losses suffered by non-consumptive users. REFERENCES

1. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Regulatory Impact Analysis for the

National
Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants for Source Categories: Organic
Hazardous
Air Pollutants from the Synthetic Organic Chemical Manufacturing Industry and
Seven Other
Processes. Draft Report. Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards.
Research Triangle
Park, NC. EPA-450/3-92-009. December 1992.

2. Mathtech, Inc. Benefit Analysis Issues for Section 112 Regulations. Final
report prepared for
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Office of Air Quality Planning and
Standards.
Contract No. 68-D8-0094. Research Triangle Park, NC. May 1992.

3. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Cancer Risk from Outdoor Exposure to Air
Toxics.
Volume I. EPA-450/1-90-004a. Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards.
Research
Triangle Park, NC. September 1990.

4. Graham, John D., D.R. Holtgrave, and M.J. Sawery. "The Potential Health
Benefits of
Controlling Hazardous Air Pollutants." In: Health Benefits of Air Pollution
Control: A
Discussion. Blodgett, J. (ed). Congressional Research Service report to
Congress. CR589-
161. Washington, DC. February 1989.

5. Reference 4.

6. Voorhees, A., B. Hassett, and I. Cote. Analysis of the Potential for Non-Cancer
Health Risks
Associated with Exposure to Toxic Air Pollutants. Paper presented at the 82nd
Annual
Meeting of the Air and Waste Management Association. 1989.

7. Reference 4.

8. Reference 6.

9. Cote, I., L. Cupitt and B. Hassett. Toxic Air Pollutants and Non-Cancer Health
Risks.
Unpublished paper provided by B. Hassett. 1988.

10. NAS. Chlorine and Hydrogen Chloride. National Academy of Sciences, National
Research
Council. Chapter 7. 1975.

11. Stern, A. et al. Fundamentals of Air Pollution. Academic Press, New York.
1973.

12. Weinstein, D. and E. Birk. The Effects of Chemicals on the Structure of

Terrestrial
Ecosystems: Mechanisms and Patterns of Change. In: Levin, S. et al. (eds).
Ecotoxicology:
Problems and Approaches. Chapter 7. pp. 181-209. Springer-Verlag, New York.
1989.

13. Reference 1. p. 3-5.

14. Reference 1. pp. 8-4 to 8-5.

15. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Ecological Exposure and Effects of

Airborne Toxic
Chemicals: An Overview. EPA/6003-91/001. Environmental Research Laboratory.
Corvallis, OR. 1991.

16. Reference 4.

17. Reference 1. pp. 8-8 to 8-9.

8.0 QUANTITATIVE ASSESSMENT OF BENEFITS
 This chapter presents quantitative estimates of the possible dollar magnitude of
the benefits
identified in the previous chapter. The quantification of dollar benefits for all
benefit categories
is not possible at this time because of limitations in both data and methodology.
This chapter
presents the methodology which was utilized to obtain monetary estimates of HAP and
VOC
emission reductions occurring as a result of the proposed rule. Limitations of this
methodology
are also identified. To ensure that an economically efficient regulatory
alternative is chosen, an
incremental analysis must be performed. Therefore, benefits for the two regulatory
alternatives
are presented. Potential impacts are evaluated for the proposed regulation and one
alternative
more stringent than the proposed regulation.

8.1 METHODOLOGY FOR DEVELOPMENT OF BENEFIT ESTIMATES

Quantification of impacts associated with HAP exposure requires information on

the
particular HAP involved. Such data are necessary because different HAP emissions
can lead to
different types and degrees of severity of impacts. Table 8-1 identifies the
specific HAPs emitted
by petroleum refineries. Although an estimate of the total reduction in HAP
emissions for
various control options has been developed for this RIA, it has not been possible to
estimate
specific HAP emission reductions for each type of emission point. However, an
estimate of HAP
speciation for equipment leaks has been made. Since HAP emissions from equipment
leaks
account for nearly two thirds of total HAP emissions at petroleum refineries, it is
possible to use
these data to develop a rough estimate of cancer risk related to petroleum refinery
emissions of
benzene.

The potential impacts of reducing HAP emissions can be separated into two health
benefits
categories. The first health benefit category evaluated will be the reduction in
annual cancer
incidence due to carcinogenic HAP emission reductions. This approach uses emissions
data and
the Human Exposure Model (HEM) to estimate the annual cancer risk caused by HAP
emissions
from petroleum refineries. Generally, this benefit category is calculated as the
difference in
estimated annual cancer incidence before and after implementation of each regulatory
alternative. The benefit category is then monetized by applying a range of benefit
values for
each cancer case avoided.
 The second category of health benefits expected to result from reduced HAP
emissions is
reduced human exposure to noncarcinogenic HAP emissions. For each noncarcinogenic
HAP for
which EPA had health benchmark information, EPA performed a baseline assessment to
estimate
the number of people exposed to HAPs above health benchmark levels. The quantified
benefits
attributable to reducing noncarcinogenic HAP emissions is the difference in the
number of
people exposed above health benchmark levels before and after regulation. The
benefits of
controlling VOC emissions are monetized by applying average benefit per Megagram
estimates
to the total amount of VOC emission reductions calculated for each of the two
regulatory
alternatives.

8.1.1 Benefits of Reduced Cancer Risk Associated with HAP Reductions

The proposed MACT for petroleum refineries is expected to reduce the emissions
of several
HAPs that have been classified as probable or known human carcinogens. As a result,
one of the
benefits of the proposed regulation is a reduction in the risk of cancer mortality.

TABLE 8-1. HAP EMISSIONS AT PETROLEUM REFINERIES

2,2,4 - Trimethyl Pentane Hydrogen Fluoride Benzene Phenol Ethyl Benzene Cresols/
Cresylic Acid Hexane Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether Naphthalene Hydrogen Chloride
Toluene Methyl Ethyl Ketone Xylenes

A quantitative assessment of these benefits requires two types of data. First,

it must be
possible to relate changes in emissions to changes in risk and incidence of cancer.
This involves
the completion of a risk assessment. The second type of data required to estimate
the economic
benefits of reduced cancer risk is an estimate of society's willingness to pay to
realize this risk
reduction. While straightforward in concept, there are difficulties in the way both
types of data
are usually developed so that the credibility of any quantitative estimates must be
carefully
assessed. The next two sections discuss the models of cancer risk, and estimates of
the value of
a statistical life.

8.1.1.1 Models of Cancer Risk. A variety of models have been proposed to

formalize the
relationships between emission changes and changes in cancer risk so that
predictions can be
made regarding changes in the expected number of lives saved due to a specific
emission
reduction scenario. Cancer risk models often express cancer risk in terms of excess
lifetime
cancer risk. Lifetime risk is a measure of the probability that an individual will
develop cancer as
a result of exposure to an air pollutant over a lifetime of 70 years.1 A basis for
developing
estimates of this probability is the unit risk factor (URF). The URF is a
quantitative estimate of
the carcinogenic potency of a pollutant. It is often expressed as the probability
of contracting
cancer from a 70 year lifetime continuous exposure to a concentration of one
microgram per
cubic meter (æg/m3) of a pollutant. The unit risk factors are designed to be
conservative. That is,
actual risk may be higher, but it is more likely to be lower. EPA has developed
unit risk factors
for many HAPs. 1 Among the HAPs identified in Table 8-1, only benzene and
naphthalene have
quantitative URFs. In addition, benzene is a known human carcinogen, as there are
several
studies linking benzene exposure to cancer in humans. Naphthalene and cresol are
considered
possible human carcinogens based on animal experiments.
To translate lifetime individual risk to annual incidence of excess cancer, it
is necessary to
combine three pieces of data: the unit risk factor, the (constant) level of
concentration to which
the population is exposed, and the population count. For example, benzene, which is
classified
as a known human carcinogen, has a unit risk factor of 8.3 þ 10-6 (æg/m3)-1. In a
population of
1,000,000 people, each exposed to 5 æg/m3 of benzene for 70 years (a lifetime of
constant
exposure), the number of excess cancer cases in the population due to this exposure
is estimated
to be 41.5 cancer cases over 70 years (5 æg/m3 þ 1,000,000 þ 8.3 þ 10-6 (æg/m3)-1).
On an
annual average basis, this is equal to 0.59 excess cases per year in the population.

From the above example calculation, it is clear that each element in the
calculation
algorithm may contribute to uncertainty in the final estimate of cancer risk. Table
8-2
summarizes the major sources of uncertainty with the data and methods used in the
standard
approach to cancer risk assessment. Additional issues arise in estimating economic
benefits from
the risk assessment information. Table 8-3 identifies these issues.

8.1.1.2 Value of a Statistical Life. Economists have used labor market data to
identify the
wage-risk tradeoff accepted by workers in high risk occupations and to infer the
implicit value of
a statistical life. Multiplication of the value of a statistical life times the
expected number of lives
saved due to the reduced cancer risk provides an estimate of the economic benefits
associated
with the regulation. Estimates of the value of a statistical life have been
developed by examining
the wage-risk tradeoff revealed by workers accepting jobs with known risks. Viscusi
recently
completed a survey of over 20 of these studies and recommends an initial range of $3-
$7 million
(December 1990 dollars) as an estimate of the statistical value of a life.2

Using this range in an environmental policy analysis requires consideration of

several factors
that could bias the transfer of the results. Specifically, adjustments may be
required to account
for differences across applications. These differences include:

þ Risk perception: Environmental risks are involuntary; job risks may not be.
Cancer
risks may be prolonged and involve suffering; job fatalities may be more
immediate in
consequence.

þ Age: The age of the affected population may affect willingness to pay
values. Life
years saved may be a more relevant measure. Discount rates may also be age-
sensitive.

þ Income: Income levels of exposed individuals may affect willingness to pay.

Economic
theory would suggest a positive elasticity between income and risk reduction.

þ Baseline risks: The willingness to pay function could be non-linear.

Initial risk levels
and the change in risk would become important with non-linearities.

TABLE 8-2. SOURCES OF UNCERTAINTY IN CANCER RISK ASSESSMENT1

þ Unit risk factors are generally derived from a nonthreshold, multi-stage

model, which
is linear at low doses. Available experimental data are often for high dose
exposures
so that responses must be extrapolated to the relatively low doses typically
associated with ambient conditions.

þ Unit risk information is frequently generated from bioassays in which the

potency of
a chemical is often determined by the effect of the chemical on animals.
Transfer of
results across species is subject to considerable uncertainty.

þ Risk estimates are calculated as if exposed individuals experience a

constant outdoor
exposure over a lifetime. This ignores activity patterns of people and the
opportunity for behavioral adjustments.
 þ Estimates of exposure are often conservative. Ambient concentrations are
frequently
modeled to reflect the maximum individual risk (MIR) (i.e., highest
concentration
location). If all individuals are assumed to be continuously exposed over a
lifetime
to the concentration associated with MIR, this will bias risk estimates
upwards.

þ For carcinogens as well as other toxicants, there is a great deal of

individual
variability in sensitivity to adverse effects. In some cases, the
suceptibility of an
individual's reaction to a toxic pollutant may be an order of magnitude of
greater
than another's. This increaes the uncertainty of cancer risk estimates at
both the
individual and population level.

TABLE 8-3. UNCERTAINTIES IN BENEFIT ANALYSIS

þ Benefit calculations should reflect the year-by-year change in cancer

incidence
following policy implementation. The timing of incidences, including latency
periods, should be expressly considered.

þ Benefit calculations should reflect changes in concentrations over time

related to
economic responses to the regulatory action.

þ Benefit calculations should reflect any changes to the composition of the

affected
population and possible behavioral responses to exposure.

þ Valuation of cancer incidences should address a variety of issues. These

include:
discounting, age distribution, non-voluntary nature of risk, risk
adverseness of general
population, probability of fatality, and treatment costs.

Unfortunately, there is no general consensus on the adjustments that should be

made to
account for these possible biases in a direct transfer of values. As a result, this
study makes no
adjustments other than to update the values to first quarter 1992 dollars. With
this single
change, the value range to be applied to the annual reduction in lives saved is
$3.11-$7.25
million.

8.1.1.3 Quantitative Results. Emissions of benzene and naphthalene were input

into the
HEM to conduct a risk and exposure assessment of baseline HAP emissions. One
important
input to the HEM was the URF of each pollutant. The URFs are presented in Table 8-4.

TABLE 8-4. UNIT RISK FACTORS FOR CARCINOGENIC HAPS

HAP URF (x 106) Benzene 8.3 Naphthalene 4.2

The HEM uses the URFs in Table 8-4, along with other information such as refinery
emissions, to characterize the risk posed to individuals and the population located
within a 50
km radius of each refinery (approximately 83.4 million people).

The maximum individual risk (MIR) and annual cancer incidence for the two HAPs
are
presented in Table 8-5. The MIR for each pollutant expresses the increased risk
experienced by
the person exposed to the highest predicted concentration of each HAP. The values
in Table 8-5
are for emissions at the baseline only. The annual cancer incidences are the number
of new
cancer cases estimated to occur in the exposed population as a result of a year's
exposure. As
estimated by HEM, the total annual cancer incidence of the 2 HAPs is 0.52 of a
statistical life.
Because the cancer risk associated with benzene and naphthalene is less than 1, the
quantifiable
cancer benefits of reduced emissions are expected to be minimal. The benefits of
reducing
cancer risk resulting from reduced emissions of carcinogenic HAPs could not be
monetized since
values of annual cancer risk after controls were not available. However, if it is
assumed that the
controls required by the proposed rule would decrease benzene and naphthalene
emissions to
zero, then a monetary estimate of the benefit of reducing these two HAPs could be
calculated.
The benefit of eliminating the carcinogenic HAP emissions is calculated by
multiplying the 0.52
reduction in total annual cancer risk by the midpoint of the range of values of a
statistical life
($3.11 to $7.25 million) which is $5.2 million. This calculation yields a total
monetary benefit of
$2.7 million. This is an overestimation, however, given that the petroleum refinery
NESHAP will
not achieve a 100 percent HAP reduction.

TABLE 8-5. MAXIMUM INDIVIDUAL RISK AND ANNUAL CANCER INCIDENCE OF

CARCINOGENIC HAPs

HAP MIR Annual Cancer Incidence Benzene 1.8 x 10-4 0.37 Naphthalene 6.8 x 10-5 0.15
 These monetary values should be interpreted carefully due to uncertainties in
the derivation
of annual incidence numbers, the value of life estimates, and the focus on equipment
leak
emissions. Because these uncertainties work in both directions, and remain
unquantified, it is
not possible to say whether these values are over- or underestimates of the
(unknown) true value
of cancer risk reduction. At best, the numbers should be viewed as a guide to the
possible level
of benefits that may be realized.

8.1.1.4 Other Health and Welfare Impacts of HAPs. A quantitative assessment of

the
economic benefits related to these impacts requires information on risk
relationships, exposure,
and economic value. Unfortunately, such data are generally unavailable. Therefore,
it is
currently not possible to conduct a complete quantitative analysis of the benefits
associated with
HAP emission reductions.

Several intermediate quantitative assessment approaches have been developed

which can
provide partial objective evidence of the positive impact of HAP emission
reductions. One
approach examines changes in the population exposed to concentrations of HAPs over a
reference dose level with and without additional controls.3 The reference
concentration (RfC) is
designed to reflect a concentration level, within an order of magnitude, at which no
adverse

health impacts would be expected over a lifetime. To complete this calculation,

data must be
available on population counts near affected refineries, concentrations of speciated
HAPs with
and without additional controls, and a reference dose level for the specific HAP.

Based on toxicity and emission information, an exposure assessment was performed

for
hexane, hydrogen chloride, methylethyl ketone, and toluene. For noncarcinogens
endpoints, the
dose-response is expressed in terms of an inhalation reference-dose concentration
(RfC). The
significance of the RfC benchmark is that exposures to levels below the RfC are
considered "safe"
because exposures to concentrations of the chemical at or below the RfC are less
than where
adverse effects are thought to occur. The RfCs of the above mentioned HAPs are
presented in
Table 8-6. The benefits of reducing these HAPs could not be monetized because
information on
reduced exposure is not available. The omission of this benefit category from the
monetized
benefits analysis will lead to an underestimation of the total expected benefits
from the proposed
regulation. Significant baseline exposure was not shown to result from these HAPs,
so post-
regulation emissions were not analyzed.

TABLE 8-6. RFCS AND NUMBER OF INDIVIDUALS EXPOSED AT OR ABOVE RFC BY HAP

HAP
RfC Individuals Exposed
At or Above RfC Hexane 0.2 mg/M3 0 Hydrogen Chloride 0.07 mg/M3 1,810 Methyl Ethyl
Ketone 1 mg/M3 0 Toluene 0.4 mg/M3 0

Epidemiological studies which attempt to identify statistical associations

between exposure
and observable responses in the population represent another way to quantify
possible risks.
However, because of collinearity with other environmental factors, difficulty in
measuring some
health outcomes, and the large cohort sizes needed to be followed over time to find
statistically
significant relationships, it is very difficult to isolate the effects due solely to
changes in HAP
emissions. For this reason, such statistical functions have generally not been
estimated.

In addition to health effects associated with chronic or long-term exposures to

HAPs, there
are also many HAPs that are associated with adverse effects from short-term, or
acute, exposures.
For example, emissions of hydrogen fluoride have been responsible for injuries and
even deaths
at petroleum refineries.9 To the extent that the petroleum refinery NESHAP controls
emissions of
short-term releases associated with adverse health effects (either by controls or
pollution
prevention), there will be associated benefits. Unfortunately, methods to estimate
these benefits
are not currently available.

At present, most of the model development in the area of estimating the welfare
effects and
ecosystem impacts of exposure to HAPs is still conceptual and not amenable to
objective
measurement. Therefore, no quantitative estimates of these potential ecosystem
impacts have
been made.

8.1.2 Quantitative Benefits of VOC Reduction

The benefits of reduced emissions of VOC from a MACT regulation of petroleum

refineries
will be developed using the technique of "benefits transfer." Benefits transfer
involves the use of
benefit values obtained from another study to represent benefits associated with the
current
regulatory proposal, with appropriate adjustments. At a minimum, the adjustments
must address
the differential impact in the severity of the regulations as represented, for
example, by changes
in emissions or concentrations. With this technique the assumption is made that
benefits per ton
reduced of a pollutant are constant. Then, estimates of a benefit per ton reduced
ratio from a
prior study, coupled with information on tons reduced for the regulation under
review, will be
sufficient to estimate benefits for the current regulation. In effect, extrapolated
benefits are
developed on the basis of a constant, average benefit per ton reduced value.

In this RIA, an estimate of the benefits per (metric) ton reduced of VOC
emissions is
developed from a study conducted for the Office of Technology Assessment.4 The OTA
study
examined a variety of acute health impacts related to ozone exposure as well as the
benefits of
reduced ozone concentrations for selected agricultural crops. However, chronic
health effects of
ozone exposure, as well as effect on non-agricultural vegetation, were not
considered.
Therefore, all else equal, the extrapolated estimate of VOC benefits for the MACT
regulation
should be viewed as a lower bound estimate.

8.1.2.1 Benefit Transfer Values. Application of the benefit transfer technique

requires
information on benefit values and the associated reduction in VOC emissions. Data
on benefits
are taken from Table 3-10 of the OTA report. For the present calculation, the
values reported for
the 35 percent VOC reduction scenario are used. Specifically, information from both
the
epidemiological studies and the clinical studies is used to establish an initial
benefit range of
$54-$3,400 million per year.

The selection of this range of values was influenced by several factors. First,
the results for
the 35 percent VOC emission reduction scenario are used because it is easier to
identify the level
of emission reductions associated with this scenario in the OTA report. It should
also be noted
that this scenario involves a reduction of 35 percent in those emissions occurring
only in non-
attainment areas. Although there are expected to be VOC emission reductions in
attainment
areas under this scenario, the percentage reduction in VOC emissions in attainment
areas is less
than 35 percent. A close reading of the OTA report indicates that all health
impacts are
estimated for non-attainment areas only. Therefore, no benefits are associated with
VOC
emission reductions in attainment areas. This may provide additional conservatism
to the benefit
values since there is recent evidence that acute health effects may be experienced
at ozone
concentrations below the current NAAQS.5

The OTA report calculates acute health impacts based on the results of
epidemiological and
clinical studies. Both study designs have advantages and disadvantages relative to
one another.
Indeed, the OTA report acknowledges that it is not possible to judge which approach
is superior.
Even though the two study designs measure similar impacts, it is possible to use the
results from
both design types to form a range of values. This approach would not involve double-
counting
and would use more of the available information. A lower bound value is identified
from the
epidemiological study design. An upper bound value is taken from the clinical study
design in
which all exercisers are affected. These choices lead to the initial benefit range
of $54-$3,400
million per year.

The year of dollars for these benefit values is not made clear in the OTA
report. However, a
check with the authors of several of the cited references used to develop
"willingness-to-pay"
values, indicates that the values are in 1984 dollar terms.6 To maintain
consistency with other
parts of this RIA, the benefit values are converted to first quarter 1992 dollars by
multiplying the
1984 dollars by a factor of 1.335. This factor was computed from the percentage
change in the
all item urban CPI index between the annual index value for 1984 and the geometric
mean of
index values for the first three months of 1992. The adjusted dollar benefit range
in first quarter
1992 dollars is $72-$4,539 million.

Three further adjustments can be considered for this benefit value range.
First, as noted
earlier, benefits can be scaled by the tons of VOC emissions reduced in order to
form a benefit
transfer ratio which can be multiplied by the VOC emission reductions for the
petroleum refinery
MACT.

Second, the benefit values in the OTA report reflect a level of exposure that
corresponds to
population densities in non-attainment areas in the early 1980's. Since the cost
analysis is
conducted for the fifth year following rule promulgation (i.e., circa 1999), the
benefit analysis
should be conformable. There is approximately a twenty year interval from the
period when the
estimates used in the OTA report were calculated to the year of regulatory impact.
It is
appropriate to scale the OTA benefit values by a factor which represents the
percentage change
in population, between 1980 and 1999, in those non-attainment areas with petroleum
refineries.
Using data from the 1980 and 1990 Censuses and extrapolating to 1999 under an
assumption of
a constant growth rate equal to that observed for the 10 year period, it is
estimated that the
population scale factor is 19.64 percent. This leads to a revised benefit value
range of $86 to
$5,430 million.

Third, the passage of time may also affect the willingness to pay value. If
real income grows
over time and the income elasticity of environmental quality is positive, then unit
willingness to
pay values in 1999 should exceed those implied by the surveys conducted in the mid-
1980's.
Using the 1993 Statistical Abstract, the simple average percentage change in per
capita real
income between 1985 and 1992 is 3.3 percent in those areas most likely to be ozone
non-
attainment areas. Extrapolating to 1999 under a constant growth assumption results
in an
increase of 6.7 percent. Given this relatively small change and uncertainty about
the proper
income elasticity measure, no adjustment has been made to the benefit value range to
account
for this factor.

8.1.2.2 Emission Reductions. The development of VOC emission reductions

associated
with the benefits range described above can be determined directly from the OTA
report. Tables
6-1 and 6-6 of OTA provide the needed information. Total VOC emissions in 1985 are
25
million tons. Of this total, 11 million tons are predicted to occur in non-
attainment cities while
14 million tons of VOC are predicted to be emitted in ozone attainment areas. For
the 35
percent VOC (non-attainment area) emission reduction scenario, 3.8 million tons of
VOC
emissions are predicted to be controlled in 1994, while 2.7 million tons will be
controlled in
attainment areas.

The selection of a "tons reduced" value for the denominator of the benefit
transfer ratio must
be consistent with the benefits measure selected for the numerator. As described
earlier, the
benefits reflect the annual reduction in acute health impacts experienced by
populations in non-
attainment areas that result from a 35 percent reduction in non-attainment area VOC
emissions.
Implicitly, there is the assumption that no health benefits are experienced in
attainment areas.
Consequently, it seems most appropriate to define the VOC emission reductions in
terms of
reductions occurring only in non-attainment areas. This also implies that the
derivation of
petroleum refinery health benefits from VOC emission reductions should consider only
those
emission reductions which occur at plants in non-attainment areas. Fortunately,
because
individual refineries are identified, it is possible to identify this subset of
emission reductions. A
result of this approach is that no acute health benefits are associated with VOC
emission
reductions in attainment areas. Table 8-7 presents the baseline VOC emissions, and
the
emission reductions for refineries in nonattainment areas associated with each
alternative.

TABLE 8-7. VOC EMISSION REDUCTIONS BY EMISSION POINT

VOC Emission Reductions by Regulatory Alternative (Mg/yr)3 Alternative 1

Alternative 2 Emission Point2 Nonattainment1 Attainment Nonattainment1 Attainment
Equipment Leaks 77,535 80,266 81,626 83,471 Miscellaneous Process Vents 104,693
55,161 104,693 55,161 Storage Vessels 3,090 1,408 6,056 2,760 TOTAL REDUCTION BY
ATTAINMENT STATUS
185,318
136,835
192,375
141,392 TOTAL REDUCTION BY
ALTERNATIVE
322,153
333,767
NOTES: 1VOC emission reductions include only those associated with control of the 87
refineries located in ozone
nonattainment areas.
2No further control is assumed for wastewater streams, and therefore, emission
reductions associated with this emission
point are zero.
3Emission reduction estimates do not incorporate reduction occurring at new
sources.

One final step is needed prior to forming the benefit transfer ratio. Since VOC
emission
reductions for petroleum refineries are stated in megagrams per year (metric tons
per year), it is
necessary to convert the OTA emission reductions to equivalent metric tons. This
conversion
results in a reduction of 3.45 million metric tons in non-attainment areas.
 8.1.2.3 Benefit Estimates. The benefit transfer ratio range for acute health
impacts is
estimated to be $25-$1,574 (first quarter 1992 dollars per metric ton). These
values were
obtained by dividing the benefit range values by the reduction in emissions. The
average (mid-
point) of the range is $800 per metric ton. These ratios are to be multiplied by
VOC emission
reductions from petroleum refineries located in ozone non-attainment areas in order
to estimate
the VOC-related acute health benefits of the petroleum refinery MACT. Table 8-8
summarizes
the results of these calculations for the combination of options selected for the
four controlled
emission points. In addition, benefits for the next most stringent option for each
emission point
type are also reported. Note, the floor option for each emission point type is
statutorily
mandated so that, in effect, the floor options represent the baseline.

TABLE 8-8. BENEFITS OF VOC REDUCTIONS BY REGULATORY ALTERNATIVE (4)

Benefits (Million Dollars) Alternative 1 Alternative 2 Average $148.3 $153.9 Range

$4.6 - $291.7 $4.8 - $302.8

The benefit values reported above are restricted to acute health impacts
associated with VOC
emission reductions. Several qualifications should be noted. First, there is an
implicit
assumption of a constant linear relationship between VOC emission reductions and
changes in
ozone concentrations in non-attainment areas. One result of this assumption is that
it becomes
difficult to justify quantifying benefits for agricultural yield changes associated
with VOC
emission reductions. As described in OTA, the VOC/NOx ratio in rural areas is NOx-
limited
because of relatively high vegetative VOC emissions.7 Consequently, ozone
production is less
sensitive to changes in man-made VOC emissions. Therefore, it seems appropriate to
exclude
agricultural benefits for the present analysis.

Also, as noted earlier, there may be other benefit types. Reductions in VOC
emissions
which lead to improvements in ozone concentrations may contribute to reductions in
chronic
health impacts (e.g., sinusitis, hay fever and reduced damage to certain materials,
such as
elastomers).8 However, because of data and methodological concerns, no quantitative
benefit
estimates for these possible effect types have been developed for the present
analysis. All else
equal, this implies that the calculated benefit per metric ton range of $25-$1,574
is likely to be
conservative.

Although the quantified VOC benefits estimated in this RIA represent one
approach for
valuing the benefits of reduced VOC emissions, data limitations prevent a complete
quantification of all categories of benefits attributable to VOC reductions. Since
lack of data
prevent all benefit categories from being monetized, a direct comparison of benefits
to costs may
not be helpful in determining the desirable regulatory alternative. An assessment
of the
incremental cost-effectiveness analysis will represent the cost of the air emission
controls relative
to the expected VOC emission reductions attributable to the controls. Because of
the lack of
data, this analysis ignores the benefit of HAP emission reductions. The incremental
VOC cost-
effectiveness analysis begins with the baseline, or no control. Alternative 1,
which is the basis of
the proposed rule, includes controls to meet MACT floor level controls, and a level
of control
more stringent than the floor for equipment leaks. The total cost of this control
is $132 million
annually. This regulatory alternative is expected to result in a reduction of VOC
emissions of
approximately 185,000 Mg annually. Therefore, the incremental cost-effectiveness,
averaged
across multiple emission points, of the requirements of Alternative 1 is
approximately $712/Mg.
In other words, the average cost of reducing each Mg required by Alternative 1 is
$712.

The next more stringent level of control, Alternative 2, which includes

increased control of
equipment leaks and storage vessels, has a total annual cost of $148 million. This
level of
control is estimated to achieve an annual VOC emission reduction of approximately
192,375 Mg.
The incremental VOC cost-effectiveness of going from Alternative 1 to Alternative 2
is
approximately $2,300/Mg.

Table 8-9 presents the incremental VOC cost-effectiveness values for each
regulatory
alternative discussed in this analysis. Alternative 1 can be justified as a
desirable option since
the incremental VOC cost-effectiveness of implementing Alternative 2 is
significantly higher.

TABLE 8-9. VOC INCREMENTAL COST-EFFECTIVENESS OF PETROLEUM REFINING

REGULATION
 Alternative 1 Alternative 2 Incremental Cost (Million $ 1992)1 $132.35 $16.0
Incremental Emission Reduction (Mg) 185,318 7,057 Incremental Cost Effectiveness ($/
Mg) $712/Mg $2,267/Mg
NOTES: 1The cost estimates of each alternative reflect the total social cost of
emission control. REFERENCES

1. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Cancer Risk from Outdoor Exposure to Air
Toxics,
Volume I. EPA-450/1-90-004a. Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards.
Research
Triangle Park, NC. September 1990.

2. Viscusi, W. Kip. "The Value of Risks to Life and Health." Journal of Economic
Literature.
pp. 1912-1946. December 1993.

3 Voorhees, A., B. Hassett, and I. Cote. Analysis of the Potential for Non-Cancer
Health Risks
Associated with Exposure to Toxic Air Pollutants. Paper presented at the 82nd
Annual
Meeting of the Air and Waste Management Association. 1989.

4. Office of Technology Assessment. Catching Our Breath: Next Steps for Reducing
Urban
Ozone. OTA-O-412. Washington, DC. U.S. Government Printing Office. July 1989.

5. Horstman, D., W. McDonnell, L. Folinsbee, S. Abdal-Salaam, and P. Ives. Changes

in
Pulmonary Function and Airway Reactivity Due to Prolonged Exposure to Typical
Ambient
Ozone (O3) Levels. In: Schneider, T. et al. (eds.) Atmospheric Ozone Research
and its
Policy Implications. Elsevier Science Publishers. Amsterdam. 1989.

6. Horst, R.L., Jr. Personal communication with L. Chestnut. January 26, 1994.

7. Reference 4. p. 107.

8. Portney P. and J. Mullahy. "Urban Air Quality and Chronic Respiratory

Disease." Regional
Science and Urban Economics. Vol. 20. p. 407-18. 1990.

9. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. Hydrogen Fluoride Study: Report to

Congress
Under Section 112(n)(6) of the Clean Air Act as Amended; Washington, D.C.;
EPA 550-R-93-001. September 1993 9.0 COMPARISON OF BENEFITS
TO COSTS

The goal of the Regulatory Impact and Benefits Analysis for the Petroleum
Refinery NESHAP
is to provide economic and engineering data necessary for effective environmental
policymaking.
A comparison of the benefits of alternative air emission controls with the costs of
such controls
provides the necessary framework for a reasonable assessment of the net benefits of
the proposed
environmental measures.

9.1 COMPARISON OF ANNUAL BENEFITS AND COSTS

The potential health and welfare benefits associated with air emission
reductions relate to
expected reductions in emissions of several HAPs and VOCs from storage tanks,
process vents,
equipment leaks, and wastewater emission points at refining sites. The
quantification of benefits
from emission controls relates to health benefits from reduced cancer incidence
associated with
carcinogenic HAPs emitted at petroleum refineries and the health benefits related to
reduced
VOCs that translate into reductions in ozone. Benefits from reducing cancer
incidence to zero
were quantified for equipment leaks only in the previous chapter. Because of the
uncertainty
associated with this estimate, the benefits of reduced cancer risk are not
incorporated in this
benefit cost analysis. Other health and welfare benefits from the controls such as
benefits to the
ecosystem have not been quantified due to limitations in data and methodology.

The compliance costs of the alternative emission controls relate to capital

costs and
operation and maintenance costs for each of the regulatory alternatives obtained from
engineering studies conducted for EPA. These estimates reflect the engineering
costs of emission
controls rather than the economic costs to society. The compliance cost estimates
provide a
necessary data input for the economic analysis of the cost of the regulatory
alternatives to
society. The economic effect of imposing compliance costs on the petroleum refining
market
and its consumers and producers is obtained from a partial equilibrium model of the
petroleum
refining industry. The social costs of the controls include potential economic
costs to consumers
of refined petroleum products, producers of refined petroleum products, and society
as a whole.
Economic costs are a better measure of the costs of the air emission control
alternative to society
because these costs represent the true costs or opportunity costs to society of
resources used for
emission control. Quantifications of the compliance costs and economic costs of the
air emission
alternatives are subject to the limitations noted in Section 6.4 Limitations of the
Economic
Model. The social costs of Alternative 2 represents the social costs of Alternative
1 plus the
incremental increase in compliance costs for Alternative 2. Social costs were not
estimated
independently for Alternative 2 due to limitations in resources. Table 9-1 depicts
a comparison
of the benefits of the alternative proposals to the compliance and social costs. A
comparison of
the net benefits for the alternatives and the incremental difference in net benefits
between the
alternatives provides an economic basis for rational environmental policymaking.

The benefits exceed costs (both compliance and social) for each of the
alternatives. Thus,
either alternative is viable and warrants consideration. However, a comparison of
the
incremental difference in the two alternatives indicates that the incremental net
benefits are
negative for Alternative 2. Thus, Alternative 1 provides the greatest net benefits
to society.
TABLE 9-1. COMPARISON OF ANNUAL BENEFITS TO COSTS FOR THE NATIONAL
PETROLEUM REFINING INDUSTRY REGULATION
(MILLIONS OF 1992 DOLLARS PER YEAR)

Alternative 1
Alternative 2 Incremental
Difference1 Benefits $148.3 $153.9 $5.6 Social Costs $(132.4) $(148.4)2 $(16.0)
Benefits Less Social Costs $16.0 $5.5 $(10.4)
NOTES: ( ) represent costs or negative values.

1The incremental difference represents the difference between Alternative 1

and Alternative 2.

2Social costs for Alternative 2 are calculated by adding incremental

compliance costs to social costs of
Alternative 1.
Please e-mail any comments or questions to the Clean Air Act Information Network.

Return to the Clean Air Act Information Network Home Page

Hafnium's existence was suspected in the latter part of the 1800s. Through these years, scientists
who were studying zirconium thought that there was another element that existed hiding in the
background of even the purest known samples of zirconium. By the early 1900s researchers used X-
ray instruments to study the patterns of outer electrons in zirconium ores and confirmed the faint,
but real lines that proved Neils Bohr's prediction of element 72 was correct. In 1923, the discovery
of Hafnia was announced. Acknowledging that Bohr played a vital role in the discovery of this
element, it iwas named after the ancient name of Bohr's hometown of Copenhagen, Hafnia.

Hafnium resembles stainless steel. It is protected from corrosion by an oxide film that forms when
the metal is exposed to the atmosphere. The chemical and physical properties of hafnium and
zirconium are very alike and the two elements are impossible to separate entirely. The highest grade
zirconium metal has up to 1% hafnium. Likewise, hafnium that contains up to 2% zirconium is still
considered a high-grade product.

Hafnium is an excellent material for absorbing neutrons. Together with its high resistance to
corrosion, hafnium is used in neutron-absorbing control rods which slows down nuclear chain
reactions and quenches chain reactions in nuclear reactors.
BCIT Chemistry Resource Center
http://nobel.scas.bcit.ca/resource/
Index

1000
Non heat-treatable alloys
2000
Heat-treatable alloys
Group 2000 (AlCu)
3000
Non heat-treatable alloys
Group 3000 (AlMn)
4000
Non heat-treatable alloys
Group 4000 (AlSi)
5000
Non heat-treatable alloys
Group 5000 (AlMg)
6000
Heat-treatable alloys
Group 6000 (AlMgSi)
General
Solution heat-treatment
Practical use of ageing in the extrusion plant
Heat-treatable alloys
7000
Heat-treatable alloys
Group 7000 (AlZnMg)

A
AA
Alloy systems
abrasion
Erosion- and turbulence-corrosion
abrasion resistance
Integral colouring
Hard anodising
Hard anodising
AC TIG-welding
TIG-welding
acidic
General corrosion resistance of aluminium
General corrosion
acidic gases
Influence of dissolved CO2 and H2S
active fire protection
Active fire protection
adhesion
Info anodizing
Info conversion coating
Conversion coating
adhesive
Adhesive bonding
Advantages and disadvantages
Joint design
Choice of adhesive
Types of adhesives
Surface preparation
Process
ageing
General
Ageing
Ageing temperature/time
Practical use of ageing in the extrusion plant
Heat-treatable alloys
AlCu
Group 2000 (AlCu)
alkaline
General corrosion resistance of aluminium
General corrosion
allowable deformations
Deformation check
allowable stress method
Allowable stress method
alloy designation system
Alloy systems
alloy hardening
Strengthening of the alloys
AlMg
Group 5000 (AlMg)
AlMgSi
Group 6000 (AlMgSi)
AlMn
Group 3000 (AlMn)
AlSi
Group 4000 (AlSi)
alternating current
Electrolytic colouring (EC colouring)
Alubook references
Alubook references
Aluselect
About Aluselect
AlZnMg
Group 7000 (AlZnMg)
AlZnMgCu
Group 7000 (AlZnMg)
annealed
O : Annealed
anode
What is anodising?
anodic layer
Cathodic protection
anodic oxide
Anodising
anodic oxide coating
Design of extrusion regarding surface treatment
What is anodising?
Which alloys are suitable for anodising?
The effects of the various alloying elements on the anodising appearance
Properties of the anodic oxide coating
Pulse anodising
Dyeing of the anodic oxide layer
Hard anodising
White anodising
Special sealing processes
Cold sealing
Various pretreatment methods prior to lacquering
Test procedures for anodic oxide coating
anodic oxide layer
Pulse anodising
anodising
Anodising
Electropolishing
Electropolishing
Normal architectural anodising
What is anodising?
Process steps for normal architectural anodising
Etching
Pulse anodising
Dyeing of the anodic oxide layer
Electrolytic colouring (EC colouring)
Bright anodising
Wood grain anodising
Various pretreatment methods prior to lacquering
Various application methods for wet paints
Pretreatment by zincating
The most typical failures on coated profiles and how to avoid them
Black spotting
Transverse welds
Acid or alkali corrosion
Water staining
Etch staining
anodising process
Degreasing prior to anodising
Anodising
Anodising process parameters
anodising step
Anodising process parameters
antimony
Influence of antimony, bismuth and lead
appearance
Anodising
area ratio
The main factors influencing the galvanic corrosion rate
How to avoid or minimize galvanic corrosion
artificial ageing
Artificial ageing
Additional information
as fabricated
F : As Fabricated
ASS test
ASS test
atmospheric corrosion
Atmospheric corrosion

B
balanced alloy
Influence of main elements, Mg and Si
Influence of copper
band saw
Band saw
bending
Influence of thermal treatment and shaping
Bending
Bending
Material properties
Dimension and shape
Bending angle
Bending direction
Bending method
benzoates
Water treatment
bimetallic couples
Bimetallic couples
Recommendations for bimetallic couples
biocides
Water treatment
bismuth
Influence of antimony, bismuth and lead
black spotting
Black spotting
blasting
Lacquering and painting
Blasting
blind-riveted nuts
Blind riveted nuts
bolt
Screws and bolts
Through-bolt and nut
Joining procedure
brazing
Brazing
Soldering and brazing
Brazing
Brazeability
Brazing methods
bright anodising
Mechanical polishing
Which alloys are suitable for anodising?
The effects of the various alloying elements on the anodising appearance
Bright anodising
brinell hardness
Hardness vs tensile strength for 6000-extrusions
buckling
Compression
Bending
buffing
Oiling or greasing
Buffing or mopping
Colour-buffing

C
calcium silicate plates
Calcium silicate plates
calculation procedure
Calculation procedure
CASS test
CASS test
cathode
What is anodising?
cathodic efficiency
The main factors influencing the galvanic corrosion rate
cathodic protection
Cathodic protection
cavitation
Introduction to flow influenced corrosion
Cavitation corrosion
ceramic fibres
Ceramic fibres
characteristic resistance
Definitions
chemical composition
General information on main alloy groups
Chemical composition
chemical polishing
Mechanical polishing
Electrolytic and chemical polishing
Which method to use?
Chemical polishing
Process steps for plating on aluminium
chemical resistance
Sealing (hot water sealing)
chemicals
Foods and chemicals
chromate
Water treatment
chromate conversion coating
Conversion coating
chromating
Chromating
chromium
Influence of manganese and chromium
circular saw
Circular saw
cladding
Cathodic protection
cleaning
Cleaning procedures
clinching
Spot clinching
Clinching
CNC machining centre
CNC machining centre
CO2
Influence of dissolved CO2 and H2S
coefficient of linear expansion
Coefficient of linear expansion
Coefficient of linear expansion
cold sealing
Special sealing processes
Cold sealing
colour anodising
Which alloys are suitable for anodising?
White spots
colour stability
Sealing (hot water sealing)
colour-buffing
Colour-buffing
combined stresses
Combined stresses
combustion
Combustion
compression
Compression
concrete
Aluminium in contact with concrete
connection systems
Connection system
conventional MIG
MIG-welding
conversion coating
Conversion coating
Chromating
Yellow chromating
Difference between the conversion coatings
Various pretreatment methods prior to lacquering
copper
Influence of copper
Corrosion in fresh water
Aluminium in contact with wood
copper inclusions
Inclusions
corrodkote
Corrodkote test
corrosion design
Corrosion design, general guide-lines
Corrosion design, drawings
corrosion fatigue
Introduction to stress influenced corrosion
Corrosion fatigue
corrosion in sea water
Corrosion data in sea water
corrosion resistance
Corrosion resistance
Properties of the anodic oxide coating
Anodising process parameters
Pulse anodising
Sealing (hot water sealing)
Hard anodising
Cold sealing
Components in a lacquer
Various pretreatment methods prior to lacquering
Why do plating on aluminium?
counterboring
Counterboring
crack tip opening displacement
Fracture toughness parameters
cracks
Cracks
crater cracks
Crater cracks
creep
Creep
crevice corrosion
Crevice corrosion
critical J-integral
Fracture toughness parameters
critical stress intensity factor
Fracture toughness parameters
current density
Pulse anodising
cutting fluids
Cutting fluids

D
DC TIG-welding
TIG-welding
DC/AC colouring
EC-colouring by means of DC/AC steps
deformation
Influence of thermal treatment and shaping
Practical design
Deformation
Deformation check
deformation hardening
Strengthening of the alloys
Deformation hardening
degreasing
Degreasing prior to anodising
Various application methods for wet paints
White spots
Failures in the pretreatment process and how to avoid them
density
Density
deoxidizing
Various application methods for wet paints
deposits
Crevice corrosion
Influence of flow rate
design load
Definitions
design resistance
Definitions
desmut
Black spotting
desmutting
Desmutting
dichromates
Water treatment
direct current
Electrolytic colouring (EC colouring)
drilling
Drilling
dye colouring
Dyeing of the anodic oxide layer
Combination colouring
dye penetrant
Dye penetrant examination
dyeing
White anodising

E
effect of temperature
Effect of temperature on strength
Strength at elevated temperatures
Roomtemperature strength after high temperature exposure on AW-6063
Roomtemperature strength after high temperature exposure on AW-6082
elastic range
Strength of material
electrical conductivity and resistivity
Electrical conductivity and resistivity
electrical resistance
The main factors influencing the galvanic corrosion rate
Properties of the anodic oxide coating
electroless nickel plating
Electroless nickel plating
electroless plating
Design of extrusion regarding surface treatment
Mechanical polishing
electrolytic colouring
Dyeing of the anodic oxide layer
Electrolytic colouring (EC colouring)
Combination colouring
White anodising
electrolytic deposition
How to avoid or minimize galvanic corrosion
electrolytic plating
Design of extrusion regarding surface treatment
electrolytic polishing
Bright anodising
Process steps for plating on aluminium
electrophoresis
Electrophoretic sealing
Various application methods for wet paints
electrophoretic sealing
Electrophoretic sealing
electroplated
Buffing or mopping
electroplating
Mechanical polishing
Electroless nickel plating
electropolished
Buffing or mopping
electropolishing
Mechanical polishing
Which method to use?
Electropolishing
Chemical polishing
electrostatic powder coating
Electrostatic powder coating
Powder coating
electrostatic spraying
Various application methods for wet paints
elevated temperatures
Properties at elevated temperatures
endurance of human being
Properties of aluminium and endurance of human beings; page 1
entrapment areas
Corrosion in sea-water
Corrosion design, drawings
epoxy powder coating
Properties of epoxy powder coatings
epoxy-polyester powder coatings
Properties of epoxy-polyester powder coatings
equivalent insulation thickness, fire technical calculations
Rules
erosion
Introduction to flow influenced corrosion
Erosion- and turbulence-corrosion
etching
Lacquering and painting
Etching
Desmutting
White spots
Transverse welds
Die design streaks
Acid or alkali corrosion
Water staining
Etch staining
Failures in the pretreatment process and how to avoid them
Failures in the pretreatment process and how to avoid them
exco test
Exco
exfoliation corrosion
Exfoliation corrosion
extrusion
The extrusion process (Topic: 10201)

F
F
F : As Fabricated
failure assessment diagram
Assessment of defects
fatigue
Introduction to fatigue
fatigue curves
Fatigue
Fatigue curve for alloy AW-6060
Fatigue curve for alloy AW-6063
Fatigue curve for alloy AW-6082
female threads
Female threads in aluminium components
Blind riveted nuts
ferric chloride test
Ferric chloride
filiform corrosion
Filiform corrosion
filler metals
Brazing
Filler materials for welding
film hardness
Hard anodising
fingerprint corrosion
Finger print corrosion
fire casualties
Fire casualties
fire prevention
Protection philosophy; general
Regulations
fire resistance
Fire resistance, thermal load
fire risk
Properties of aluminium and endurance of human beings; page 1
fire technical calculations
Rules for fire technical calculation of insulated aluminium alloy structures
fixed-head router
Fixed-head router
flow influenced corrosion
Introduction to flow influenced corrosion
flow rate limits
Erosion- and turbulence-corrosion
Influence of flow rate
flux
Brazing
Brazing methods
foods
Foods and chemicals
formability
Formability
fracture mechanics
Acceptance criteria for weld defects
fracture resistance
Fracture toughness parameters
fracture toughness parameters
Fracture toughness parameters
fresh water
Corrosion in fresh water
fretting corrosion
Fretting corrosion
Fretting corrosion (traffic markings)
Friction
Friction stir welding (FSW)
friction system
Friction system

G
gallium
Influence of mercury, indium, gallium and tin
galvanic contact
Info protective adhesive tapes
galvanic corrosion
Galvanic corrosion
Properties of the anodic oxide coating
galvanic series
The main factors influencing the galvanic corrosion rate
Galvanic series in sea-water at 10ƒC
Galvanic series in water pH=6
How to avoid or minimize galvanic corrosion
general corrosion
General corrosion
Properties of the anodic oxide coating
gloss
Etching
GMAW
MIG-welding
good design
How to avoid crevice corrosion
grain boundaries
Intergranular corrosion
green chromating
Green chromating
grinding
Grinding
Grinding
GTAW-welding
TIG-welding
gypsum plates
Gypsum plate

H
H
H: Strain hardened
H2S
Influence of dissolved CO2 and H2S
hacksaw
Hacksaw
halogenated hydrocarbons
Foods and chemicals
hard anodising
Which alloys are suitable for anodising?
Which alloys are suitable for anodising?
Hard anodising
hardness
Hardness vs tensile strength for 6000-extrusions
Hard anodising
HAZ cracks
Heat affected zone (HAZ) cracks
HC-fire
Fire resistance, thermal load
heat affected zones
Heat affected zones
heat of fusion
Heat of fusion
Heat of fusion
heat radiation
Aluminium as a reflector
heat radiation shield
Aluminium as a reflector
heat treatment
Influence of thermal treatment and shaping
heat-treatable alloys
Heat-treatable alloys
heat-treatment
Heat-treatment
high speed machining
Grinding
high temperatures
Properties at elevated temperatures
hinge
Hinge
Hookes law
Strength of material
hot dipping
Cathodic protection
hot water sealing
Hard anodising
Special sealing processes
Cold sealing
Hx8 (1/1-hard)
Hx8 (1/1-hard)

I
immersed structures
Corrosion in sea-water
Info, CP with impressed current
impingement corrosion
Introduction to flow influenced corrosion
Impingement corrosion
Important standards
Important standards
inclusions
Inclusions
incomplete penetration
Incomplete penetration
indium
Influence of mercury, indium, gallium and tin
inhibitors
Water treatment
insulation
Standard fire test requirement
Passive fire protection
Insulation technique
insulation correction factor
Insulation correction factor
integral colour anodising
Integral colouring
integrity
Standard fire test requirement
intergranular corrosion
Intergranular corrosion
intermediate storing
Intermediate storing
intumescent materials
Intumescent materials
iron
Influence of iron

J
joining
Mechanical joining
joint sealing
How to avoid or minimize galvanic corrosion
How to avoid crevice corrosion

K
Kesternich test
Kesternich
knurling
Knurling

L
lack of fusion
Lack of fusion
lacquering
lacquering
lead
Influence of antimony, bismuth and lead
lightfastness
Dyeing of the anodic oxide layer
Test procedures for anodic oxide coating
limit state method
Limit state method
livestock manure
Aluminium in contact with livestock manure
load coefficient
Definitions
load-bearing capacity
Standard fire test requirement
local attack
General corrosion resistance of aluminium
local check of extrusions
Local check of extrusions
low temperature
Low temperature properties

M
machining
Shaping
Machining
Machining tools
magnesium
Influence of main elements, Mg and Si
magnetic properties
Magnetic properties
manganese
Influence of manganese and chromium
material coefficient
Definitions
materials selection
Materials selection
How to choose alloy and heat-treatment
matrix
Matrix
mechanical
Mechanical joining
mechanical , chemical
Bright anodising
mechanical polishing
Mechanical polishing
Electropolishing
Process steps for plating on aluminium
melting point
Melting point
melting temperature
Melting temperature
mercury
Influence of mercury, indium, gallium and tin
Mg2Si
General
microbial corrosion
microbial corrosion
microstructure
Influence of microstructure
MIG
MIG-welding
milling
Milling
Horizontal milling
Vertical milling
Universal milling
Routing
CNC machining centre
molybdates
Water treatment
mopping
Buffing or mopping
movable head router
Movable head router

N
national codes and regulations
National codes for structural aluminium alloys
National Standards
Comparison between National Standards
natural ageing
Natural Ageing
nickel
Influence of zinc, nickel and titanium
nitrates
Water treatment
noble material
Galvanic corrosion
Corrosion design, general guide-lines
non heat-treatable alloys
Non heat-treatable alloys
Non heat-treatable alloys
non-destructive examination methods (NDT)
Non-destructive examination of aluminium welds
non-flowing
Influence of flow rate
normal anodising
Why surface treat aluminium extrusions?
Bright anodising
normal anodising process
Normal architectural anodising
nut
Through-bolt and nut

O
O
O : Annealed
optical properties
Optical properties
over protection
Cathodic protection
overageing
Artificial ageing
Heat-treatable alloys
oxalic acid anodising
Anodising in various electrolytes
oxide coating
Etching
Anodising in various electrolytes
oxide hardness
Anodising process parameters
Anodising process parameters
oxide layer
Anodising process parameters
oxygen
Influence of O2-content
oxygen reduction
Influence of O2-content
oxygen scavengers
Water treatment
oxygen-cells
Influence of O2-content

P
paper corrosion
Paper corrosion
passive fire protection
Passive fire protection
phase diagram
General
phosphochromating
Conversion coating
phosphoric acid anodising
Anodising in various electrolytes
physical properties
Physical properties
Physical properties
pitting
Pitting corrosion
How to avoid or minimize pitting corrosion
pitting corrosion
Properties of the anodic oxide coating
plain strain fracture toughness
Fracture toughness parameters
planing
Planing
plasma arc cutting (PAC)
Plasma-keyhole welding
plasma-keyhole welding
Plasma-keyhole welding
plasma-MIG welding
Plasma-MIG welding
plastic range
Strength of material
plastic working
Shaping
Shaping by plastic working
plating
Plating on aluminium
What is plating?
Why do plating on aluminium?
Difficulties connected with the plating of aluminium
Which alloys are suitable for plating?
Pretreatment by zincating
Process steps for plating on aluminium
Plating on the zinc deposit
Cadmium plating
Nickel electroplating
Silver plating
Zinc plating
polishing
Buffing or mopping
Die design streaks
polyester powder coatings
Properties of polyester powder coatings
porosity
Porosity
potential difference
The main factors influencing the galvanic corrosion rate
potential drop
How to avoid or minimize galvanic corrosion
powder coating
lacquering
Components in a lacquer
Which type of lacquer to use?
Different treatment steps in a powder coating process
Drying prior to powder coating
Powder coating
Curing of the powder coating
Various application methods for wet paints
The most typical failures on coated profiles and how to avoid them
Failures in the pretreatment process and how to avoid them
Failures in the pretreatment process and how to avoid them
Failures in the powder coating process and how to avoid them
precipitation hardening
Precipitation hardening
General
pretreatment
Lacquering and painting
protective adhesive tapes
A review of the different methods of corrosion protection
pulse anodising
Pulse anodising
pulse plating
Pulse plating
pulsed MIG
MIG-welding
punch
Punch riveting
punching
Punching
pure aluminium
Group 3000 (AlMn)

Q
quench sensitivity
Quench sensitivity
quenching
General
Practical use of ageing in the extrusion plant

R
radioactive isotop
Radiographic examination
radiographic examination
Radiographic examination
reaming
Reaming
recrystallized
Influence of thermal treatment and shaping
reference electrode
Different reference electrodes compared to Cu/CuSO4
reflection
Reflection capacity
Aluminium as a reflector
relative corrosion resistance
Materials selection
risk analysis
Risk analysis
rivet
Riveting
Solid rivets
Riveting procedure
Rivet material
Rivet types
Blind rivets
riveting
Punch riveting
rockwool
Rockwool
rolling
Influence of thermal treatment and shaping
roughing
Roughing
routing
Routing

S
S-N curve
Behaviour of aluminium alloy
sacrificial anodes
Cathodic protection
safety factors
Allowable stress method
salt spray test
Salt spray
salt-SO2
Salt-SO2 test
sawing
Sawing
Circular saw
Band saw
Hacksaw
SCC
Stress corrosion cracking
screw
Screws and bolts
Screw material
Aluminium Screws
Surface coated screws
Screws of stainless steels
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Thread inserts
Joining procedure
sea-water
Corrosion in sea-water
sealing
Corrosion design, general guide-lines
Info protective adhesive tapes
Rinsing between the anodising steps
Sealing (hot water sealing)
Wood grain anodising
Special sealing processes
Various pretreatment methods prior to lacquering
Test procedures for anodic oxide coating
sealing bloom
Sealing (hot water sealing)
Sealing bloom
sealing processes
Hard anodising
selection of alloy
Materials selection
Alloys for extrusions
Guidenes for choosing alloy and heat-treatment
selection of calculation method
Design methods
selection of corrosion protection
A review of the different methods of corrosion protection
selection of heat-treatment
Heat-treatment
self draining
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self-tapping screws
Screw types
semi-automatic welding
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shaping
Planing
shear
Shear
side by side system
Side by side system
significance of the defects
Acceptance criteria for weld defects
silicates
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silicon
Influence of main elements, Mg and Si
slow-flowing
Influence of flow rate
snaplock
Snaplock
soil
Aluminium in contact with soil
soldering
Soldering and brazing
Soldering
solid solution hardening
Solid solution hardening
solution heat-treatment
General
Solution heat-treatment
Practical use of ageing in the extrusion plant
spalling
Spalling
spangling
Spangling
special properties and applications
Special properties and applications for non heat-treatable alloys
Special properties and applications for heat-treatable alloys
specific heat
Specific heat
Specific heat
splash
Corrosion in sea-water
Influence of O2-content
Aluminium in contact with livestock manure
spray painting
Various application methods for wet paints
spray-on cement based materials
Spray-on cement based materials
spray-transfer
MIG-welding
spraying
Cathodic protection
stability check
Stability check
stagnant
Influence of dissolved CO2 and H2S
standardised fire tests
Standard fire endurance tests
standardised thermal load
Fire resistance, thermal load
Temperature in deg. Celsius
steel inclusions
Inclusions
stoichiometric ratio
Intergranular corrosion
stray current corrosion
Stray current corrosion
strength
General information on main alloy groups
Strength levels of main alloy groups-table
Mechanical properties ñ typical values
Strength levels-non heat-treatable alloys
Strength levelsñheat-treatable alloys
Effect of temperature on strength
Strength of material
Mechanical properties
stress check
Stress check
stress corrosion cracking
Introduction to stress influenced corrosion
Stress corrosion cracking
stretching
Influence of thermal treatment and shaping
sulphuric acid anodising
Integral colouring
supersaturated solid solution
General
surface area
The main factors influencing the galvanic corrosion rate
surface hardness
Why surface treat aluminium extrusions?
Properties of the anodic oxide coating
surface quality
Surface properties
SWAAT test
SWAAT test

T
T
T : Thermally treated to produce stable tempers
T1
T1
T2
T2
T3
T3
T4
T4
T42
T42
T5
T5
T52
T52
T6
T6
T62
T62
T7
T7
T8
T8
T9
T9
tapping
Thread rolling
technological properties
technological properties
temper designation
Temper designation
temperature
Low temperature properties
Influence of temperature
Mechanical properties
tensile strength
Strength of material
tension
Tension
thermal conductivity
Thermal Conductivity (
Thermal conductivity
thermo-galvanic
How to avoid or minimize galvanic corrosion
Influence of temperature
thread inserts
Thread inserts
threading
Threading
Thread rolling
tidal zone
Corrosion in sea-water
TIG-welding
TIG-welding
tin
Influence of mercury, indium, gallium and tin
titanium
Influence of zinc, nickel and titanium
torsion
Torsion
tribostatic powder coating
Electrostatic powder coating
Powder coating
tungsten inclusions
Inclusions
turbulence
Introduction to flow influenced corrosion
Erosion- and turbulence-corrosion
turning
Turning
Tx51
Tx51
Tx510
Tx510
Tx511
Tx511
Txx51
Tx51
Txx510
Tx510

U
ultrasonic examination
Ultrasonic examination
under deposit
Aluminium in contact with livestock manure
undercut
Undercut

V
vermiculite plates
Vermiculite plates
vertical anodising
Vertical anodising
Wood grain anodising
VPPA (Variable Polarity Plasma Arc)
Plasma-keyhole welding

W
W
W: Solution heat-treated
water hardness
Corrosion in fresh water
water staining
Crevice corrosion
Water staining
Water staining
wear
Pulse anodising
Sealing (hot water sealing)
wear and corrosion resistance
Bright anodising
wear resistance
Properties of the anodic oxide coating
Anodising process parameters
Anodising in various electrolytes
Hard anodising
Curing of the powder coating
Test procedures for anodic oxide coating
weathering resistance
Anodising
weld metal cracks
Weld metal cracks
welded structures
Welded structures
welding
Welding
MIG-welding
Friction stir welding (FSW)
welding processes
Welding processes
white spots
White spots
wood
Aluminium in contact with wood
work hardening
Deformation hardening

X
X-ray
Radiographic examination

Y
yellow chromating
Yellow chromating
Various application methods for wet paints
yield strength
Strength of material
Young's modulus of elasticity
Strength of material
Practical design
Youngs modulus of elasticity

Z
zinc
Influence of zinc, nickel and titanium
zinc phosphating
Various application methods for wet paints
zincate process
Pretreatment by zincating
zincate solution
Process steps for plating on aluminium
zincating
Zinc plating
ZnMg2
General
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 Problem Of The Month
August 1997--Pump Practices And Component Life
Multipliers
A survey on how the pump installation and use practices effect the life of pump components has
revealed interesting information. Survey participants included knowledgeable rotating equipment
experts from around the world. This survey is one of the few efforts to link how a given practice
effects the quantification of component life. Preliminary survey results are described below and
refinements to these findings will be added, as additional results become available. Results from
this survey are intended for use in making life cycle cost calculations.

Pump manufactures such as Duriron (now know as Floserve) have details in their catalogs listing
good practices that should be followed, but quantifiable effects on component life are not listed.
Well known text book authors such as Heinz Bloch and Fred Geitner have details of good
practices identified in their 1994 book: An Introduction To Machinery Reliability Assessment,
2nd Edition, published by Gulf Publishing Company in Houston, TX--they provide some
quantification of effects on component life.

Costs for a good practice are readily identifiable. Results of the practice and the effects on
inherent life resulting from the practice have not been readily available. Now a central tendency
is available from knowledgeable individuals in the field of rotating equipment (from chemical
plants, refineries, and consultants) showing the effects of practices on the life of components.
This World Wide Web publication makes the details readily available for common use. It's
important to quantify the cost of practices and the results of component life and how that fits into
the overall life cycle costs.

You can:
1) Page down for this month's problem statement.
2) Return to the list of monthly problems by clicking here.
3) Bypass the background information and go directly to the problem statement
by clicking here.

Background
Respondents to the survey were asked to define good, better, and best practices--each practice is a
higher grade of installation and use. Each expert provided their estimates of the resulting
component life resulting from each practice. Also the respondents gave their estimates of costs
for the practice based on the lower grade practice as 100% (i.e, the cost datum).

Data was screened, and central tendencies established for each element. Smaller variances were
noted in the best practices. Larger variances were observed for the lower grade (good) practices.
The survey results have been converted into MIL-HDBK-217 type-models. MTBF models are
used rather than failure rate models since many practicing engineers involved in pumps and their
life seem to relate to MTBF better than with failure rates.

You can:
1) Page down for this month's problem statement.
2) Return to the list of monthly problems by clicking here.

The Problem
What are good practices for centrifugal pumps, how do the practices effect component life, and
how are the results put into a reliability model? These questions are summarized in the three
tables below. The component life multiplier reduces the inherent life of the components.

The best practices for each category are described in the percentage of inherent life that would
result. The component life multiplier is obtained from the product of the elements. Because of
rounding errors for the charts shown below, the multiplier of inherent life may not literally equal
the products obtained from this presentation table.

For the best practices, note the worst multiplier for loss of life may not be destroyer of overall life
for the pump--it depends upon the inherent reliability of the component. Best practices result in
the highest grade of installation and highest grade of operation. Of course the price paid for this
high-grade installation varies as multiples of the lowest grade installation (described as "good"
but meaning bad). The multipliers have practical meaning when absolute cost numbers are used.

Best Practices (Highest Grade): Installation & Use

Highest Cost Updated Pump L/D Suction Rotational Piping Rotational Foundation Grouting
Installation & 3/31/98 Curve % Straight Shaft Alignment Balance Design
Superb Using Latest Off BEP Runs Alignment
Operations Info.

+5% to Smooth at 5 Times

Component Component L/D = 10 to ±0.001 inches/ ±0.003 inch Monolithic &
-10% of 0.0198 inches/ Equipment
Life Multiplier 12 inch error error Adhesive Epoxy
BEP sec. Mass

Impeller 0.9726 98% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

Housing 0.8547 86% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

Pump Brgs 0.8719 98% 100% 100% 100% 99% 100% 100%

Seals 0.9533 98% 99% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

Shafts 0.8719 98% 100% 100% 100% 99% 100% 100%

 Coupling 0.9801 99% 100% 99% 100% 100% 100% 100%

Motor Brgs 1.0000 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

Motor Wd'gs 1.0000 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

Motor Rotor 1.0000 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

Motor Starter 1.0000 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

Cost As % Of
---------> 225% 130% 150% 150% 168% 400% 300%
Lowest Grade

Life cycle costing will tell if the extra cost paid for the best practice is worth the benefits received
for the extra life as compared to the life from the lowest grade [cheapest] installation.

Better practices are the in-between grade of installation and use practices. More loss of life occurs
(as the multiplier gets smaller) from these practices than with the best practice as shown in the
table below.

Better Practices (Middle Grade): Installation & Use

Mid-Cost Updated Pump L/D Suction Rotational Piping Rotational Foundation Grouting
Installation & 3/31/98 Curve % Straight Shaft Alignment Balance Design
OK Operating Using Latest Off BEP Runs Alignment
Practices Info.

+10% to Smooth at 3.5 Times

Component Component L/D = 6 to 8 ±0.003 inches/ ±0.010 inch Slightly Porous
-20% of 0.0448 inches/ Equipment
Life Multiplier inch error error But Adhesive
BEP sec. Mass

Impeller 0.6583 88% 95% 95% 94% 95% 95% 98%

Housing 0.5163 73% 95% 95% 92% 95% 95% 95%

Pump Brgs 0.3950 79% 90% 88% 88% 90% 90% 90%

Seals 0.4314 88% 90% 90% 84% 90% 90% 90%

Shafts 0.3950 79% 90% 88% 88% 90% 90% 90%

 Coupling 0.5705 92% 95% 90% 94% 95% 90% 91%

Motor Brgs 0.6036 94% 93% 94% 97% 95% 90% 90%

Motor Wd'gs 0.9776 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 99% 99%

Motor Rotor 0.6036 94% 93% 94% 97% 95% 90% 90%

Motor Starter 1.0000 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

Cost As % Of
181% 120% 120% 120% 138% 200% 200%
Lowest Grade

The good practices (meaning the lowest grade) show the greatest loss of inherent life. Generally
speaking, most pumps do not operate continuously so far off the BEP point. Thus the calculations
can be misleading in finding the overall component life multiplier---thus the pump curve
component for actual installations needs to be a weighted average. Other items (excluding Pump
Curve % Off BEP) do operate continuously and thus the life of components operating at the
extremes continuously destroys inherent component life.

Rarely does a single pump installation incorporate all of the minimum conditions and these
extremes cause engineers to use them as examples of why they can adopt these minimums as a
way of life--only to incur high operating costs and high maintenance costs. In general, do not use
all of these minimums simultaneously unless cost is no object and you really want to build a
monument to less than desirable practices--do what you can afford as you will pay a price in
significant loss of life.

Good Practices (Lowest Grade): Installation & Use

Lowest Cost Updated Pump L/D Suction Rotational Piping Rotational Foundation Grouting
Installation & 3/31/98 Curve % Straight Shaft Alignment Balance Design
Inferior Using Latest Off BEP Runs Alignment
Operations Info.

+15% to Smooth at 0.5 Times

Component Component L/D = 1 to 3 ±0.009 inches/ ±0.125 inch Cementitous&
-30% of 0.248 inches/ Equipment
Life Multiplier inch error error Low Adhesion
BEP sec. Mass

Impeller 0.1949 68% 75% 90% 69% 81% 88% 88%

Housing 0.1438 70% 80% 83% 64% 79% 78% 80%

 Pump Brgs 0.0151 65% 60% 58% 40% 61% 50% 55%

Seals 0.0095 51% 60% 40% 40% 64% 55% 55%

Shafts 0.0151 65% 60% 58% 40% 61% 50% 55%

Coupling 0.1149 76% 80% 65% 71% 78% 70% 75%

Motor Brgs 0.0737 78% 80% 55% 80% 75% 60% 60%

Motor Wd'gs 0.8625 97% 100% 100% 100% 95% 96% 98%

Motor Rotor 0.0737 78% 80% 55% 80% 75% 60% 60%

Motor Starter 1.0000 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

Cost As % Of
---------> 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%
Lowest Grade

Perhaps if you have pumps requiring monthly repairs, you are operating under the conditions
described above for the "Good" Practices.

Questions:
1) Why do you need to know the component life multipliers?

2) How do installation costs and demonstrated component lives effect life cycle costs?

Return to the list of monthly problems by clicking here. Return to top of this problem statement
by clicking here.

Solutions:

Answer to Question 1): Why do you need to know the component life multipliers?

The components mentioned above plus other components in a pump (such as pump shaft and
motor shaft) form a series reliability model. You need to know the MTBF for the items to make
an estimate of the MTBF for the mechanical system and the electrical system--which in turn form
the pumping system. Many people are surprised at how small the MTBF for the system becomes
when the inherent life of components are reduced by the component life multiplier--see the
September '97 problem of the month. Of course other people see why they make so many
maintenance visits to their pumping systems each year because life is lost from the grade of
installation and use--see the October '97 problem of the month.
Answer to Question 2) How do installation costs and demonstrated component lives effect
life cycle costs?

The issue of life cycle cost is to find the alternative, which will result in the least long term cost
of ownership. The cost issues are generally computed as a net present value (NPV) using a
discount technique. The NPV is sensitive to the initial capital cost and the calculation also
includes the yearly cost of maintenance actions, which become less sensitive as the assembly
ages. Of course the costs are comprised of a series of elements which vary in time and amount.
The only way to determine a specific case is to make the calculations---and don't forget the cost
of electricity for pumping systems as this is frequently the largest annual cost item for spared
pumps. Of course the final question involves life cycle costing to find cost-effective actions to
arrive at a solution most effective for the stockholders.

Return to the list of problems by clicking here. Return to top of this problem statement clicking
here.

Comments:

Refer to the caveats on the Problem Of The Month Page about the limitations of the following
solution. Maybe you have a better idea on how to solve the problem. Maybe you find where I've
screwed-up the solution and you can point out my errors as you check my calculations. E-mail

your comments, criticism, and corrections to: Paul Barringer by clicking here.

Technical tools are only interesting toys for engineers until results are converted into a business
solution involving money and time. Complete your analysis with a bottom line which converts $'s
and time so you have answers that will interest your management team!

Last revised 3/31/98

© Barringer & Associates, Inc. 1997

Return to Barringer & Associates, Inc. homepage

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Dial Indicator Alignment Procedure
The procedure for doing reverse dial indicator alignment is not a difficult one. There
are several steps which need to be taken for a successful alignment job.
Step 1
Familiarize with terms, techniques and procedure.
*follow all safety rules and procedures
Step 2
Learn about the machine you are aligning.
1. Visually check coupling, pipehangers, base bolts, coupling spacing etc.
2. Check for coupling & shaft run out.
Step 3
Know the characteristics of your tool. Perform a Sag Check
● A sag check is a test that determines the amount an indicator bracket will sag at a
given distance.
● How to perform a sag check:
Clamp the brackets on a sturdy piece of pipe the same distance they will be when placed
on the equipment. Zero both indicators on top, then rotate to the bottom. The difference
between the top and bottom reading is the sag.
● Sag will always have a negative value, so when allowing for sag on the vertical move
always start the dial indicator with a plus(+) reading. For example if you have .002" sag;
when you zero your indicators on top put the needle on a +2 instead of zero to
compensate for the sag.
Step 4
Prepare the machine.
a. Remove all existing shims from under the feet
-if old shims are to be used, clean them thoroughly.
-always use minimum amount of shims.
b. Clean the base thoroughly.
-scrape and file away all rust, nicks, and burrs
c. Examine the base bolts and holes.
-retap if necessary
-replace bolts if necessary
Step 5
Clean mounting surface, file off nicks and burrs.
b. Check indicators for sticking and loose needle.
c. Aim indicator stem directly toward center line of shaft.
Step 6
Measurement
-measure distance between the two indicators.
-measure distance between indicator and front feet.
-measure distance between front and back feet.
Step 7
Layout graph paper
-mark indicator position
-mark feet position.
-remember to mark + and - signs (this eliminates confusion)
example: graph layout

Step 8
Preliminary Horizontal Move

● The horizontal move is the part of the alignment process that aligns the shaft's centerlines
from side to side. View the machine from the pump end, zero the indicators on the left,
and then rotate and read on the right. Make sure that you always view the pump from the
same direction in order for you to keep the left and right directions correct. There is no sag
compensation on the horizontal move.

For Example:
the indicator on the pump reads -8
the indicator on the motor reads +10

The shafts are collinear at 1/2 the Total Indicator Reading.

● Using graph paper to illustrate the position. Under the indicator position mark the point
that is 1/2 the indicator reading. (-4 for the pump and +5 for the motor) Connect these
points and extend the line past the motors feet. This will show you how much you need to
move the motor for horizontal alignment.

These indicator readings mean that you need to move the motor:
front foot .006" left
back foot .007" left

You can avoid graphing the horizontal move by zeroing the indicators on the left and rotate them
to right. Now turn the indicator needles half way to zero and begin to walk the motor into place
by moving the farthest foot toward zero and then the nearest foot. Slowly walk the motor into
place by alternating the moves until you obtain two zero indicator readings.
Now begin the procedure for the vertical move. Be sure to check your equipment for sag and soft
foot.

Step 9
Check for Soft Foot
Soft foot is a condition in which one of the feet does not sit flat on the base. The foot or the base
may have been warped. When you tighten the bolt on the foot, the machinery will distort.

Parallel Soft Foot Angular Soft Foot

How to check for Soft Foot

1. Move indicators to 12 o'clock position, depress indicators and then zero.

2. Loosen one base bolt. If indicator moves away form zero, place the amount of shims that
will slide under that foot. Retighten bolt and make sure the dial indicator needle does not
move.
3. Repeat this procedure for the remaining feet.

Step 10
Perform Vertical Move

The vertical move is the part of the alignment process that aligns the two shaft's centerlines into
their proper up and down position. Usually you will have to add or remove shims in this step.
The indicators are zeroed on the top and read at the bottom. (start with a plus + reading if you
need to compensate for sag)
Example:
the indicator on the pump reads -12
the indicator on the motor reads +8
This means that the shafts are one half the total indicator reading from being collinear at these
points.
Using a square grid graph paper to illustrate the position. Under the indicator position mark the
point that is half the indicator reading. ( -6 for pump side indicator and +4 for the motor side
indicator) Connect these two points with a line and then continue the line past the lines
representing the feet on the motor. The graph now shows that the front foot needs to have
a .003" shim added and the back foot needs to have a .001" shim added.

Now with your shims in place. Tighten all bolts and take and check your readings. If the
readings are within tolerance than your equipment should be aligned.

Step 11
Tighten all bolts and recheck indicator readings.

Step 12
Remove alignment brackets.

The more you become familiar with these steps the faster you will be able to align your
machinery.
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Contact Us Submitted by: Wes Williams.

Tech book tip Tips and advices when doing upgrades.

I have several sites I upgrade and the process is

always the same.

I install the upgrade on an extra workstation I use for

upgrades. By doing this I can work on my screens and
reports independently.

Crystal Reports I document any screen customizing I neglected to

Quick Start document earlier, paying close attention to any
Workshop Version accelerator keys etc. which are normally lost during the
8.0 export/import of screens. (Note by MAXIMO-Users.net:
It's very important to document ALL changes of the
screens. Some people prefer to transfer changes to the
screens in the new version manually because the
export/import utility doesn't always take care of
everything).

I create an upgrade database (Copy of production

database) and run the upgrade against it.

Now I can test and tweak the upgraded product. I can

also test any interfaces we have. This is important. It
 New Resources is much easier to fix an issue in a test environment vs
MAXIMO/
a production.
Agents
Distributors: So if possible setup a test environment, install program
The Createch Group
and test and test. Then when you are satisfied roll it
MAXIMO/ out.
Training:
The Createch Group Addition by MAXIMO-Users.net:
MAXIMO/
Consulting Check the list of known bugs and problems at the MRO
Implementation: support site before you implement the upgrade.
The Createch Group

Industries/ If you do a big upgrade, your users might need some

Automotive: attention before you implement the upgrade. No
Hi-Bond Bearings matter how much you test, you'll probably never
Pvt. Ltd. discover all problems before the users start using it.
Software/
It's therefore very effective to do training (Update the
Other: users on what's new) in the upgraded test environment
VIP Quality Software before you roll it out. The users are happy to get some
training and you have a good chance of discovering
Industries/ unknown problems.
Pharmaceutical:
ComplianceDoc, Inc.
During big upgrades the SQR reports have to be
You'll find details recompiled. They may also require some changes to
about these and
work properly in the new version.
many other in our
Resource
directory. When you perform the upgrade on the test database,
make sure you take a note of everything that's not
Help us taken care of by the upgrade from MRO, so you end up
spread the
with a detailed upgrade plan by the time you've
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Recommended reading/learning

Vibration analysis: Vibration Spectrum Analysis :

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by Steve Goldman. Introduces the latest

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new practice questions.
Spares control: Policy and Procedures Manual for
Purchasing and Materials Control

by R. Jerry Baker. This manual provides

sample policies and procedures for
purchasing, materials control, and inventory
management. Also included are sample
forms and reports for implementing these
policies and procedures.

Click here to check out our full range of maintenance

books!

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Other: MAXIMO Tips and Technique #1, Tip and

Technique name: Querying and Searching 1
Author: Paramee Kullanatpokin Issued date: OCT19,
06 Issued number: 1/2006. (October 21) -> Get it!

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PUMP SYSTEM FORMULAS IN METRIC UNITS
USEFUL EQUATIONS

more info.

Flow vs.
velocity
and to do your own Flow and velocity calculations with this java applet
HOME
CONTACT US
SERVICES more info.
Specific
PRODUCTS
gravity
REFERENCE
TUTORIALS
vs. fluid
For typical values see the pump glossary.
GLOSSARY
density
What can I do
onKinematic
this site?
ON-LINE
viscosity
CALCULATIONS
ν vs.
DOWNLOADS
dynamic more info
LINKS
(absolute)
DISCUSSION
viscosity
TROUBLE
µ
SHOOTING
Kinematic
FRANÇAIS
viscosity
vs.
dynamic
(absolute)
viscosity
Kinematic
viscosity

SSU vs.
cSt
Pressure
vs. more info
pressure
head or
fluid
column and to do your own head and pressure calculations with this java applet
height
 more info

Reynolds
number
and to do your own Reynolds number calculations with this java applet

see Appendix B in

Pipe tutorial.pdf
friction
loss

and do your own calculations with this java applet

see Appendix C in tutorial.pdf

Fittings
friction
loss
and pump_glossary.htm and do your own calculations with this java applet

Friction
factor for
the
more info
laminar
flow
regime
Friction
factor for
the
more info
turbulent
flow
regime
Friction
factor for
the
turbulent
flow
more info
regime

Swamee
& Jain
equation
Total
Head
see Figure A-1 at bottom more info

N.P.S.H.
A. (Net
positive
suction
head see Figure A-2 at bottom and do your own calculations with this java applet and view
available) this help file to learn more about NPSHA
Pump
shaft
brake
power
Power at
the pump
shaft
through
the motor

more info

Specific
and also specific_speed_primer.pdf
speed

and do your own calculations with this java applet

more info

Suction
specific and also specific_speed_primer.pdf
speed

and do your own calculations with this java applet

Affinity
law more info

Flow vs.
impeller
speed and
diameter and do your own calculations with this java applet

Affinity
law more info

Head vs.
impeller
speed and
diameter and do your own calculations with this java applet

Affinity
law more info

Power vs.
impeller
speed and
diameter and do your own calculations with this java applet
Figure A-1
Figure A-2

Symbols

A: area: m2 (meter square)

D: pipe diameter: mm (millimeter)
f: pipe friction factor
g: acceleration due to gravity: 9.8 m/s2: (metert/second squared)
H: head: m (meter)
∆HP: Total Head: m
∆HDS: discharge static head: m
∆HEQ: equipment head difference: m
∆HF: friction head difference: m
∆HSS: suction static head: m
∆HTS: total static head: m
∆Hv: velocity head difference: m
L: length of pipe: m
p: pressure: kPa (kiloPascal)
P.F.: powr factor

P: power: kW (Watt)

Re: Reynolds number

SG: specific gravity; ratio of the fluid density to the density of water at standard conditions
q: volumetric flow rate: m3/s
v: velocity: m/s
W: work: kJ
z: vertical position: m

Greek terms
∆: delta: the difference between two terms
ε: epsilon: pipe roughness: m
ν: nu: kinematic viscosity cSt (centiStoke)
η: efficiency
µ: mu: dynamic viscosity
ρ: rho: density: kg/m3
γ: gamma: specific weight: N/m3
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 World Leader in High Pressure Pumps
CAT PUMPS has become the world leader of industrial,
reciprocating, high-pressure, triplex plunger pumps. Our high
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 Discflo Corporation
Discflo Corporation leads the field in engineering pump solutions for
hard-to-pump applications. Founded in 1982, the company has built a
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 Low Maintenance
EDDY PUMP Corporation Zero Seal Leakage
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Tornado Power Pump High Total Solids Handling
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What's New! The EDDY Pump is not a class of centrifugal pump nor a vortex type pump, but a
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Characteristics
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Applications
similar to that which occurs in a tornado. The tornado generates a high velocity rotating air
Success Stories mass with a central column of increasingly high pressure reaching toward the ground
Customer Comments surrounded by peripheral low pressure eddies. As the lower tip of the tornado touches
Press Releases (pdf files) down on the ground, objects are drawn into the low pressure peripheral eddies. This effect
Brochures (pdf files) enables the tornado to pulverize and pick up and carry objects into the rotating air masses.
Papers (pdf files)
Presentations (pdf files)
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Automation Engineering pump inlet to the pump discharge. This action enables the EDDY Pump to achieve
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Links centrifugal and vortex pumps.
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Eddy Pump Co. About Us

15405 Olde HWY 80
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The EDDY Pump is protected by U.S. Patent 4,596,511 as well as other patents and patents pending in U.S.A., Canada, Latin America, Europe and Asia.
EDDY PUMP and the EDDY PUMP Logo are registered trademarks of the EDDY PUMP Corporation. "Tornado Power Pump Systems" and "Pumps Better
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FYBROC FIBERGLASS PUMPS - The world's
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Patterson Pump Company*

P.O. Box 790
Toccoa, GA 30577 USA
Phone: 706-886-2101
Fax: 706-886-0023
manufactures pumps that are used
in a variety of markets, including:
municipal, sewage, industrial,
irrigation, fire protection, agriculture
and OEM.

180 Hines Ave.
Bellville, OH 44813 USA
Phone: 419-886-3001
Fax: 419-886-2338
Gorman-Rupp Industries
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Patterson Manufactures Massive
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$33-million expansion of pumping stations for
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Gorman-Rupp
of Canada Limited*
manufactures a full line of pumps
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70 Burwell Road including: municipal, sewage,
St. Thomas, Ontario industrial, mining, construction,
N5P 3R7 Canada
Phone: 519-631-2870
petroleum, agriculture, OEM and
Patterson Pump Company introduced the Pro- Fax: 519-631-4624 government.
Max® frame-mounted end suction HVAC
pumps which are engineered to a high-
efficiency design that minimizes energy
consumption. They feature a removable back
design for easy access and maintenance.

See more...

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VII. Pump Stations

A. Introduction - HRSD owns and operates wet well stations and pressure
reducing stations. Wet well stations are sized to receive projected flows from
gravity sewers and discharge to force mains. Pressure reducing stations and/or
other facilities are sized to maintain the pressure head in force mains within
HRSD operating limits. Wet well stations, force mains and pressure reducing
stations are all sized and operated per HRSD policy for a maximum pressure
head under normal operating conditions equal to the required static head plus
a maximum head loss of 65 feet due to friction head loss and velocity head
loss.

1. Wet Well Pump Station - Flows are discharged by gravity sewers or

force mains into a wet well from which they are pumped into a force
main. The pumps are designed for a flooded suction condition and are
located in a separate dry well adjacent to the wet well with intake
piping leading from the wet well to the pumps.

2. Pressure Reducing Station (PRS) - A pressure reducing station is

connected directly to a force main and is used to maintain the pressure
on the suction side of the pumps between ten feet and 65 feet plus the
plant influent elevation provided by the HRSD Hydraulic Model.

B. Description of Operation

1. Wet Well Pump Station

a. Wet well stations typically use variable speed pumps to match

flow fluctuations and minimize turbulence in the wet well to
reduce odor, corrosion and air entrainment

b. Wet well stations operate by starting the lead pump when the
wet well water level increases to a preset limit. The lead pump
speeds up and slows down to maintain the wet well water
preset level or range. If the lead pump cannot maintain the wet
well water preset level or range, an additional pump or pumps
are started and are operated together with the lead pump to
maintain the wet well water level within the preset level or
range. As the wet well water level decreases to preset lower
limits, the pumps are stopped in reverse order as needed until
all pumps are stopped.

VII-1
07/04
 2. Pressure Reducing Station

a. Pressure reducing stations typically use variable speed pumps

to match flow fluctuations to lower the pressure on the suction
side of the booster pump station from approximately 65 feet to
ten feet. Pressure reducing stations do not necessarily run
continuously and are not normally required to operate until the
force main flow reaches approximately two-thirds of the design
flow.

b. Pressure reducing stations operate by starting the lead pump

when the force main discharge pressure increases to a preset
high limit. The lead pump speeds up and slows down to
maintain the force main suction pressure within a preset range.
If the lead pump cannot maintain the force main suction
pressure within the preset range, an additional pump or pumps
are started and operated together to maintain the suction
pressure within the preset range. As the force main discharge
pressure decreases to preset lower limits, the pumps are
stopped in the reverse order as needed until all pumps are
stopped.

c. Provide for piping and valves at the pump station site so that
the force main flows can be pumped in either direction as
appropriate with the operation of a minimum number of valves.

C. General

1. Provide a separate generator room or building with adequate space for

maintenance and heat rejection from the engine block and exhaust system or
isolate remaining areas from generator noise and heat.

2. Pump station shall meet the design capacity with one pump out of service. In
a station with two pumps, one pump is required to meet the design capacity
and in a station with three pumps only two of the three pumps are required to
meet the design capacity. The normal control sequence shall include only the
pumps required to meet the design capacity.

3. Provide a slope on the pump room floor that will convey seepage from pump
packing and drainage from wash down to a sump.

4. Provide a commode in a separate room or enclosure. Provide a wash basin in

the pump station.

VII-2
07/04
 5. Include a site plan showing property lines, building, piping, existing &
proposed utilities, valves, emergency pump connection (wet well stations
only), physical features, topography, etc and any other requirements by the
local approving authority.

6. Design shall incorporate measures to facilitate the maintenance and removal

of equipment and pumps.

7. Provide access to dry well and wet well by stairs. Spiral stairs are not
acceptable. Stairs shall be a minimum width of 36 inches and shall include
handrails on both sides.

8. Design wet well and influent piping to minimize turbulence and air
entrainment in the wet well.

9. Provide minimum submergence required to eliminate vortex at pump suction

intake.

10. Provide for odor control for the wet well.

11. Locate discharges for sump pump, pump air release and restroom discharge
away from pump intakes in the wet well and design to minimize turbulence
and air entrainment.

12. Provide a shut off valve or slide gate on the gravity influent pipe.

13. Provide removable bar screen.

14. Provide smooth interior wet well surfaces. Provide a PVC sheet liner such as
T-Lock on all interior concrete surfaces of the wet well except the floor. Use
white, not black.

D. Site Work

1. See the Miscellaneous Section for additional information.

2. Provide concrete entrance and a paved driveway for off street parking, access
to building and provision to turn around a crew truck.

VII-3
07/04
E. Masonry

1. See the Miscellaneous Section for additional information.

2. Building walls shall be concrete block with exterior brick veneer.

3. All lintels shall be stainless steel.

F. Equipment

1. Provide for the peak design flow conditions to be met by all pumps operating
together except the standby pump.

2. Provide a minimum of three equal sized pumps including standby pump.

3. Pumps shall be dry-pit submersible pumps installed in the dry well. Pump,
motor and impeller shall be balanced as a unit at the factory prior to shipment.
Motor shall be inverter duty rated.

4. Pumps shall generally operate at speeds below 1,000 RPM.

G. Conveying Systems

1. Provide a load rated monorail and hoist with appropriate hatches and doors to
facilitate the removal of the pumps and motors for maintenance. Use
removable load rated grating to cover interior openings that are to be used for
removal of equipment. Indicate the load ratings on the plans and stencil load
ratings on the hoist and monorail.

2. Provide rated lifting eyes to assist with equipment removal.

H. Mechanical

1. Interior Piping

a. Provide ductile iron flanged joint.

b. Provide a gate valve on the suction and discharge sides of each pump.

c. Provide ductile iron resilient seat gate valves that meet the
requirements of AWWA C509. Valves shall be OS&Y, open left and
be coated with fusion bonded epoxy.

VII-4
07/04
 d. Provide a check valve on the discharge side of each pump between the
gate valve and the pump.

e. Provide iron body, bronze seat check valves with packing glands and
external lever and spring in accordance with AWWA C508.

f. Provide adequate pipe support and thrust restraint with base elbows,
base pads or hangers as required. Pipe supports on the floor shall be
mounted on housekeeping pads.

g. Use eccentric reducers (match elevations at top of pipe) on the suction

and discharge piping in order to prevent the entrapment of air.

h. Provide a manual air release on the discharge of each pump. Reduce

from tap on pump volute to ½ inch pipe and ½ inch ball valve.
Provide a union to transition to ¾ inch HDPE air release piping to wet
well. All pipe valves and fittings except HDPE shall be stainless steel.

i. Exterior wall penetrations shall be accomplished with a wall sleeve.

Seal between sleeve and carrier pipe with a “Link Seal” type seal.
Penetrations between the pump room and wet well for pump suction
piping shall utilize wall pipe with integral collar.

j. Provide an eye wash station near the generator batteries in accordance

with the current safety requirements.

2. Exterior Piping (Force Main)

a. See the Pipelines Section for additional requirements for force mains.

b. Wet Well Pump Station - Provide an emergency pump connection with

a flanged wye and blind flanges.

3. Provide for space heating to prevent freezing of pump station facilities.

4. Provide for ventilation of approximately 30 air changes per hour when the
pump station is occupied.

5. Provide potable water for the restroom and hose bibs from the municipal
water system or from a well if municipal water system is not available.

6. Provide a Virginia Department of Health approved backflow preventer to be

installed on the main potable water line where it enters the pump station and
prior to any outlets in the pump station.

VII-5
07/04
 7. Provide for the discharge of restroom drainage and the sump pump.

a. Pressure Reducing Station – Discharge restroom drainage to the

municipal sanitary sewer system, if available or pump discharge into
the pump station suction leg utilizing a small package grinder pump.
Grinder pump shall meet the maximum inlet head conditions.

b. Wet Well Pump Station – Discharge restroom drainage to the pump

station wet well.

I. Electrical

1. See the Electrical and Instrumentation Section for additional information

regarding electrical and instrumentation systems.

2. Provide diesel generator or other source of alternate power in order to meet

Class I reliability. The generator shall be designed to meet the design capacity
of the pump station with the primary power off.

3. Install electrical equipment and motors (unless submersible motors are used)
above the 100 year flood elevation.

4. Require Contractor to install wiring for alarm system to the transmitter.

Alarm points to be determined by HRSD. Alarm transmitter shall be provided
by HRSD.

5. Provide variable frequency drive controllers to control pump speed.

a. Pressure Reducing Station

(1) Pump speed shall be controlled in response to suction pressure.

(2) Provide pressure sensors on the suction and discharge piping.

See Standard Details Section.

b. Wet Well Pump Station

(1) Pump speed shall be controlled in response to wet well level.

(2) Provide pressure sensor on the discharge piping.

6. Include contacts to operate the pumps across the line in the event that the
variable frequency drives fail. The alarm system will notify the operators of a
variable frequency drive failure and the drives must be switched to the across
the line contacts manually. The pumps can be started sequentially in the

VII-6
07/04
 across the line mode of operation. Evaluate other means of providing variable
frequency drive backup when motor horsepower exceeds 200 HP. In all
cases, investigate the capacity of the local power grid to accommodate the
across the line motor starting.

VII-7
07/04
Department of Land and Natural Resources
COMMISSION ON WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

HAWAII
Well Construction
& Pump Installation
STANDARDS

Honolulu, Hawaii
Revised February 2004
 Linda Lingle
Governor

DEPARTMENT OF LAND AND NATURAL RESOURCES

COMMISSION ON WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

PETER T. YOUNG
CHAIRPERSON

MEREDITH J. CHING
CLAYTON W. DELA CRUZ
JAMES A. FRAZIER
CHIYOME L. FUKINO, M.D.
STEPHANIE A. WHALEN

ERNEST Y.W. LAU

DEPUTY DIRECTOR

1st Edition January 1997

2nd Edition February 2004

ii
 FOREWORD

About 50 percent of Hawaii's water supply comes from ground-water sources.

Ground water, which is also used for agricultural, industrial, and domestic purposes, is the
principal source of municipal water supplies in Hawaii. Consequently, protecting the
quality and quantity of ground water throughout the State is essential to Hawaii's future
well being.
Improperly and inadequately constructed wells can cause pollution or increase the
chances of salt-water intrusion to ground-water sources to the point of requiring cessation
of use or expensive treatment before use. The Hawaii State Water Code and the
Administrative Rules of the Department of Land and Natural Resources require the
Commission on Water Resource Management to develop minimum standards for the
construction, modification, repair/maintenance, and sealing/abandonment of wells in order
to protect the quality and quantity of Hawaii's ground-water resources.
The State Department of Health and county water supply departments also play a
critical role in maintaining drinking water sources and protecting ground-water quality.
Consequently, these government agencies may have adopted or may adopt in the future
more stringent standards for wells than are provided in these statewide minimum
standards.

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

1997 Edition
These standards were prepared after consideration of all comments and suggestions
from private parties and public agencies. Private parties included individuals, well drillers,
water users, and consultants. Public agencies included county water departments, State
Department of Health, and State Department of Land and Natural Resources (Land
Division).
Many comments and suggestions were received orally at public hearings and in
writing and the Commission on Water Resource Management wishes to thank all for their
time and effort during the review process.
2004 Edition
Many companies, agencies and individuals provided comments, advice and help in
revising these Standards (Table 1). The Commission on Water Resource Management
thanks all those who contributed to the review.

Table 1. Participation in the 2003-2004 Review Process

Written Comments Participation in Public Meetings Verbal Comments
Department of Health, Safe Drinking
Water Branch and Underground Injection
Control Beylik Drilling Oasis Water Systems, Inc.
Department of Health, Safe Drinking
Hawaii County Department of Water Water Branch and Underground Injection
Supply Control Tracy Runnells Well Service Inc.
Department of Land and Natural
Honolulu Board of Water Supply Resources, Engineering Division Valley Well Drilling
Hawaii County Department of Water
Mink and Yuen, Inc. Supply
Wai'eli Drilling Island Resources, Ltd.
James A. Frazier
Kauai Department of Water Supply
Limtiaco Consulting Group
Maui Department of Water Supply
Herbert M. Richards, Jr
U.S. Geological Survey
Wai'eli Drilling
Water Resources International, Inc.

iv
 CONTENTS
Page

Part 1. GENERAL PROVISIONS

1.1 Purpose and Scope ............................................................................. 1-1

1.2 Authority ........................................................................................... 1-1
1.3 Standards of Other Agencies .............................................................. 1-2
(a) New Drinking Water Wells .................................................... 1-2
(b) Injection (Drainage) Wells ..................................................... 1-3
(c) Geothermal Wells .................................................................. 1-3
(d) Test Borings ........................................................................... 1-3
1.4 Definitions ......................................................................................... 1-3
1.5 Exemptions from Unusual Conditions ............................................... 1-8
1.6 Well Drillers and Contractors ............................................................. 1-8
1.7 Permits Required ............................................................................... 1-8
1.8 Reports Required ............................................................................... 1-9
1.9 Exclusions ......................................................................................... 1-9

Part 2. WELL CONSTRUCTION

2.1 Well Construction Permits ................................................................. 2-1

2.2 Basal Well Depth ............................................................................... 2-2
2.3 Well Location .................................................................................... 2-2
(a) Distance from Sources of Pollution ......................................... 2-2
(b) Gradients (slopes) .................................................................. 2-2
(c) Flood and Drainage Areas ...................................................... 2-3
(d) Accessibility .......................................................................... 2-3
2.4 Well Casing ....................................................................................... 2-3
(a) General .................................................................................. 2-3
(b) Wall Thickness of Casing ...................................................... 2-3
(c) Minimum Length of Solid Casing .......................................... 2-5
(d) Casing Materials .................................................................... 2-5
(e) Casing Joints ............................................................................ 2-6
2.5 Rock or Gravel Packing the Annular Space ....................................... 2-7
2.6 Grouting the Annular Space ............................................................... 2-8
(a) General .................................................................................. 2-8
(b) Conductor Casing .................................................................. 2-8
(c) Minimum Depth of Grouted Annular Space ........................... 2-8
(d) Minimum Thickness of Grouted Annular Space .................... 2-8
(e) Grouting Materials for Annular Sealing ................................. 2-9
(f) Placement of the Annular Grout............................................... 2-9
2.7 Well Development............................................................................. 2-10
2.8 Well Disinfection............................................................................... 2-10
(a) General ................................................................................ 2-10
(b) Disinfection of Aquifer Section ............................................ 2-10
v
 2.9 Well Testing .................................................................................... 2-11
(a) Introduction ......................................................................... 2-11
(b) Step-Drawdown Tests (Well Efficiency Test) ....................... 2-12
(c) Constant-Rate Tests (Aquifer Test) ....................................... 2-12
(d) Accuracy of Measurements .................................................. 2-13
(e) Minimum Frequency of Measurements ................................ 2-13
(f) Pumping Test Records and Reports ..................................... 2-13
2.10 Well Completion .............................................................................. 2-14
(a) General ................................................................................ 2-14
(b) Well Completion Report and Records .................................. 2-15
2.11 Elevation Survey and GPS Location ................................................ 2-15
(a) Elevation Survey .................................................................. 2-15
(b) GPS Location ....................................................................... 2-16

Part 3. WELL ABANDONMENT/SEALING

3.1 General .............................................................................................. 3-1

3.2 Responsibility for Abandonment/Sealing ........................................... 3-2
3.3 Initiation of Abandonment/Sealing .................................................... 3-2
(a) Initiated by Well Owner or Operator ...................................... 3-2
(b) Initiated by Commission ........................................................ 3-2
3.4 Grouting Materials for Permanent Sealing ......................................... 3-2
3.5 Preliminary Work .............................................................................. 3-3
3.6 Sealing the Aquifer Section of a Well ................................................ 3-4
(a) Open Hole Section ................................................................. 3-4
(b) Perforated Casing Section ...................................................... 3-5
3.7 Sealing the Solid Casing Section of a Well ........................................ 3-5
(a) Properly Grouted Wells ......................................................... 3-5
(b) Improperly Grouted Wells ..................................................... 3-5
3.8 Special Provisions for Artesian Wells ................................................ 3-5
(a) General ................................................................................... 3-5
(b) Preliminary Work .................................................................. 3-6
(c) Sealing Procedures ................................................................. 3-6
3.9 Well Abandonment/Sealing Report .................................................... 3-7

vi
Part 4. PUMP INSTALLATION

4.1 Pump Installation Permits .................................................................. 4-1

(a) General .................................................................................. 4-1
(b) Emergencies .......................................................................... 4-1
4.2 General Installation Requirements ..................................................... 4-2
(a) Pumps & Pumping Equipment ............................................... 4-2
(b) Above-Grade Pump Connections ........................................... 4-2
(c) Well Vents ............................................................................. 4-2
(d) Water Level Measuring Device .............................................. 4-2
(e) Standards of Other Agencies .................................................. 4-3
4.3 Pumps ................................................................................................ 4-4
(a) Mounting ............................................................................... 4-4
(b) Lubrication ............................................................................ 4-4
(c) Hazardous Materials ............................................................... 4-4
(d) Potable and Non-Potable Interconnections .............................. 4-4
4.4 Water Meter......................................................................................... 4-4
4.5 Pump Installation Report ................................................................... 4-5

vii
 TABLES
Table Page

Table 1. Participation in the 2003-2004 Review Process………………….…………iv

Table 2. Well Permits and Reports Required………………………………………..1-10

Table 3. Minimum Steel Casing Wall Thickness for Non- Public

Water Supply Wells…………………………………………………………2-4

Table 4. Minimum Wall Thickness for Public Water Supply Wells …………………2-4

Table 5. Water Well Casing Materials…………………………………………...…...2-5

Table 6. Well Casing Joint Standards…………………………………………………2-7

Table 7. Guideline Amounts of Chlorine Necessary to Disinfect the Borehole……....2-11

Table 8. Minimum Test Period for Constant-Rate Tests………………….…………2-13

viii
 Part 1.
GENERAL PROVISIONS
 Part 1.
GENERAL PROVISIONS

Section 1.1 Purpose and Scope

These Standards shall be known as the Hawaii Well Construction and Pump Installation
Standards (2004) of the Department of Land and Natural Resources and are referred to
hereinafter as the "Standards."
These Standards establish minimum requirements for the purpose of protecting and
preventing the pollution, contamination, and wasting of ground water and for the purpose of
minimizing saltwater intrusion into wells and ground water in the State of Hawaii in the course
of:
Construction of wells,
Modification of wells,
Abandonment and permanent sealing of wells and test borings, and
Installation and repair of pumps.
These Standards apply to all wells constructed for the purpose of locating, exploring,
monitoring, developing, or recharging of ground-water aquifers. These minimum Standards do
not preclude other enforcing agencies, state or county, from establishing more stringent
standards to meet their objectives. These Standards also do not replace or define the
regulatory permitting process.

Section 1.2 Authority

Under § 174C-82, Hawaii Revised Statutes, the Commission must develop these
Standards. These Standards fulfill § 174C-86 of the State Water Code (Hawaii Revised
Statutes) and Hawaii Administrative Rules § 13-168-14, which reads as follows:
§13-168-14 Well construction and pump installation standards. (a) The minimum
standards referenced in this section, shall be such as to ensure the safe and sanitary
maintenance and operation of wells, the prevention of waste, and the prevention of
contamination of ground-water aquifers. The standards for well construction specified in The

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Hawaii Well Construction and Pump Installation Standards, adopted by the Commission on
Water Resource Management, and as may be amended, is hereby incorporated by reference.
(a) The minimum standards for the installation of pumps and pumping equipment
shall also provide for the installation of devices to measure the amount of ground water being
withdrawn from the wells. The Hawaii Well Construction and Pump Installation Standards, as
may be amended, is hereby incorporated by reference.
(b) The well construction and pump installation standards referenced in this section
shall serve as minimum guidelines and shall be subject to review and modification by the
Commission.
(c) If any well construction, well abandonment or pump installation standard is
violated and as a consequence ground water is wasted or any well is
contaminated, the Commission, after giving notice of the defect to the owner of
the land on which the well is located, and giving such owner a reasonable time
to correct the defect, may itself correct the defect and charge the land owner for
the cost of such correction. Such cost constitutes a lien on the land until paid.
The lien may be foreclosed in any court of competent jurisdiction, and in such
foreclosure suit, the court shall allow the Commission reasonable attorney's fees.
[Eff. March 21, 1997 ] (Auth: HRS §174C-8) (Imp: HRS §174C-82, 174C-
86)

Section 1.3 Standards of Other Agencies

(a) New Drinking Water Wells
In addition to the requirements of these minimum Standards, all wells to be used to
supply a public water system must meet the requirements of the State Department of Health,
Safe Drinking Water Branch, under their rules, Title 11, Chapter 20, entitled "Rules Relating to
Potable Water Systems" and as may be amended.
Also, for wells intended for municipal use, please be aware of the well construction
standards in “Water System Standards, State of Hawaii”, 2002 as amended and the American
Water Works Association (AWWA) Standards for Water Wells, ANSI/AWWA A100-97, as
amended.

1-2
 (b) Injection (Drainage) Wells
Injection wells are not governed by these Standards. The location, abandonment,
construction, and operation of injection wells must meet the permit requirements of the State
Department of Health, Safe Drinking Water Branch under their rules, Chapter 11-23,
"Underground Injection Control, "as amended. The Commission does not require a permit for
the construction and operation of injection wells.
(c) Geothermal Wells
Geothermal wells are not governed by these Standards. Geothermal wells must meet
the permit requirements of the Department of Land and Natural Resources, Engineering
Division under their rules, Title 13, Chapter 183, "Rules on Leasing and Drilling of Geothermal
Resources," as amended. The Commission does not require a permit for geothermal wells.
(d) Test Borings
The Commission does not require a permit for temporary test borings and test boring
sealings. However, test borings related to underground storage tanks and environmental
monitoring or remediation must meet the requirements of the State Department of Health.
Permanent test borings for long-term monitoring of water levels and/or chlorides are considered
monitoring wells, which require a well construction permit from the Commission.

Section 1.4 Definitions

The following definitions shall apply in the interpretation of these Standards:
"Abandoned well" means any well whose use has been permanently discontinued. Any well
shall be deemed abandoned which has been allowed to become unsealed, leaking,
polluting, deteriorating in quality, uncontrollable, buried, or which is in such a state of
disrepair that continued use for the purpose of obtaining ground water is impracticable
or unsafe.
"Annular seal" means the grouted length of annular space between casing and the wall of the
drilled or otherwise constructed hole.
"Annular space" means the space between the casing in a well and the wall of the hole or
between two concentric strings of well casing.
"ANSI" means the American National Standards Institute.

1-3
"Aquifer" means a geologic formation that is sufficiently permeable to conduct ground water
and to yield economically significant quantities of water to wells.
"Artesian well" means a well that is completed into an aquifer that is confined at greater-than-
atmospheric pressure. Water in the well bore rises to a level above the level of the
aquifer. An artesian well may or may not flow.
"ASTM" means the American Society for Testing and Materials.
"AWWA" means the American Water Works Association.
“Backflow preventor” means a device or means to prevent backflow of water into a well or
potable water system.
"Basal aquifer" means an aquifer in which a body of ground water floats on a body of salt water
in accordance with the buoyant density difference of the two bodies of water. As a
general rule, each foot of saturated fresh ground water above mean sea level is
supported by 40 feet of saturated fresh ground water below mean sea level.
"Caprock" means a geological formation or formations composed of terrigenous or marine
sediments deposited over a formation or formations of volcanic origin. Caprock is
substantially less permeable than volcanic formations and is often considered a
confining material.
"Chairperson" means the chairperson of the Commission on Water Resource Management.
“Chemigation” means applying fertilizer or agricultural chemicals to land or crops through an
irrigation system.
"Commission" means the Commission on Water Resource Management.
"Drainage Well” means a well primarily used for the disposal of rainfall runoff water. A
drainage well could either be naturally dry or contain a naturally occurring water table.
“Dug well” means a shallow large diameter well or sump constructed by hand or with heavy
equipment other than a drilling rig; generally used for stockwater, irrigation, or dust
control.
"Enforcing agency" means a state or county governmental agency duly authorized to administer
and enforce laws or rules pertaining to the construction, alteration, maintenance,
operation, and closure of wells in Hawaii.

1-4
“Exploratory well” means a well drilled to obtain hydrologic data by geological analysis of the
formations and aquifer testing. If conditions are adequate to develop ground water, an
exploratory well can be converted to a production well. An exploratory well requires a
well construction permit.
"FDA" means the United States Food and Drug Administration
"Geothermal well" means any well constructed for the location, exploration, monitoring,
development, or injection of geothermal resources or the natural heat of the earth, the
energy which may be extracted from the natural heat in whatever form found below the
surface of the earth as defined by Chapter 182-1, HRS.
"Ground water" means any water found beneath the surface of the earth, whether in perched
supply, dike confined, flowing, or percolating in underground channels or streams,
under artesian pressure or not, or otherwise.
"Grout" means slurry used to seal any part of a well.
"Head" means the elevation in feet above mean sea level of the water level in a well or aquifer.
"High-level aquifer" means an aquifer in which a body of ground water is maintained at a
higher level above mean sea level than that which can be explained by the buoyant
density difference of ground water and salt water. Geologic structures, such as volcanic
dikes or other poorly permeable formations, generally play a key role in the occurrence
of high-level ground water.
"Injection well" means a well into which subsurface disposal of fluid or fluids occurs or is
intended to occur by means of injection.
"Installation of pumps and pumping equipment" means the placement and preparation for
operation of pumps and pumping equipment, including all construction involved in
making entrance to the well, and establishing seals and repairs to existing installations.
“Modification” means any change to the physical dimensions of a well. Modification includes
recasing, backfilling, redrilling or any change to increase or decrease the yield of a well.
Modification does not include changes to the wellhead.
"Monitor well" means any cased permanent well drilled for the purpose of monitoring ground-
water levels and salinity of ground water, or other flow properties of the aquifer. Cased

1-5
 permanent wells for the purpose of monitoring contaminants other than chloride are
Test Borings.
“Perched aquifer” means an aquifer that is formed by water confined on the top of an
impervious to semi-pervious geologic layer of limited extent located between a large
aquifer (basal or high-level) and the ground surface. The perched aquifer is separated
from the primary aquifer by unsaturated material. Perched ground-water sources are
generally small.
"Positive Displacement" means a procedure whereby grout is first introduced at the bottom of
an interval and is pumped or forced with other applications of pressure upward through
the interval, displacing fluids or air within the annulus.
“Potable water well” means any well that tap a fresh or brackish aquifer for drinking water use.
“Production well” means a well that forcibly withdraws ground water by pumping. A
production well also includes artesian wells and tunnels.
“Public water system” means a system which provides water for human consumption, through
pipes or other constructed conveyances if the system has at least fifteen service
connections or regularly serves an average of at least twenty-five individuals daily at
least sixty days out of the year. Such term includes (1) any collection, treatment,
storage, and distribution facilities under control of the operator of such system and used
primarily in connection with such system, and (2) any collection or pretreatment storage
facilities not under such control which are used primarily in connection with such
system. A public water system may be privately or publicly owned or operated. A
public water system is a “community water system” or a “non-community water
system”. [Ref: Chapter 11-20-2, Hawaii Administrative Rules, “Potable Water
Systems].
"Pump installation" means the installation, replacement, or repairs of any equipment utilized or
intended for use in withdrawing or obtaining water from a water source.
"Pump installation contractor" means any person licensed in the State of Hawaii to install,
replace, or repair pumps and pumping equipment.

1-6
"Pumps and pumping equipment" means all equipment and appurtenances utilized or intended
for use in withdrawing or obtaining ground water. It includes seals, tanks, fittings,
measuring devices, and controls.
"Repairs" means any replacement, change, or modification of any well, pump or pumping
equipment. Customary or normal maintenance is not included in this definition.
“Salt water well” means a well that produces water with chloride content greater than 17,000
mg/L.
"Test boring" means any excavation or drilled hole whose purpose is the immediate
determination of subsurface geologic, hydrologic, or contaminated conditions usually,
but not always, in the unsaturated zone above the ground-water level. This definition
includes borings for foundation, underground storage tanks, environmental monitoring
under the purview of other government agencies and hazardous water remediation. A
test boring is not intended for the purpose of conversion to a production well.
"USDA" means the United States Department of Agriculture.
"Water well" means any well, water development shaft, or tunnel being used, intended to be
used, or capable of being used to withdraw ground water or any well, water
development shaft, or tunnel to be constructed for the purpose of investigating,
exploring, testing, or development of ground water.
"Water management area" means a geographic area which has been designated for management
of the ground or surface-water resource therein, as provided in Chapter 13-171,
"Designation and Regulation of Water Management Areas."
"Well" means any excavation or opening into the ground, or an artificial enlargement of a
natural opening drilled, tunneled, dug, or otherwise constructed for the location,
exploration, monitoring, development, injection, or recharge of ground water and by
which ground water is drawn or is capable of being withdrawn or made to flow.
"Well construction" means the drilling, tunneling, digging or otherwise constructing a well for
whatever purpose, including any alteration or repairs of an existing well, but excluding
the installation of pumps and pumping equipment.
"Well driller" means any person licensed in the State of Hawaii to construct, modify, or repair
wells.

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Section 1.5 Exemptions from Unusual Conditions
The Standards presented herein are considered adequate for the protection of ground
water and the prevention of ground-water waste from improper construction. If the
Chairperson finds that compliance with any of the requirements of these Standards is
impractical because of unusual conditions or circumstances the Chairperson may waive
compliance with that requirement and prescribe alternative requirements. If the Chairperson
determines that because of unusual conditions or circumstances these Standards do not provide
adequate protection of the aquifer, then the Chairperson may also prescribe alternative or
additional requirements.

Section 1.6 Well Drillers and Contractors

All work required in the construction, modification, or sealing of wells subject to these
standards shall be performed by well drillers who have obtained a C-57 license from the
Hawaii Department of Commerce and Consumer Affairs, Division of Professional and
Vocational Licensing.
All work required in the installation of pumps and pumping equipment shall be
performed by well drillers with a C-57 license, pump installers with a C-57a license, or general
contractors with an A license obtained from the Hawaii Department of Commerce and
Consumer Affairs, Division of Professional and Vocational Licensing. To validate permits,
licensed well drillers and/or pump installers must sign permits before any work is performed.
The permit must be posted at the work site. Upon completion of work, well drillers and/or
pump installers are required to sign well completion reports.

Section 1.7 Permits Required

In the State of Hawaii, work on water wells, production wells, exploratory wells and
monitor wells requires a well construction permit from the Commission; work on injection
wells requires a permit from the State Department of Health; and work on geothermal wells
requires a permit from the Department of Land and Natural Resources, Engineering Division.
Work on test borings does not require a permit, but all test borings should be sealed properly

1-8
before abandonment. The various permits required, the enforcing agency, and the applicable
standards are summarized in Table 2, "Well Permits and Reports Required."
Applicants for well construction (includes modification), pump installation, and well
sealing permits issued by the Commission, should check with the Commission or the
Commission webpage http://www.hawaii.gov/dlnr/cwrm/ for the latest updated form.
Any applicant for a well construction, pump installation or well sealing permit whose
application is rejected or amended by the Chairperson may obtain a hearing before the
Commission by filing within 30 days of the mailing of the notice of a rejected or amended
application, a written petition requesting such a hearing. The hearing shall be conducted as
provided in Chapter 13-167, "Rules of Practice and Procedure for the Commission on Water
Resource Management."
The Commission may modify, suspend, or revoke a permit, after notice and hearing, on
any of the following grounds:
1. Material misstatement or misrepresentation in the application for a permit.
2. Failure to comply with the provisions set forth in the permit.
3. Willful disregard or violation of any provision of this part or any rule adopted
pursuant thereto.
4. Material change of circumstances or conditions existing at the time the permit was
issued.

Section 1.8 Reports Required

Reports relating to construction, modification, and abandonment of water wells and
monitor wells are required to be filed by the permittee with the Commission as provided in the
appropriate sections of these Standards.
Persons filing a well completion report, well abandonment/sealing report, or pumping
test record required by the Commission should check with the Commission for the latest
updated forms or may refer to its web page at http://www.hawaii.gov/dlnr/cwrm/.

Section 1.9 Exclusions

The requirements in Part 2, "Well Construction" of these Standards do not apply to
water development tunnels, dug wells and shafts. The Chairperson shall consider the designs
of these water development structures on a case-by-case basis.

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 Table 2. Well Permits and Reports Required

Permit Requirements Applicable

Well Proposed Well
Type Activity Standards
Permit Report Enforcing
Agency

Drill new well. Well Well completion report. Commission These Standards
Modify existing well. Construction
Redrill existing well. Well
Deepen existing well. abandonment/sealing
report.
Water Well Abandon/seal existing
(fresh, well.
brackish, &
salt water)
Install new pump. Pump Well completion report. Commission These Standards
Modify existing pump Installation
to a larger capacity.
Replace existing pump
with a larger pump.
Monitor Well Drill new well or Well Well completion report. Commission These Standards
modify an existing well. Construction
Abandon/seal existing
well.
Injection Construct; Operate; Underground Refer to Chap. 11-23, State Department Chapter
Well Modify; Injection HAR of Health 11-23, HAR
Abandon/Seal. Control (UIC)
Geothermal Drill; Modify; Modify Geothermal Refer to Chap. 13-183, State Department Chapter 13-183,
Well use; Abandon/seal. HAR of Land & HAR
Natural
Resources
Test Boring Excavate/drill. None None None None
Abandon/seal.
Drainage Construct; Operate; Underground Refer to Chap. 11-23, State Department Chapter
wells Modify; Injection HAR of Health 11-23, HAR
Abandon/Seal. Control (UIC)

Note: (1) New water wells to be used to supply a public water system must meet the requirements of Chapter
11-20, entitled, "Rules Relating to Potable Water Systems" of the State Department of Health.
(2) Test borings related to UIC and/or environmental monitoring or remediation are subject to the State
Department of Health.
HAR = Hawaii Administrative Rule.

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 Part 2.
WELL CONSTRUCTION
 Part 2.
WELL CONSTRUCTION

Section 2.1 Well Construction Permits

No well, except injection, drainage, geothermal, and temporary test boring wells
shall be constructed, modified, repaired, or abandoned and sealed without a well
construction permit approved by the Chairperson. Injection wells, drainage wells and
geothermal wells require permits from other state agencies (Table 2). Temporary test
borings do not require a well construction permit. Permanent test borings for hydrologic
monitoring of water levels and/or water quality are considered monitor wells, which
require a well construction permit.
Applications for a well construction permit shall be made on the most recent forms
provided by the Commission. The forms are available at the Commission office or at
www.hawaii.gov/dlnr/cwrm/. A well construction permit may be approved and issued if
the proposed construction complies with all applicable laws, rules, and standards. In some
cases, when the knowledge of the hydrogeology of an area is limited, an application
without proposed construction will also be approved. In either case, final construction of
the well must conform to these standards. The well construction permit shall be
prominently displayed at the site of the well at all times until the well construction is
completed. Every well construction permit shall require the well driller to file a well
completion report.
Every permit for construction or modification of a water production well shall
require a pumping test in accordance to these standards. Measurements of time, pumping
rate, drawdown, chloride content, well recovery data, and temperature shall be recorded
and reported as required in these Standards.
The holder of a well construction permit, with the approval of the Chairperson, may
change the location of the well before or after start of construction. A written request to
change the location shall state the location, proposed depth, method of construction, size,
and expected capacity of the new well. The request to change the location shall also state
the manner of sealing or plugging the abandoned well if applicable. The Chairperson may

2-1
consult with the Department of Health for compliance with their rules and standards
concerning, among other things, the appropriateness of the location of the well.

Section 2.2 Basal Well Depth

Except for salt-water wells, any well constructed in basal aquifers for the purpose
of nonpotable or potable water withdrawal shall be initially designed and pump tested at a
depth below sea level not exceeding one-fourth of the theoretical thickness (41 times the
head) of the basal ground-water body, unless authorized by the Chairperson. Upon request
by the permittee and submission of the supporting data and analysis, the Chairperson may
allow deepening and subsequent testing of such wells to a depth below sea level not
exceeding one-half of the theoretical thickness of the basal ground-water body.
Section 2.11 (a) of these standards defers the elevation survey for non-public water
supply wells of less than 70 gpm installed capacity. If the permittee chooses to defer the
elevation survey the exact elevation of the ground at the well and water level will be
unknown. The well shall still be optimized according to an estimated water level
elevation. The Chairperson shall reserve the right to revise the permittee’s water-level
elevation estimate. If the permittee contests the Chairperson’s estimated water level then
the permittee shall perform an elevation survey.

Section 2.3 Well Location

a) Distance from Sources of Pollution
New wells shall be sited the maximum distance possible from sources of pollution.
Some possible pollution sources include wastewater lines, cesspools, septic tanks,
wastewater leaching fields, landfills, chemical storage and injection wells.
(b) Gradients (slopes)
Where possible, wells should be located hydraulically up-gradient (normally on a
higher slope) from potential sources of pollution. Consideration should also be given to
the fact that pumping a well may cause a localized reversal of the existing ground-water
gradient due to drawdown of the ground-water table.

2-2
 (c) Flood and Drainage Areas
When avoidable, wells should not be located in flood zones. Potable water wells
located in flood and drainage areas shall have well casing terminated 2 feet above the 100-
year level of flooding, as shown on the latest FEMA (Federal Emergency Management
Agency) map and be properly designed to avoid potential contamination of the aquifer
from flood waters. If necessary, the immediate area around a potable water well should be
built up so that drainage moves away from the well.
(d) Accessibility
All wells shall be located an adequate distance from buildings and other structures
to allow permanent access for well modification, maintenance, repair, and
abandonment/sealing.

Section 2.4 Well Casing

(a) General
Wells which are to be used for water supply or monitoring shall be constructed
with well casing adequate to maintain the structural integrity and intended use of the well
and to maintain the natural pre-existing state of protection of the ground-water aquifer
from pollution or contamination. Well casing shall be strong enough to resist the forces
imposed upon it during and after installation. Casing standards apply only to permanent
well casing and not to casing installed temporarily for construction purposes.
(b) Wall Thickness of Casing
The wall thickness of well casing shall be selected in accordance with good design
practices applied with due consideration to conditions at the site of the well and shall be
sufficient to withstand anticipated formation and hydrostatic pressures imposed on the
casing during its installation, grouting, well development, and use. The minimum wall
thickness of carbon-steel casings in wells shall conform to Table 3 and the AWWA
standards for water wells (ANSI/AWWA A100-97), as may be amended.
The wall thickness for steel casing in public water supply wells shall be as listed in
Table 4 and "Water System Standards," State of Hawaii, 2002, p. 306-3, as may be
amended.

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 Table 3. Minimum Steel Casing Wall Thickness for Non- Public Water Supply
Wells
Depth of MINIMUM WALL THICKNESS (in fractions of an inch)
Casing (ft)
Nominal Casing Diameter in inches:
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 30
0-100 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4 5/16 5/16 5/16
100-200 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4 5/16 5/16 5/16
200-300 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4 5/16 5/16 5/16 5/16 3/8
300-400 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4 5/16 5/16 5/16 5/16 3/8 3/8
400-600 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4 5/16 5/16 5/16 3/8 3/8 7/16
600-800 1/4 1/4 1/4 5/16 5/16 5/16 3/8 3/8 3/8 7/16
800-1000 1/4 1/4 1/4 5/16 5/16 5/16 3/8 7/16 7/16 1/2
1000-1500 1/4 5/16 5/16 5/16 3/8 3/8 3/8 7/16
1500-2000 1/4 5/16 5/16 5/16 3/8 3/8 7/16 7/16

Reference: ANSI/AWWA A100-97

Table 4. Minimum Wall Thickness for Public Water Supply Wells

Nominal Diameter Wall Thickness

(inches) (inches) decimal
2 0.154
2-1/2 0.203
3 0.216
3-1/2 0.226
4 0.237
6-8 0.280
10 0.322
12 0.375
14 0.375
16 0.375
18 0.375
20 0.375
22 0.500
24 0.500
26 0.500
Reference: 2002 County Water System Standards

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 (c) Minimum length of solid casing
All wells drilled to non-artesian (non-confined) basal, high-level, caprock or
perched aquifers shall have a minimum length of solid casing equal to 90% of the depth to
the water level of the aquifer to be developed. Wells drilled to artesian (confined) aquifers
shall be cased so that leakage does not occur into overlying or underlying formations. In
general, no well may be allowed to develop water from more than one aquifer. The
minimum length of solid casing for salt-water wells shall be through the entire fresh and
brackish water portion of the lens. The Chairperson may approve deviations from casing
length requirements if the permittee can show that the aquifer is adequately protected.
(d) Casing Materials
(1) Steel. All steel casing shall be new and conform to one of the
manufacturing standards listed in Table 5 and in the standards of AWWA publication
ANSI/AWWA A100-97, as may be amended. The physical properties of the steel shall
conform to ASTM A-242, ASTM A53, Type E or S, Grade B, or approved equal. The
well casing shall be manufactured in accordance with applicable sections of ASTM A139,
as may be amended.

Table 5. Water Well Casing Materials

Manufacturing Standards for Carbon-Steel Well Casing:

ANSI/AWWA C200
API Spec. 5L
ASTM A53
ASTM A139
ASTM A606

(2) Stainless Steel. Stainless steel casing for wells shall meet the
provisions of ASTM A409, "Standard Specification for Welded Large Diameter Austenitic
Steel Pipe for Corrosive or High Temperature Service," and any revision.
(3) Plastic and Thermoset Plastic (Fiberglass). Except as determined by the
Chairperson on a case-by-case basis, plastic casing shall not be used in wells where well

2-5
depth exceeds 200 feet or where drilling tools are contemplated to be used to re-enter the
well following installation of the casing.
Thermoplastic well casing shall meet the requirements of ASTM F480, "Standard
Specification for Thermoplastic Well Casing Pipe and Couplings Made in Standard
Dimension Ratios (SDR), SCH 40 and SCH 80", and any revision. The following
specifications shall apply to thermoplastic well casing.
ABS Pipe. ASTM D1527, "Standard Specifications for
Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS) Plastic Pipe,
Schedules 40 and 80."
PVC Pipe. ASTM D1785, "Standard Specifications for Poly
Vinyl Chloride (PVC) Plastic Pipe, Schedules 40, 80, and
120."
Pressure-Rated PVC Pipe. ASTM D2241, "Standard
Specifications for Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC) Pressure-
Rated Pipe (SDR Series)."

Thermoset casing material shall meet the following standards, as applicable, and
any revision:
Filament Wound Resin Pipe. ASTM D2996, "Standard
Specification for Filament Wound Reinforced Thermosetting
Resin Pipe."
Centrifugally Cast Resin Pipe. ASTM D2997, "Standard
Specification for Centrifugally Cast Reinforced
Thermosetting Resin Pipe."
Reinforced Plastic Mortar Pressure Pipe. ASTM D3517,
Standard Specification for Reinforced Plastic Mortar
Pressure Pipe."
Glass Fiber Reinforced Resin Pressure Pipe. AWWA C950,
"AWWA Standard for Glass-Fiber-Reinforced
Thermosetting-Resin Pressure Pipe."

Plastic casing or screen shall not be subjected to excessive stress during installation and
shall not be driven into place. Care shall be taken to insure that plastic casing and joints
are not subjected to excessive heat or pressure from grouting.
(e) Casing Joints
Steel casing may be joined by welds, threads, threaded couplings, or any
combination thereof. Welding shall be accomplished in accordance with the standards of
the American Welding Society or the most recent revision of the American Society of

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Mechanical Engineers Boiler Construction Code. Casing joints shall be of the types listed
in Table 6 and in AWWA publication ANSI/AWWA A100-97, as may be amended.

Table 6. Well Casing Joint Standards

Casing Material Type of Joint Standard

Steel Welded or threaded AWWA C206

Plastic Threaded solvent-welded or ASTM F480
other mechanical joint

Plastic casing may be joined by solvent welding or mechanically joined by threads

or other means. Solvent cement used for solvent welding shall meet specifications for the
type of plastic casing used and shall be applied in accordance with solvent and casing
manufacturer instructions.
The following standards for solvent cements and joints for PVC casing shall be
met, including any revision:
ASTM D2564, "Standard Specification for Solvent Cements
for Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC) Plastic Pipe and Fittings."

ASTM D2855, "Standard Practice for Making Solvent-

Cemented Joints with Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC) Pipe and
Fittings."

Section 2.5 Rock or Gravel Packing the Annular Space

Rock or gravel packing shall consist of locally produced crushed basaltic aggregate,
or preferably, commercially available rounded gravel. Such rock or gravel packing
material shall be obtained from clean, non-contaminated sources. The aggregate size
should be larger than the slot or louver size of the casing. Handling and storage of the rock
or gravel packing material at the well site shall be such that it remains free of contaminants
and debris until placed in the annular space and shall be disinfected by drenching with a
100 mg/L chlorine solution, see Section 2-8(a), just before placement in the well.

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Section 2.6 Grouting the Annular Space
(a) General
The reason that the annular space of all wells must be sealed with grout from the
ground surface to a minimum specified depth is to prevent the downward passage of poor
quality water, pollutants, or contaminants from surface sources and subsurface sources in
the unsaturated zone above the aquifer. Other reasons for grouting the annular space are to
protect the casing and stabilize the wall of the drilled hole, and to prevent vertical
movement of water along casing in a saturated zone (e.g. salt-water and artesian wells). In
general, only one aquifer may be exploited unless approved by the Chairperson.
(b) Conductor Casing
Conductor casing (often called conductor pipe) is sometimes installed on a
temporary basis to stabilize the near-surface part of the drilled hole during well
construction. Conductor casing that is permanent and reached the minimum depths
specified in part 2.6 (c) must be grouted as permanent casing as described in part 2.6.
Conductor casings installed without a grouted annular space must be removed in a manner
that will permit complete grouting of the annular space between the permanent well casing
and drilled hole to the ground surface.
(c) Minimum Depth of Grouted Annular Space
To prevent surface contamination, the annular space of all cased non-artesian wells
must be sealed with grout from the ground surface to a minimum depth of 500 feet or 70%
of the vertical distance between the ground surface and the top of the aquifer selected for
exploration, long-term monitoring, or development, whichever depth is less. Wells drilled
to artesian (confined) aquifers shall be grouted and cased so that leakage does not occur
into overlying or underlying formations. Salt-water wells shall be grouted through the
entire fresh and brackish portion of the basal lens. Perched aquifers above the target
aquifer must be cased and grouted off.
(d) Minimum Thickness of Grouted Annular Space
The annular space of wells to be grouted must be a minimum of one and one half
inches all around the maximum dimension of the casing if the grout is placed by positive
displacement. If positive displacement is not used the minimum annular space is two

2-8
inches for all wells except public water supply wells. Public water supply wells are
required to have a three inch annulus if the positive displacement technique is not used.
(e) Grouting Materials for Annular Sealing
Drill cuttings or drilling mud shall not be used for any part of the grout material.
Neat cement used to grout wells shall conform to the requirements of ASTM C150 for
Portland cement, Type I. Special cement-setting accelerators and retardants and other
additives may be used, if necessary. Such additives shall meet the requirements of ASTM
C494, "Standard Specifications for Chemical Admixtures for Concrete", and any revision.
(1) Sand-Cement Slurry. Sand-cement for grouting shall be mixed at a
ratio of not more than one part sand to one part cement, by weight, and not more than six
gallons of potable water per sack of cement.
(2) Neat Cement Grout. Neat cement for grouting shall be mixed at a ratio
of one 94-pound sack of Portland cement to not more than six gallons of potable water.
(3) Cement-Bentonite: a slurry of cement, bentonite and water. The amount
of bentonite added shall not exceed 8% bentonite per dry weight of cement (7.5 pounds of
bentonite per 94 pound sack of cement). The volume of additional water used in preparing
these slurries is limited to three quarters (0.75) of a gallon per 94 pound sack of cement for
each 1% of bentonite added.
(4) Other Grouts. The Chairperson on a case-by-case basis may approve
other grouting materials.
(f) Placement of the Annular Grout
The annular space shall be grouted as soon as possible after installation of the
casing. Grout can be placed by positive displacement, by pumping or gravity flowing
through a grout (tremie) pipe or by freefall displacement in a shallow well. The driller
shall sound annulus to check for settling of the grout within 24 hours of placement.
Placing the grout in the annular space may be done in stages with time allowed for the
grout to set between stages so as to prevent distortion or collapse of the casing by heat or
pressure. Grouting the annular space may be accomplished by freefall placement if the
annular space to be grouted is no deeper than 20 feet below ground surface and is in the
unsaturated zone above the ground-water level.

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Section 2.7 Well Development
Well development consists of methods to remove drill cuttings or other material
causing low permeability from the formation in open hole or slotted casing. Development
or redevelopment of a well shall be performed with care so as to prevent damage to the
well and casing. The well should be developed prior to the test pumping to maximize the
flow of ground water into the well bore.
Water, sediment, or waste removed by well development or re-development
operations shall be disposed of in accordance with applicable federal, state, and county
requirements. The enforcing agency shall be contacted concerning the proper disposal of
waste from development operations.

Section 2.8 Well Disinfection

(a) General
All non-artesian water supply wells for potable use or tapping aquifers having a
chloride concentration of less than 250 milligrams per liter shall be disinfected with the
proper amount of chlorine following the completion of any work, including pump
installation and repair and well abandonment. The purpose of disinfection is to minimize
the introduction of pathogens into the aquifer.
All materials installed in wells shall be thoroughly and carefully cleaned and
disinfected with a 100 mg/L chlorine solution to ensure that all harmful or disease carrying
organisms are eliminated.
A 100 mg/L chlorine solution can be prepared by mixing 0.7 quart of common
household bleach (containing 5% available chlorine) with 100 gallons of water or by
mixing 2¼ ounces of dry calcium hypochlorite (commonly used in swimming pools,
containing 70% available chlorine) with 100 gallons of water.
(b) Disinfection of Aquifer Section
The aquifer section of all wells shall be disinfected by using chlorine. Depending
upon the situation, the chlorine shall be placed and thoroughly mixed in the aquifer by
pouring directly, using a bailer, using the rotary drill pipe, or using the test pump, as
appropriate. Mixing shall be accomplished by running the bailer or drill pipe up and down

2-10
the aquifer three or four times, or gently pump surging, as the case may be. The chlorine
solution shall be allowed to remain in the well overnight or at least eight hours.
Sufficient chlorine shall be placed in the well to obtain a chlorine concentration of
at least 100 mg/L when mixed with the volume of water in the drilled hole. The amount of
common household bleach or dry calcium hypochlorite to be used for well disinfection
depends upon the diameter of the drilled hole and the depth of aquifer penetration (Table
7).
Table 7. Guideline Amounts of Chlorine Necessary to Disinfect the Borehole

Cups of liquid
Volume of water in Cups of dry calcium
Drilled Hole household bleach to
100 ft of column hypochlorite to use in
Diameter (inches) use in 100 ft column
(gallons) 100 ft column (2)
(1)
4 65 3 1/4
6 147 5 1/2
8 261 9 3/4
10 408 14 1
12 587 19 1 1/2
14 800 27 2 1/2
16 1044 36 3
18 1322 45 3 3/4
20 1632 56 4
24 2350 74 6

(1) The volume of liquid bleach, based on 5% available chlorine, has been rounded up to
the next full cup.

(2) The volume of dry powder, based on 70% available chlorine, has been rounded up to
the next 1/4 cup.

2.9 Well Testing

(a) Introduction
Well testing is required when new wells are drilled or when existing wells are
modified and have not been previously tested in accordance with the provisions of these
Standards. Well testing normally consists of a short step-drawdown test followed by a
long-term constant-rate test. Well testing is not mandatory for monitor wells. The purpose
of well testing in the prescribed manner is to determine the well efficiency and to gain

2-11
information on the aquifer. Water from test pumping shall be disposed of in accordance
with applicable federal, state, and county requirements. Testing procedures for free-
flowing artesian wells with no pump shall be determined on a case-by-case basis with the
concurrence of the Chairperson. Test pumping is not necessary for salt-water wells unless
specified by the Chairperson.
(b) Step-Drawdown Tests (Well Efficiency Test)
Step-drawdown tests are required to establish the efficiency of the well and to
provide preliminary information on the yield, drawdown, and salinity (chloride content) of
the well. Step-drawdown tests are not required for wells of less than 70 gpm proposed
capacity. However, a step-drawdown test must be conducted for all public water supply
wells. The water level in the pumped well should be measured at minimum intervals
according to forms provided by the Commission. The step-drawdown test shall consist of
pumping the well at progressively increasing fractions of the maximum discharge capacity
proposed by the permittee or determined during well development. The minimum length
of time for each discharge rate shall be one-half hour and the minimum number of
discharge rates shall be three (3) and shall be sufficient to induce observable changes in
pumping water levels from one pumping rate to the next. Pumping should be continuous
throughout the entire step-drawdown test.
If the permittee is unable to perform a step-drawdown test according to these
standards then the Chairperson may not accept the test results or in lieu of the substandard
step-drawdown test the Chairperson may require a modified and more comprehensive
constant rate long-term test.
(c) Constant-Rate Tests (Aquifer Test)
Constant rate tests are intended to determine the hydraulic properties of an aquifer.
The test helps identify hydrologic boundaries such as dikes or streams. Constant-rate tests
also help quantify salinity trends in basal aquifers. The constant-rate test can be important
in determining and/or predicting interference with neighboring wells and streams.
The pumping rate for the constant-rate test should be determined from the results of
the step-drawdown test. The constant-rate test shall not commence until the water level in
the pumped well has fully recovered from the step-drawdown test. The constant pumping

2-12
rate must be equal to or greater than the final installed pump capacity (a 10% variation
shall be allowed). Constant-rate tests shall be pumped continuously for a minimum period
of time, as shown in Table 8. The Chairperson may require longer constant rate tests for
wells near streams or for wells in high-level aquifers. As soon as possible after the
termination of the constant rate test the recovering water level in the production well
should be measured at intervals specified in the forms provided by the Commission. If
possible, water levels should be measured until full recovery.
The water discharged from a well during constant-rate tests shall be transported to a
distance sufficient to prevent the pumped water from reaching the ground-water table and
affecting the test results. If possible, observation wells shall be used during the constant
rate test.
Table 8. Minimum Test Period for Constant-Rate Tests

Proposed Use Proposed Capacity Minimum Test Period

of Well (gpm) (hours)
Non-Public Water 0 - 50 0
Supply 51 - 100 8
101 - 300 24
301 - 700 48
701 – 1000 72
1001 + 96
Public Water Supply 96

(d) Accuracy of Measurements

The rate of pumping shall be recorded in gallons per minute (gpm). The depth to
water shall be measured as accurately as possible, but in no case less accurate than to the
nearest one-tenth of a foot. Time shall be measured as accurately as possible, but in no
case less accurate than to the nearest minute.
(e) Minimum Frequency of Measurements
For constant-rate tests, the depth to water in the pumped well should be measured
at intervals according to pump test forms provided by the Commission.
(f) Pumping Test Records and Reports
The permittee shall file with the Commission the following:

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 (1) Step-Drawdown Pumping Test Record (on forms provided by the
Commission or copy thereof).
(2) Constant-Rate Pumping Test Record (on forms provided by the
Commission or copy thereof).

Section 2.10 Well Completion

(a) General
Wells must be adequately protected at all times during and after construction to
prevent the entrance of surface water runoff, pollutants, and contaminants; unauthorized
access; and damage to the well. All non-producing wells must be completed with the
casing extended a minimum of two (2) feet above the ground surface and capped in a
manner that will prevent unauthorized entry or any pollutants from entering the well except
where site conditions, such as vehicular traffic, will not allow. Such wells shall conform to
the following:
(1) Lockable Cover. The top of the well casing shall be cut smooth and
straight with a lockable cover to prevent unauthorized access and prevent a hazard to
humans and animals. The cover shall be weather and vermin proof.
(2) Casing Cap. Alternatively, the top of the well casing may be capped
with a welded steel plate or solvent-welded plastic cap (for plastic casings) fitted with a
1½-inch minimum diameter threaded cap or plug which cannot be easily opened with
small or light tools. Openings or passages for probing, venting, cables, or discharge tubing
shall be protected against entry of surface water, pollutants, contaminants, and vermin.
(3) Flooding. The top of the well casing should terminate above ground
surface at least 2 feet above the 100 year flood elevation, except where site conditions,
such as vehicular traffic, will not allow.
(4) Concrete Base. Unless otherwise approved by the Chairperson, a
concrete base shall be constructed around the well casing at ground surface in contact with
the annular grout seal. The base shall be at least four inches thick and shall slope slightly
to drain away from the well casing. The base shall extend at least two feet laterally in all
directions from the outside of the well casing. The concrete base shall be free of cracks,

2-14
voids, and other significant defects likely to prevent water tightness. Contacts between the
base and the annular grout seal, and the base and the well casing must be water tight.
(5) Well Pits or Vaults. The use of well pits, vaults, or equivalent features
to house the top of a potable water well below ground surface should be avoided, because
of their susceptibility to the entrance of surface water runoff and pollutants. Well pits or
vaults shall only be used with approval of the Chairperson.
(6) Protection from Vehicles. Protective steel posts, or the equivalent, shall
be installed around a well where it is terminated above ground surface in areas of vehicular
traffic. The posts shall be easily seen and shall protect the well from vehicular impact.
(7) Paint and Markings. The well shall be permanently marked by an
engraved plate, engraved label or painted label showing the well's assigned State well
number and the casing painted so as to be easily visible, located, and identified in the field.
(8) Artesian Wells. Flowing wells shall be equipped so that the discharge
can be controlled or stopped at all times. It is the responsibility of the well owner to ensure
this equipment is maintained and operational.
(b) Well Completion Report and Records
Within 60 days after the completion of the construction, modification, or repair of a
well the permittee shall file with the Commission, as appropriate, the following:
1. For all wells, a well construction report (Part I of Well Completion Report
form provided by the Commission).
2. For all permanent pumps, a pump installation report (Part II of Well
Completion Report form provided by the Commission).

Section 2.11 Elevation Survey and GPS Location

(a) Elevation Survey
An accurate elevation benchmark shall be clearly established on the concrete base
by a licensed surveyor. Documentation and surveyor’s stamp shall be submitted. The
surveyor’s documentation shall identify the original elevation benchmark that was used to
establish the well benchmark. The required establishment of elevation benchmarks for
non-public water supply wells of less than 70 gpm installed pumping capacity is deferred

2-15
until the Chairperson deems it necessary before or after well construction or pump
installation. Salt water wells do not require an elevation survey.
(b) GPS Location
The well shall be located with a GPS receiver. The GPS coordinates shall be
reported in the NAD83 datum.

2-16
 Part 3.
WELL ABANDONMENT/SEALING
 Part 3.
WELL ABANDONMENT/SEALING

Section 3.1 General

All wells and test borings as defined in these Standards must be properly
abandoned and permanently sealed to protect the ground-water resources of the State of
Hawaii from contamination and waste and to protect public health and safety, whenever:

1) The well has served its purpose, or

2) The use of the well has been permanently discontinued, or
3) The well is not being properly maintained, or
4) The physical condition of the well is causing a waste of ground water or is
impairing or threatens to impair the quality of the ground-water resources, or
5) The well is in such a state of disrepair that its continued use is impractical or it is a
hazard to public health or safety

The objective of permanently sealing a well or test boring before abandonment is to

restore the geological and hydrological conditions that existed before the well or test
boring was constructed, taking into account any changes which may have occurred since
the time of construction. (For example, a well that may have originally produced potable
water, but which now produces nonpotable water.) The well casing must be removed if
such removal is necessary to accomplish the objective. However, if the casing cannot be
readily removed, the blank casing above the aquifer must be perforated to allow grouting
of the annular space. Permanent sealing of a well shall be accomplished by grouting with a
tremie pipe from bottom to top. The Chairperson shall review the sealing plan for shafts
and pits on a case-by-case basis.
Abandonment and permanent sealing of a well requires a permit from the
Commission. A permit is not required for abandonment/sealing of test borings. A licensed
well driller with a C-57 license shall perform all well abandonment and sealing. A detailed
record of the abandonment and sealing of all wells must be maintained by the well driller

3-1
for future reference and demonstration that the well was properly sealed. A well
abandonment/sealing report (forms available at the Commission office or at
http://www.hawaii.gov/dlnr/cwrm/) must be filed with the Commission within 60 days
after completion of the work.
The Commission shall be notified in accordance with permit conditions before
work on abandonment and sealing begins.

Section 3.2 Responsibility for Abandonment/Sealing

The responsibility and cost for voluntary or involuntary abandonment/sealing of a
well rests with the well owner and/or operator. The owner and/or operator of a well to be
abandoned and sealed shall not commence with the required remedial work until an
application has been made and a well construction permit has been approved by the
Chairperson.

Section 3.3 Initiation of Abandonment/Sealing

(a) Initiated by Well Owner or Operator
The owner and/or operator of a well may voluntarily seek abandonment/ sealing of
a well by first causing an application to be made for a well construction permit on forms
provided by the Commission (forms available at the Commission office or at
http://www.hawaii.gov/dlnr/cwrm/). The application shall include the reason for
abandonment and a description of the proposed procedure and work to be performed.
(b) Initiated by Commission
The Chairperson may declare that a water well is abandoned and shall notify the
owner and/or operator that it must be permanently sealed if it finds that one or more of the
five criteria in section 3.1 have been met.

Section 3.4 Grouting Materials for Permanent Sealing

Grouting materials acceptable for use to permanently seal wells and test borings are
neat cement, sand-cement slurry, concrete, cement bentonite or bentonite pellets. The
materials selected depend on field conditions and must be approved by the Chairperson

3-2
prior to sealing. After grouting, all wells must be sounded to determine if the grout has
settled.
Cement used for neat cement, concrete, cement-bentonite and sand-cement slurry
shall conform to the requirements of ASTM C150 for Portland cement, Type I.
(1) Sand-Cement Slurry. Sand-cement for grouting shall be mixed at a
ratio of not more than one part sand to one part cement, by weight, and not more than six
gallons of water per sack of cement. Clean well sorted sand shall be used.
(2) Neat Cement Grout. Neat cement shall be mixed at a ratio of one 94-
pound sack of Portland cement to not more than six gallons of potable water.
(3) Concrete. Concrete shall contain 5.3 sacks of ASTM C150 type 2
Portland cement per cubic yard of concrete and a maximum of 7 gallons of water per 94-
pound sack of cement. The aggregate shall consist of 47 percent sand and 53 percent
coarse aggregate conforming to ASTM C33.
(4) Cement-Bentonite: a slurry of cement, bentonite and water. The amount
of bentonite added shall not exceed 8% bentonite per dry weight of cement (7.5 pounds of
bentonite per 94 pound sack of cement). The volume of additional water used in preparing
these slurries is limited to three quarters (0.75) of a gallon per 94 pound sack of cement for
each 1% of bentonite added
(5) Bentonite grout. Bentonite grout shall consist of a high-solids bentonite
grout and water mixture with a minimum of twenty percent solids, mixed and placed in
accordance with the manufacturer’s written instructions. Bentonite shall not be used in
brackish or salt water wells. Bentonite has a higher tendency to settle and may not be
appropriate for some conditions.

Section 3.5 Preliminary Work

Wells that are to be abandoned and permanently sealed shall be investigated by
studying existing well records and verifying the physical conditions and as-built
dimensions of the well. Such wells shall be sounded with an appropriate tool to check and
clear the well of any obstructions, undesirable debris or cave-in material, oil from an oil-
lubricated pump, or other pollutants that could interfere with a satisfactory well seal.

3-3
Depending upon the situation, such wells may also be probed with a magnet, video camera,
caliper log, or other well tools to determine depths, dimensions, and conditions of the well
casing and artesian leakage.
All equipment, loose casing, foreign materials, and obstructions that may interfere
with sealing operations must be removed from the well, if possible. Any casing and
conductor pipe not removed from the well must be cut off at least two feet below the
ground surface and the remaining hole filled with material appropriate to the site or
grouted with cement-based material, if in hard rock.
The Chairperson shall be notified as soon as possible if pollutants or contaminants
are known, discovered, or suspected to be present in the to-be-abandoned and sealed well.
If a well is found to be contaminated the Chairperson may require more stringent sealing
procedures. If a well pump is found to contain mercury seals, then the owner shall be
required to mitigate any possible contamination.

Section 3.6 Sealing the Aquifer Section of a Well

(a) Open Hole Section
After the preliminary work of abandonment and sealing has been completed, the
well must be grouted as soon as possible from bottom to top beginning with the open hole
section, if any, of the well.
The open hole section of the well shall be grouted with the appropriate grouting
material by pumping or gravity-flowing it through a grout (tremie) pipe. The bottom of the
grout pipe shall be withdrawn in stages as the open hole becomes filled, but shall extend
into the slurry column while the grout is being placed so as to prevent inclusion of cave-in
or foreign material, bridging, dilution or separation of grout materials.
If an interval of open hole occurs in cavernous or highly fractured formation that
causes excessive loss of grout, crushed aggregate (conforming to ASTM 10M) or concrete
sand (conforming to ASTM C-33) may be used to fill such intervals of loss, before
continuing to grout. The Chairperson may approve alternative designs if the applicant can
show that the well will be adequately sealed.

3-4
 (b) Perforated Casing Section
After the open hole section of the well has been grouted, the perforated casing
section of the well shall next be sealed with neat cement placed from bottom to top with a
tremie pipe in a manner conforming to the grouting of the open hole section

Section 3.7 Sealing the Solid Casing Section of a Well

(a) Properly Grouted Wells
The solid casing section of a well with a properly grouted annular space may be
sealed with sand-cement slurry in one continuous operation from bottom to the ground
surface.
(b) Improperly Grouted Wells
If a well has no record of having a properly grouted annular space and poses a
significant threat of surface contamination of an underlying potable aquifer or waste of
artesian ground water, the solid casing must be perforated before grouting begins. The
solid casing section shall be sealed with neat cement in one continuous operation from
bottom to ground surface using a tremie pipe in a manner conforming to these Standards.
If an interval of the solid casing section cannot be filled after placement of a reasonable
amount of neat cement slurry, sand-cement slurry conforming to the standards for
permanent sealing may be used to fill such interval before continuing the sealing of the
blank casing section with neat cement.

Section 3.8 Special Provisions for Artesian Wells

(a) General
Many artesian wells in Hawaii are old and may have deteriorated and leaking
casings. Consequently, such artesian wells must be abandoned and permanently sealed.
Artesian wells usually require a very thorough investigation of the physical condition of
the well and any possible artesian flow or leakage in the well before satisfactory grouting
can be accomplished.

3-5
 (b) Preliminary Work
In addition to the preliminary work required for wells in general and described
elsewhere in these Standards, artesian wells to be abandoned must be investigated to
determine the occurrence, depths and magnitude of any ground-water leakage from the
aquifer upward into overlying strata through corroded or improperly grouted well casing.
A video or caliper log of the well may be required in such cases, especially if leakage may
interfere with proper sealing of the well. An assessment of well conditions and proposed
sealing procedures shall be discussed with the Commission staff before sealing operations
are started. The assessment may include a survey of water levels in adjacent wells, a video
log, or a vertical flow meter log to confirm whether or not the artesian well is leaking.
(c) Sealing Procedures
Before placement of grout to permanently seal an artesian well, any flow or leakage
in the well must be stopped or reduced so that the confining strata above the artesian
aquifer can be effectively sealed with neat cement or sand-cement slurry.
If the artesian flow is occurring from the open hole section of the well, placement
of large rounded cobbles followed by lesser size cobbles and crushed aggregate, or
placement of specially formed concrete cylinders may significantly reduce flow in the
well. Packers with grout pipe extending below the packer may also be effective in sealing
the open hole section.
Once flow from the artesian aquifer has been stopped or significantly reduced, the
solid casing may have to be perforated (see Sec. 3.7.b) before grouting the remaining part
of the artesian well with sand-cement slurry. If artesian leakage continues to occur,
placing or pumping the sand-cement slurry at a high rate through a grout pipe may be
required to successfully complete the sealing operation.
If the solid casing is intact and there is no flow in the annular space, the flow inside
the casing may be stopped by installing a riser pipe before sealing an artesian well from
bottom to top with sand-cement slurry.

3-6
Section 3.9 Well Abandonment/Sealing Report
Within 60 days after completion of the required work, permittee shall file with the
Commission a well abandonment/sealing report containing the owner's and operator's
name and address, the water use permit number, if any, the reason for
abandonment/sealing, and a complete description of the work performed.

3-7
 Part 4.
PUMP INSTALLATION
 Part 4.
PUMP INSTALLATION

Section 4.1 Pump Installation Permits

(a) General
No pump or pumping equipment shall be installed in a well without an appropriate
permit, unless otherwise provided for in this section (applications are available at the
Commission office or at http://www.hawaii.gov/dlnr/cwrm/). A pump installation
permit shall be issued only if the proposed construction complies with all applicable laws,
rules, and standards. The permit shall be prominently displayed at the site of the well at all
times until the pump installation is completed.
Within Commission-designated water management areas (or aquifer systems), a
pump installation permit to install a new pump or replace, modify, or repair an existing
pump in a well may be approved by the Chairperson if the well user or owner holds an
approved water use permit for such a well. If no water use permit has been obtained, the
Commission must first act on the application for a water use permit.
The replacement, modification, or repair of an existing permanent pump does not
require a pump installation permit if such work does not exceed the existing or permitted
pump capacity. The well owner/operator is still required to submit a completed pump
installation report (Part II of Well Completion Report form available at the Commission
office or at http://www.hawaii.gov/dlnr/cwrm/). Every pump installation permit shall
require the pump installation contractor to file a well completion report as required in these
Standards. Every pump installation permit for a new or existing well without a pumping
test meeting these Standards may require that a pumping test under these Standards be
conducted.
(b) Emergencies
When emergency installation, alteration, repair, or replacement of a pump or
pumping equipment which normally requires a permit is required to prevent or minimize

4-1
loss of life, risk to public health and safety, or damage to property, a well owner may
proceed with the emergency work without a permit.
As soon as possible after initiation of any emergency work, the well owner doing the work
shall notify the Chairperson and describe the nature and circumstances of the remedial
work. Within 60 days of notification to the Chairperson the well owner doing the
emergency work shall submit to the Chairperson a pump installation report and a
description of the emergency

Section 4.2 General Installation Requirements

(a) Pumps and Pumping Equipment
All installations of pump and pumping equipment on wells shall be constructed in
such a manner as to prevent the pollution and contamination of the well from surface
sources. Pumping systems shall be designed to not exceed the permitted pumping rate at
the point of delivery when operating under normal design conditions.
(b) Above-Grade Pump Connections
All pump installations should be completed such that the top of the well casing
extends a minimum of 12 inches above the prepared ground surface or pump house floor.
If the pump is too heavy to permanently rest on the well casing then the reinforced
concrete slab must extend at least 12 inches above the prepared ground level. For wells
located in floodplains, the top of the well casing should extend at least two feet above the
100-year flood level.
(c) Well Vents
Well vents, when needed or used, shall permit air to freely enter and exit the well
with changing water levels in the casing. Vents may be an integral part of the well seal or
be attached to the seal and terminate a minimum of one (1) foot above the finished ground
level, be turned down, and screened to prevent entry of vermin.
(d) Water Level Measuring Device
Public water supply wells shall have a means of measuring water level. Also wells
with a pump capacity greater than 70 gpm or casing diameter above 6 inches shall also
have a means of measuring water level. In some cases the Chairperson may also require

4-2
other wells to have a way of measuring water level. If a means of measuring water level is
required by the Chairperson, the well owner or operator shall maintain the device in
operating condition. The airline pressure gage or pressure transducer shall have an
accuracy of 0.1 feet.
Water Level Measurement Access - An airline, water level sounding tube,
permanent pressure transducer or other method approved by the Chairperson shall be
installed on all wells whenever the permit issued by the Commission requires the
installation of water level measuring equipment.
An airline tube shall consist of tubing extending from the wellhead to the top of the
pump discharge case. This tubing shall be capable of withstanding the maximum pressures
developed during use. The tube shall be securely fastened to the pump discharge case,
column pipe or drop pipe. The specifications and depth of the airline shall be recorded on
the Pump Installation Report.
The water level sounding tube shall have a minimum inside diameter of 3/4 inch. It
shall extend from the wellhead to the top of the pump discharge case and shall be securely
attached to the column or drop pipe so that it hangs straight and plumb. All water level
sounding tubes shall be equipped at the top end with a removable cap or plug to prevent
entry of foreign material. The bottom of the tube shall be constructed to allow the free
entry and exit of water and to prevent the measuring device from passing out of the bottom
of the tube.
(e) Standards of Other Agencies
The published standards for vertical turbine pump-line shaft and submersible types
of the American Water Works Association (ANSI/AWWA E101-88) and as may be
amended are incorporated by reference as a part of these Standards. In addition to these
Standards, pump and pumping equipment installations for wells to be used by the Water
Department of the respective Counties of the State of Hawaii shall meet the standards
specified in "Water System Standards, State of Hawaii," 2002, and as may be amended.

4-3
Section 4.3 Pumps
(a) Mounting
Pumps shall be installed in such a manner that the well, pump and surrounding area
can be kept in a sanitary condition, and will provide adequate protection against
contamination from any surface or subsurface source. All pumping equipment shall be
installed with an effective seal including a concrete pad at the top of the casing that will
prevent the entry of contaminants into the well and support the weight of the pump and
motor.
(b) Lubrication
If water lubrication is not adequate for a lineshaft pump, then oil-lubrication may
be used for potable wells provided the oil lubricant conforms to USDA or FDA approved
food contact grade formulations.
(c) Hazardous Materials
Pumps that contain mercury seals shall not be used in potable or non-potable wells.
(d) Potable and Non-Potable Interconnections
If the well is used to supply both potable and non-potable purposes in a single
system, the user shall eliminate cross-connections and backflow connections by physically
separating potable and non-potable systems by an air gap or an approved backflow
preventor, and by clearly labeling all non-potable spigots with warning signs to prevent
inadvertent consumption of non-potable water. Backflow prevention devices should be
routinely inspected and tested. Further, if the well is used to supply non-potable purposes
and the water system is used to distribute fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, or any other
irrigation-related chemical, commonly known as chemigation, the user shall install a
backflow prevention device acceptable to the Department of Health, in accordance with
§149A-31(6) HRS. This is to prevent accidental backflow contamination of the aquifer
during chemigation.

Section 4.4 Water Meter

All discharge line configurations shall include an approved water meter (with a
totalizer) or other appropriate device or means for measuring and reporting total water

4-4
withdrawal on a monthly calendar or work-schedule basis. The water meter shall be easily
accessible and shall be installed according to the manufacturer’s specifications.
Owners/operators of salt water wells are not required to install a water meter unless
otherwise specified by the Chairperson.

Section 4.5 Pump Installation Report

Within 60 days after the completion of a pump installation, modification, or repair,
the permittee shall file with the Commission the following:

1. Pump installation report (on forms provided by the Commission).

2. As-built sectional drawing of the well and pump installation.
3. Pumping test record (if no pumping test conforming to these Standards has
been performed).

4-5
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Heat Pipes
In the early days of space flight, NASA solved a major problem by teaming
with Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory (LASL) in development of the heat
pipe. The problem was that the Sun-facing surfaces of a non-rotating
satellite became very hot while surfaces not exposed to the Sun became
extremely cold, a temperature differential that threatened failure of
electronic systems. The solution, used in virtually all spacecraft since its
development, was the heat pipe, a tubular device in which a working fluid
alternately evaporates and condenses, transferring heat from one region of
the tube to another without external help.

Hot runner nozzles

provide the
consistent
temperatures needed
to make uniform
parts.

This simple device offered a very broad range of practical Earth

applications and NASA prompted its broadest use by refining the
technology and working with a number of other organizations on
technology demonstrations. Heat pipe technology has become one of the
most frequently tapped sources of spinoff applications. Some of the early
users have further advanced the technology and broadened the range of
applications through several generations of product development.

Among the latter is KONA Corporation, Gloucester, Massachusetts, a

company formed in 1978 to manufacture hot runner systems for the plastics
injection molding industry, using heat pipe technology that offered
significant manufacturing and maintenance economies. KONA operated
initially under a license from James M. Stewart, an independent consultant
to the plastic industry, who had used the NASA/LASL technology as a
departure point for his own development of patented "heat tubes."

Hot runner systems

are used for
production of a wide
range of plastic
products, from ice
trays to medical
devices.

KONA has continued to use the NASA technology as an integral part of its
manufacturing equipment for such products as camera parts, kitchenware,
auto components, TV cabinets and telephone parts. KONA has refined the
technology through three generations of heat pipe advancement. The first
was the KONA Nozzle, a heaterless injection nozzle designed to fit all
injection molding systems; it was followed by a complete line of Hot Sprue
Bushings. KONA also applies heat pipe technology to the company's Hot
Runner Systems.

Temperature uniformity is critical in hot runner molding and the heat pipe,
KONA says, is a way of getting it with multiple advantages over alternative
systems. By offering a wide selection of hot runner nozzles and tips, KONA
gives mold designers and moldmakers exceptional flexibility. KONA Hot
Runner Systems are used throughout the plastics industry in the
manufacture of products ranging in size from tiny medical devices to large
single cavity auto bumpers and instrument panels. Sales of Hot Runner
Systems account for 75 percent of all KONA sales.

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Contact Us A heat pipe is a simple device that can quickly transfer heat from one point to another. They are often referred to as the "superconductors" of heat as they possess an extra
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The idea of heat pipes was first suggested by R.S.Gaugler in 1942. However, it was not until 1962, when G.M.Grover invented it, that its remarkable properties were
appreciated & serious development began.

It consists of a sealed aluminum or copper container whose inner surfaces have a capillary wicking material. A heat pipe is similar to a thermosyphon. It differs from a
thermosyphon by virtue of its ability to transport heat against gravity by an evaporation-condensation cycle with the help of porous capillaries that form the wick. The wick
provides the capillary driving force to return the condensate to the evaporator. The quality and type of wick usually determines the performance of the heat pipe, for this is the
heart of the product. Different types of wicks are used depending on the application for which the heat pipe is being used.

Design Considerations

The three basic components of a heat pipe are:

1. the container
2. the working fluid
3. the wick or capillary structure

Container

The function of the container is to isolate the working fluid from the outside environment. It has to therefore be leak-proof, maintain the pressure differential across its walls,
and enable transfer of heat to take place from and into the working fluid.

Selection of the container material depends on many factors. These are as follows:

● Compatibility (both with working fluid and external environment)

● Strength to weight ratio

● Thermal conductivity

● Ease of fabrication, including welding, machineability and ductility

● Porosity

● Wettability

Most of the above are self-explanatory. A high strength to weight ratio is more important in spacecraft applications. The material should be non-porous to prevent the diffusion
of vapor. A high thermal conductivity ensures minimum temperature drop between the heat source and the wick.
Working fluid

A first consideration in the identification of a suitable working fluid is the operating vapour temperature range. Within the approximate temperature band, several possible
working fluids may exist, and a variety of characteristics must be examined in order to determine the most acceptable of these fluids for the application considered. The prime
requirements are:

● compatibility with wick and wall materials

● good thermal stability

● wettability of wick and wall materials

● vapor pressure not too high or low over the operating temperature range

● high latent heat

● high thermal conductivity

● low liquid and vapor viscosities

● high surface tension

● acceptable freezing or pour point

The selection of the working fluid must also be based on thermodynamic considerations which are concerned with the various limitations to heat flow occurring within the
heat pipe like, viscous, sonic, capillary, entrainment and nucleate boiling levels.

In heat pipe design, a high value of surface tension is desirable in order to enable the heat pipe to operate against gravity and to generate a high capillary driving force. In
addition to high surface tension, it is necessary for the working fluid to wet the wick and the container material i.e. contact angle should be zero or very small. The vapor
pressure over the operating temperature range must be sufficiently great to avoid high vapor velocities, which tend to setup large temperature gradient and cause flow
instabilities.

A high latent heat of vaporization is desirable in order to transfer large amounts of heat with minimum fluid flow, and hence to maintain low pressure drops within the heat
pipe. The thermal conductivity of the working fluid should preferably be high in order to minimize the radial temperature gradient and to reduce the possibility of nucleate
boiling at the wick or wall surface. The resistance to fluid flow will be minimized by choosing fluids with low values of vapor and liquid viscosities. Tabulated below are a
few mediums with their useful ranges of temperature.

BOILING
PT. AT ATM.
PRESSURE USEFUL
RANGE
MELTING (° C) (° C)
MEDIUM
PT. (° C )
 Helium - 271 - 261 -271 to -269
Nitrogen - 210 - 196 -203 to -160
Ammonia - 78 - 33 -60 to 100
Acetone - 95 57 0 to 120
Methanol - 98 64 10 to 130
Flutec PP2 - 50 76 10 to 160
Ethanol - 112 78 0 to 130
Water 0 100 30 to 200
Toluene - 95 110 50 to 200
Mercury - 39 361 250 to 650
Sodium 98 892 600 to 1200
Lithium 179 1340 1000 to 1800
Silver 960 2212 1800 to 2300

Wick or Capillary Structure

It is a porous structure made of materials like steel, alumunium, nickel or copper in various ranges of pore sizes. They are fabricated using metal foams, and more particularly
felts, the latter being more frequently used. By varying the pressure on the felt during assembly, various pore sizes can be produced. By incorporating removable metal
mandrels, an arterial structure can also be molded in the felt.

Fibrous materials, like ceramics, have also been used widely. They generally have smaller pores. The main disadvantage of ceramic fibres is that, they have little stiffness and
usually require a continuos support by a metal mesh. Thus while the fibre itself may be chemically compatible with the working fluids, the supporting materials may cause
problems. More recently, interest has turned to carbon fibres as a wick material. Carbon fibre filaments have many fine longitudinal grooves on their surface, have high
capillary pressures and are chemically stable. A number of heat pipes that have been successfully constructed using carbon fibre wicks seem to show a greater heat transport
capability.

The prime purpose of the wick is to generate capillary pressure to transport the working fluid from the condenser to the evaporator. It must also be able to distribute the liquid
around the evaporator section to any area where heat is likely to be received by the heat pipe. Often these two functions require wicks of different forms. The selection of the
wick for a heat pipe depends on many factors, several of which are closely linked to the properties of the working fluid.

The maximum capillary head generated by a wick increases with decrease in pore size. The wick permeability increases with increasing pore size. Another feature of the wick,
which must be optimized, is its thickness. The heat transport capability of the heat pipe is raised by increasing the wick thickness. The overall thermal resistance at the
evaporator also depends on the conductivity of the working fluid in the wick. Other necessary properties of the wick are compatibility with the working fluid and wettability.

The most common types of wicks that are used are as follows:

Sintered Powder

This process will provide high power handling, low temperature gradients and high capillary
forces for anti-gravity applications. The photograph shows a complex sintered wick with several
vapor channels and small arteries to increase the liquid flow rate. Very tight bends in the heat
pipe can be achieved with this type of structure.
Grooved Tube

The small capillary driving force generated by the axial grooves is adequate for low power heat pipes
when operated horizontally, or with gravity assistance. The tube can be readily bent. When used in
conjunction with screen mesh the performance can be considerably enhanced.
Screen Mesh

This type of wick is used in the majority of the products and provides readily variable characteristics in
terms of power transport and orientation sensitivity, according to the number of layers and mesh counts
used.

Working

Inside the container is a liquid under its own pressure, that enters the pores of the capillary material, wetting all internal surfaces. Applying heat at any point along the surface
of the heat pipe causes the liquid at that point to boil and enter a vapor state. When that happens, the liquid picks up the latent heat of vaporization. The gas, which then has a
higher pressure, moves inside the sealed container to a colder location where it condenses. Thus, the gas gives up the latent heat of vaporization and moves heat from the input
to the output end of the heat pipe.

Heat pipes have an effective thermal conductivity many thousands of times that of copper. The heat transfer or transport capacity of a heat pipe is specified by its " Axial
Power Rating (APC)". It is the energy moving axially along the pipe. The larger the heat pipe diameter, greater is the APR. Similarly, longer the heat pipe lesser is the APR.
Heat pipes can be built in almost any size and shape.

Applications

Heat pipe has been, and is currently being, studied for a variety of applications, covering almost the entire spectrum of temperatures encountered in heat transfer processes.
Heat pipes are used in a wide range of products like air-conditioners, refrigerators, heat exchangers, transistors, capacitors, etc. Heat pipes are also used in laptops to reduce the
working temperature for better efficiency. Their application in the field of cryogenics is very significant, especially in the development of space technology. We shall now
discuss a brief account of the various applications of heat pipe technology.

Space Technology

The use of heat pipes has been mainly limited to this field of science until recently, due to cost effectiveness and complex wick construction of heat pipes. There are several
applications of heat pipes in this field like

● Spacecraft temperature equalization

● Component cooling, temperature control and radiator design in satellites.

● Other applications include moderator cooling, removal of heat from the reactor at emitter temperature and elimination of troublesome thermal gradients along the
emitter and collector in spacecrafts.
Heat pipes for Dehumidification and Air conditioning

In an air conditioning system, the colder the air as it passes over the cooling coil (evaporator), the more the moisture is condensed out. The heat pipe is designed to have one
section in the warm incoming stream and the other in the cold outgoing stream. By transferring heat from the warm return air to the cold supply air, the heat pipes create the
double effect of pre-cooling the air before it goes to the evaporator and then re-heating it immediately.

Activated by temperature difference and therefore consuming no energy, the heat pipe, due to its pre-cooling effect, allows the evaporator coil to operate at a lower
temperature, increasing the moisture removal capability of the air conditioning system by 50-100%. With lower relative humidity, indoor comfort can be achieved at higher
thermostat settings, which results in net energy savings. Generally, for each 1° F rise in thermostat setting, there is a 7% savings in electricity cost. In addition, the pre-cooling
effect of the heat pipe allows the use of a smaller compressor.

Laptop Heat Pipe Solution

Heat pipe technology originally used for space applications has been applied it to laptop computer cooling. It is an ideal, cost effective solution. Its light weight (generally less
than 40 grams), small, compact profile, and its passive operation, allow it to meet the demanding requirements of laptops.

For an 8 watt CPU with an environmental temperature no greater than 40°C it provides a 6.25°C/watt thermal resistance, allowing the processor to run at full speed under any
environmental condition by keeping the case temperature at 90°C or less.

One end of the heat pipe is attached to the processor with a thin, clip-on mounting plate. The other is attached to the heat sink, in this case, a specially designed keyboard RF
shield. This approach uses existing parts to minimize weight and complexity. The heat pipe could also be attached to other physical components suitable as a heat sink to
dissipate heat. (See photo of inside of laptop computer)

Because there are no moving parts, there is no maintenance and nothing to break. Some are concerned about the possibility of the fluid leaking from the heat pipe into the
electronics. The amount of fluid in a heat pipe of this diameter is less than 1cc. In a properly designed heat pipe, the water is totally contained within the capillary wick
structure and is at less than 1 atmosphere of pressure. If the integrity of the heat pipe vessel were ever compromised, air would leak into the heat pipe instead of the water
leaking out. Then the fluid would slowly vaporize as it reaches its atmospheric boiling point. A heat pipe’s MTTF is estimated to be over 100,000 hours of use.

NOTEBOOK AND MOBIL PCs THERMAL CONTROL

Heat pipes have proven to be the excepted means of providing thermal control in notebook and Mobil PCs systems. Heat pipes can move and dissipate CPU generate heat
selectively throughout the system without affecting temperature sensitive components. Low wattage heat pipes (under 20 watts) have standardized input plates to the heat pipe.
The connection to the heat exchanger via the heat pipe can have any number of configurations to accommodate component placement, multiple power ranges and fan options.

CPU WORK STATIONS

The heat pipe solutions for thermal control at this level is a component and overall systems requirement. Not only do the heat pipes take on a different configuration with
multiple heat pipes and cooling fins, but also airflow becomes the critical design factor. Heat pipes designed to move 75 watts are usually flat with fin stacks from three to six
inches, in many cases with fins mounted on each side of the CPU input pad. Input pads are standard using stand-offs, transition sockets, and bolster plates on the bottom of the
PC board. The spring clips used on the fan/heat sink combination won’t work here. Airflow management is important in the overall efficiency of the heat pipe and should be
calculated along with the intended heat pipe design.

WORK STATIONS 75 TO 100 WATTS

Thermal solutions are normally designed with multiple heat pipes, dedicated airflow and maximum input area. Fins stacks typically extend over both sides of the CPU. Input
attachment to the CPU is with stand-offs, transition sockets or bolster plates.

500 MHz OPERATING SYSTEMS

This group uses two thermal products, heat pipes to transfer the CPU heat (100 to 300 watts) and a second internal or external cooling source. Input power is generated from
multiple CPUs and components with single or multiple heat pipes. Cooling temperatures on the output range from -0° C to - 40° C. This system requires thermal isolation
because of dewpoint considerations.

Flexible Solutions

Heat pipes are manufactured in a multitude of sizes and shapes. Unusual application geometry can be easily accommodated by the heat pipe’s versatility to be shaped as a heat
transport device. If some range of motion is required, heat pipes can even be made of flexible material.

Two of the most common are:

Constant Temperature: The heat pipe maintains a constant temperature or temperature range.

Diode: The heat pipe will allow heat transfer in only one direction.
Mega Flats

Flat heat pipes are typically used for cooling printed circuit boards or for heat leveling to produce an isothermal plane. Mega flats are several flat heat pipes sandwiched
together.

Some of the flat heat pipes manufactured are:

XY Mega Flats: Surface maintained within .01° F isothermal with concentrated load centers. 6" X 6" Mega Flat: Dissipated 850 watts from a printed circuit board.

Weight Reduction Mega Flats:

Standard - aluminum construction.

 Lightweight - ½ the weight of aluminum.

Very light weight - 1/3 the weight of aluminum.

SEM C and SEM E Mega Flats in stock. Low and light weight coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) Mega Flats - any CTE from 2 to 10. Alloy H: 70% more conductive
than, or 40% less weight than copper clad invar.

Cost Effectiveness of Heat Pipes

The cost of heat pipes designed for laptop use is very competitive compared to other alternatives. Cost is partially offset and justified by improved system reliability and the
increased life of cooler running electronics. Heat pipes, in quantity, cost a few dollars each while an entire cooling system will cost between $5 - $10 in production quantities,
depending on the final design. Standard design products are available to reduce cost even further. Heat pipe manufacture has been a difficult area to compete in. Simple in
concept, but difficult to apply commercially, the heat pipe is a very elusive technology & holds the key to the future of heat transfer & its allied applications.

**This article was graciously submitted to www.cheresources.com for publication by Shankara Narayanan K.R. from Bangalore, India. He has
presented this paper at national seminars in India. The author can be reached for questions/comments at k_r_shankar_nar@hotmail.com

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Piezo Systems offers a wide variety of piezo elements and the electronics to drive them,
as well as design engineering services and OEM component development

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SUBJECT: The most asked questions about mechanical seals 10-2

What is considered good life for a mechanical seal?

● The only part of a mechanical seal that is supposed to be sacrificial is the carbon face. The seal
should run leak free until the carbon face is worn away. If the seal leaks for any other reason we
consider it a premature failure and always correctable.
● Two hard faces are selected when carbon is not acceptable in the application and you have run
out of options. You are then trying to get the longest life you can.
● The only variable in seal life should be the lubricating quality of the product you are sealing. Hot
water, many gases and most solvents are typical non-lubricants.
● With all of that said, the fact is that in excess of eighty-five percent of mechanical seals fail
prematurely. When seals are removed from the running pump most of the carbon face is still
intact. Little face wear is the rule not the exception.

Why do most seals fail prematurely?

● One of the seal components becomes damaged.

● The seal faces open.

What are the most common causes of component damage?

● Corrosion of one of the seal components.

● Physical damage that includes the affects of high heat or excessive pressure

What are the most common causes for the lapped seal faces to open?

● The seal was set screwed to a hardened shaft.

● Solids in the product you are sealing are clogging the moveable components.
● The product changed state and interfered with the free movement of the seal. It:
❍ Crystallized.

❍ Became viscous.

❍ Solidified.

❍ Built a film on the sliding components and the lapped faces.

❍ The product vaporized across the lapped faces blowing them open.

Do seal faces have to be lubricated? Can they run dry?

● The graphite in the carbon/graphite face is a natural lubricant. In operation the graphite separates
from the mixture and transfers to the hard face. This means that the seal face combination you are
normally running is carbon on graphite. The hard face is just some place to put the graphite.
● Moisture must be present for the graphite to separate from the carbon/graphite mixture.
● Running dry means higher heat at the faces. If you are using a good unfilled carbon/graphite (and
you should be) the faces are not going to be your problem. The elastomer and the product you are
 sealing can be very sensitive to a temperature change in the stuffing box, or an increase of
temperature at the seal faces.

Do seal faces have to be kept cool?

● Most carbons and hard faces can tolerate a lot of heat. The elastomers (rubber parts) are the parts
you have to watch. They are the most sensitive to a change in stuffing box temperature,
especially if they are positioned in the seal face.
● Hydraulically balanced seals generate very little heat between the faces.
● Unbalanced seals usually require cooling because of the excessive heat they can generate.
● Some face combinations generate more heat than others. Two hard faces as an example.
● Some seal materials conduct heat better than others. Ceramic is a poor heat conductor and carbon
is not much better. Tungsten carbide and silicone carbide are excellent conductors of heat.

When should you use two hard faces?

● With any of the oxidizing agents.

● When sealing any of the halogens.
● If the product tends to stick the faces together.
● If you are sealing hot oil and you have to pass a fugitive emission test.
● Some de-ionized water will attack carbon in any form.
● When you are not allowed anything black in the system because of the possibility of color
contamination.
● Any time carbon/graphite will not work for some reason.
● If the specifications call for two hard faces.

Why not standardize on two hard faces?

● They generate higher heat than the carbon/ hard face combination.
● They are not very forgiving. If the faces are not dead flat at installation, they seldom lap them
selves flat in operation.

Do seals have to leak.?

● Any good quality mechanical seal should run without visible leakage.
● Single, stationary, (the springs do not rotate) hydraulically balanced mechanical seals can pass a
fugitive emission test as long as the rotating portion of the seal is designed to be located square to
the shaft.
● Rotating seals (the springs rotate with the shaft) seldom can pass a fugitive emission test. They
are too sensitive to various forms of misalignment.
● Cartridge mounted stationary seals usually fail fugitive emission testing because the set screwing
of the cartridge to the shaft prevents the rotating face from positioning its self square to the shaft.
Some seal companies offer some type of a self aligning design to solve this problem.

Why do most original equipment seal designs frett and damage the shaft under the dynamic elastomer or
spring loaded Teflon.?
 ● Corrosion resistant shafts and sleeves protect themselves from corrosion by forming a protective
oxide (ceramic) layer on the metal surface. The dynamic elastomer in the seal polishes this layer
away as the shaft slides through the elastomer because of shaft vibration, pipe strain,
misalignment etc.
● The ceramic protective oxide that is removed by the polishing action imbeds its self into the
elastomer causing it to act as a grinding wheel that increases the sleeve or shaft damage.

Do you have to flush most slurry applications?

● It depends upon the percentage of solids. Most fluid with entrained solids can run without flush if
you have met the following conditions:
❍ The packing stuffing box has been replaced with a larger inside diameter version.

Centrifugal force will throw the solids away from the lapped seal faces.
❍ You are using a hydraulically balanced seal that generates low heat.

❍ The seal springs are not located in the fluid.

❍ The fluid is at the seal outside diameter.

❍ The dynamic elastomer moves to a clean surface as the carbon wears.

❍ You are using suction recirculation to get flow in the stuffing box.

I am looking for a simple solution to a difficult problem. Do discharge recirculation filters or cyclone
separators installed between the pump discharge and the stuffing box make sense in slurry applications?

● I wish they did!

● Filters clog and then there is no circulation in the stuffing box.
● Cyclone separators were never intended to be a single pass devise. The also require a substantial
difference in pressure between the discharge and the clean liquid connections. In a pump
application these pressures are too close together.

If I put a higher fluid pressure barrier fluid between dual seals, shouldn't that keep the faces clean?

● No, the clean fluid always takes the path of least resistance. That is the same reason that higher
pressure air does not keep dry solids from penetrating the lapped faces.
● Centrifugal force will pack solids in front of the inboard seal face and restrict its movement.

Do you need a higher pressure barrier fluid between dual seals?

● Higher pressure is called barrier fluid, lower pressure is called buffer fluid.
● The only dual seals that require a barrier fluid are the "back to back" rotating, unbalanced
versions, and you shouldn't use them any way.
● Balanced tandem seals (one behind the other) use a buffer fluid that will not dilute your product
if the inner seal fails. They also put the pumping fluid at the inner seal outside diameter where it
belongs.
● Dual seals should be hydraulically balanced in both directions so that they will stay shut
regardless of the direction of the fluid pressure.
How does seal hydraulic balance work?

● There are two forces closing the seal faces.

❍ A spring force caused by the spring, springs, or bellows pushing on the seal face.

❍ A hydraulic force caused by the pressure of the fluid acting on the closing area of the seal

faces.
● There are three forces opening the mechanical seal:
❍ A hydraulic force caused by fluid or vapor trapped between the lapped faces.

❍ Centrifugal force that is causing the rotating portion of the seal to try and become

perpendicular to the rotating shaft.

❍ Hydrodynamic forces generated between the seal faces because for all practical purposes

liquids are not compressible.

● We balance these forces by reducing the closing area of the seal faces and thereby reduce the
closing force. This is usually done by a small sleeve inserted into the seal or as step machined
into the shaft. Metal bellows seals have an effective diameter measured through the bellows to
accomplish the same thing.

Is it O.K. to have a third party rebuild my mechanical seals?

● Not really. If you're happy with your seal have the manufacturer, or the company that sold it to
you do the rebuilding. Here are a couple of reasons why:
❍ Carbon/graphite has to be molded in a sintering process and the third party doesn't own

the molds for your carbon/graphite face. Machined carbons don't have the density required
for good seal faces.
❍ There are many grades of elastomers. How do you insure you have the right grade. You

can't tell by looking at the part.

❍ Lapping is a real art. The temperature has to be closely controlled to get the right flatness.

Should I be using split mechanical seals?

● There are places where they are the only logical solution:
❍ Double ended pumps. If one seal is leaking why take the pump apart and change both?

Change only the one that is leaking.

❍ Large vertical pumps. Sometimes you have to take the roof off the building to remove the

solid mechanical seal.

❍ Large size shafts are a natural for split seals.

❍ Changing a seal means doing a re-alignment. Why go through that again?

❍ If you have to remove a lot of pump insulation to get to the seal.

❍ If the pump is in an awkward location, split seals make sense.

● Many split seal designs can run with no visible leakage, but they seldom can pass a fugitive
emission test that calls for leak rates in the order of parts per million.

If I touch the lapped faces, are they ruined?

● Not at all. Touching seal faces seldom causes problems. We are trying to keep solids from
penetrating between the lapped faces, so the less you handle them the less likely solids will be
 deposited on the faces.

Why should you not use stainless steel springs or stainless steel bellows in mechanical seals?

● Chloride stress corrosion is the problem and chlorides are every where. Use hastelloy "C" springs
and metal bellows and you'll never have this problem.

Why not standardize on Teflon as the preferred rubber part in a mechanical seal?

● Teflon® is not an elastomer, it doesn't have a memory and has to be spring-loaded to the sleeve
or shaft. This spring loading interferes with the flexibility of the seal and prevents the elastomer
part from flexing and rolling to compensate for minor shaft movements.

Why not mount the seal outside the stuffing box and then dirt and solids will not get into the springs and
sliding parts of the mechanical seal?

● The sealing fluid will be at the inside diameter of the lapped faces where centrifugal force will
throw solids into the faces.
● Solids will pile up in front of the seal preventing the faces from moving forward when the
sacrifical carbon wears.

What is a cartridge seal?

● The rotating portion of the seal is mounted on a cartridge sleeve and this assembly is connected
to the stationary portion of the seal along with the seal gland to form a cartridge assembly.
Cartridge seals simplify the installation process and allow you to make impeller adjustments
without upsetting the seal face loading.

Do I need the new gas seals if I want to seal fugitive emissions?

● Not really. Rotating seals do not pass fugitive emission tests because of their sensitivity to
misalignment. Stationary seals usually do not have this limitation.
● The difficulty arises when you try to install a stationary seal on a cartridge sleeve. When you
tighten the sleeve set screws to the pump shaft you introduce misalignment between the rotating
seal face and the rotating shaft. Hysteresis (delay or lag) problems take over and the result is the
stationary seal design fails to pass the fugitive emission test. Any good cartridge mounted self
aligning seal can resolve this problem.
● Although a single seal can pass the test, a dual seal is recommended with a low pressure buffer
fluid between the seals to act as a back up when the first seal wears out or fails. The buffer fluid
will prevent unwanted product dilution and simplify the installation because there is no need for a
compatible high pressure barrier fluid that is often hard to find.

Why does my outside mounted seal make a whistling sound?

● The seal faces are running dry. The product you are trying to seal is not a lubricant.
Every time I remove a rubber bellows seal from my pump it is stuck to the shaft. Why?

● It is supposed to vulcanize its self to the shaft so that it can drive the rotating face. If you can
remove it easily something is wrong. You probably used the wrong lubricant on the rubber during
installation. This is a case where the lubricant we use is supposed to attack the rubber and make it
swell.

When my metal bellows seal fails because of breakage at the plates, the break is always near the end
fittings and never in the middle of the bellows. How is that explained?

● This is the common mode of failure for excessive vibration. Metal bellows seals need some type
of vibration damping to stop harmonic and "slip-stick" vibration problems.

® DuPont Dow elastomer

Link to the Mc Nally home page

 O-RING SELECTION GUIDE A

PLEASE SEE THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE FOR AN EXPLANATION OF THE CODES

Abietic Acid C O
Absolut Alchol V M F
Acetaldehyde E M F,T
Acetamide E C
Acetanilide C H
Acetate of lime E C
Acetate solvent E - -
Acetic Acid + Methanol E - -
Acetic Acid < 40 % C M
Acetic Acid < 5% V,E M
Acetic Acid > 40 % C M
Acetic Acid Amide E C
Acetic Acid Crude E - -
Acetic Acid Ethenyl Ester V,E - -
Acetic Acid Methyl Ester E - -
Acetic Acid Vapors V,E - -
Acetic Acid. Glacial C - -
Acetic Aldehyde E - -
Acetic Anhydride C C
Acetic Ester E C F,E
Acetic Ether E C F,E
Acetic Oxide C C
Acetoacetic acid C C
Acetol E C
Acetone E M F
Acetone 1 % + water E M
Acetone Carboxylic Acid C C
Acetone Chloroform C S T
Acetone Crboxylic Acid C C
Acetone Cyanohydrin E C T
Acetonitrile E C T,F
Acetonyl Alchol E C
Acetophenetidide C S
Acetophenetidin C S
Acetophenone E S
Acetotoluidide C - -
Acetronitrine C - -
Acetyl Acetone E S
Acetyl Benzene E S
Acetyl Carbinol E C
Acetyl Chloride W V T,F
Acetyl Oxide C C
Acetylene E,V S F,E
Acetylene Gas E - F,E
Acetylene Gas with Water B M -
Acetylene Tetrabromide E,V O T
Acetylene Tetrachloride V S T
Acetylenogen C D E
Acetylmethylcarbinol E M
Acetylphenetidin C S
Acetylphenol C S
Aconitic Acid C C
Acraldehyde E C F,E
Acridine C O C
Acroleic Acid C M O
Acrolein E C F,E
Acryladehyde E C F,E
Acrylic Acid C M
Acrylic Copolymer C - -
Acryloid 954 C - -
Acrylonitrile C O F
Adipic Acid C S
Advasol 210 C - -
Aerozene 50
(50% Hydrazine, 50% UDM) E - -
Air <200F E,V M
Air <400F V - -
Airpmatic solvent 1040 C - -
Alcohol (Ethyl) E M
Alcohol (Iso-Butyl) V M
Alcohol (Iso-Propyl) E,V M
Alcohol (Methyl) E M
Alcohol (Octyl) E M
Aldehyde Acetaldehyde E - -
Aliphatic Dicarboxylic Acid C - -
Alkanes C - -
Alkanesulphonic Acid C - -
Alkazene V O
Alkoxides C - -
Alkoxylated amine c2,c3 C - -
Alkyd Resins V - -
Alkyl Acetone C - -
Alkyl Amine C - -
Alkyl Aryl Sulphonates C - -
Alkyl Arylsulphonics C - -
Alkyl Benzene V - -
Alkyl Benzotriazole C - -
Alkyl Chloride C - -
Alkyl Dimethylamine C - -
Alkyl Sulfide C - -
Alkylate (Light) V - -
Alkylate bottoms C - -
Alkylated benzene Sulfonate C - -
Alkylnapthalene Sulfonic Acid C - -
Allyl Acetone C C T
Allyl Aldehyde E C F,E
Allyl Amine C C
Allyl Chloride C O F,T
Allyl Ketone E - -
Allylidene Diacetate C - -
Alpha Pineene C - -
Alpha Picoline C - -
Alum > 10 % E - -
Alum Potash E - -
Alum RT < 10 % E - -
Alum Solution V,E - -
Aluminum Acetate E O
Aluminum Bromide E,V V
Aluminum Chloride
(forms HCL with water E, V V
Aluminum Ethylate C - -
Aluminum Fluoride E,V S
Aluminum Fluosilicate C H
Aluminum Formate C C
Aluminum Hydrate E O
Aluminum Hydroxide E O
Aluminum Linoledate C - -
Aluminum Nitrate E,V C
Aluminum Oxalate C - -
Aluminum Oxide B O
Aluminum Phosphate C O
Aluminum Potassium Sulfate E C
Aluminum Salts E,V - -
Aluminum silicate (clay) E O
Aluminum Sodium Sulfate C C
Aluminum Sulphate E,V C
Alums-NH3-CR-K E O
Amine: <160F° C O
Amines-Mixed C O
Amino Benzene E O T
Amino Phenol C - -
Aminoanthraquinone C O
Aminoazobenzene E O
Aminobenzene Sulfonic Acid C S
Aminobenzoic Acid C O
Aminoethylethanol-amine C - -
Aminomethane E O F,T
Aminopyridine C - -
Aminosalicylic Acid C - -
Ammonia alum E - -
Ammonia, anhydrous E C T
Ammonia: Aqueous E C T
Ammonia: Compressor N - -
Ammonia: Gas E - -
Ammonia: Gas, Cold Liquid
E - -
anhydrous
Ammonium Acetate C C
Ammonium Acid Carbonate E C
Ammonium Arsenate C - -
Ammonium Bicarbonate E C
Ammonium Bichromate C C F
Ammonium Bifluorid C C T
Ammonium Bisulfite C - -
Ammonium Bromide C C
Ammonium Carbamate E C
Ammonium Carbonate E H
Ammonium Chloride V.E C T
Ammonium Citrate, Dibasic C C
Ammonium Dichromate C C F
Ammonium Diphosphate C - -
Ammonium Fluoride C C T
Ammonium Fluosilicate C C T
Ammonium Formate C - -
Ammonium Hydrogen Carbonate E C
Ammonium Hydrogen Fluoride C - -
Ammonium Hydroxide 3 Molar or
E - -
concentrated
Ammonium Iodide C C
Ammonium Lactate C C
Ammonium Metaphosphate C - -
Ammonium Molybdate C C
Ammonium Mono-Basic C - -
Ammonium Nitrate E C E
Ammonium Nitrate75% E - -
Ammonium Nitrite E - -
Ammonium Oxalate C C T
Ammonium Perchlorate* C C E
Ammonium Perchloride C - -
Ammonium Persulfate 10% B C F
Ammonium Persulfate Solution* E C F
Ammonium Phosphate Dibasic E C
Ammonium Phosphate Mono basic E S
Ammonium Phosphate Tribasic E - -
Ammonium Picrate C C
Ammonium Polysulfide C O T
Ammonium Salicylate C C
Ammonium Salts E C
Ammonium Silicofluoride C C T
Ammonium Sterate E O O
Ammonium Sulfamate C C E
Ammonium Sulfite C - -
Ammonium Sulphate E C
Ammonium Sulphide E C T
Ammonium Thiocyanate C C
Ammonium Thiocyanide V,E - -
Ammonium Thioglycollate C C
Ammonium Thiosulfate V,E C
Ammonium Tribasic C - -
Ammonium Tungstate C C
Ammonium Valerate C - -
Amonoxylene C O T
Amyl Acetate E - E
Amyl Alcohol E S E
Amyl Borate B - -
Amyl Butyrate C - -
Amyl Chloride V O F
Amyl Chloronaphthalene V - -
Amyl Cinnamic Aldehyde C O
Amyl Hydride V C F,E
Amyl Laurate C - -
Amyl Mercaptan C O F
Amyl Naphthalene V - -
Amyl Nitrate* E -
Amyl Phenol C C
Amyl Propionate C -
Amylene E C F,E
Amylum V,E - -
Analine Sulfate C - -
Analine Sulfite C - -
Anderol L-774(Di-Ester) V - -
Anderol L-826 (Di-Ester) V - -
Anderol L-829 (Di-Ester) V - -
ANG-25 (Di ester Base) TG749 V - -
ANG-25 (Glyceral Ester) V,E - -
Anhydrous Ammonia E C T
Anhydrous Hydrazine C M E
Anhydrous Hydrogen Fluoride E - -
Anikline Hydrochlorine C - -
Aniline E O T
Aniline Dyes E - T
Aniline Hydrochloride E C T
Aniline Oil E - -
Aniline Salts E C T
Animal Oil (Lard Oil) V O
Anisole C O
Anisoyle Chloride C D T
ANO-366 V - -
Ansul Ether 161 or 181 C - -
Ant Oil E - -
Anthracine C O C
Anthranilic Acid C H T
Anthraquinone C O
Anti foam agent C -
Antichlor V,E C
Antimony Chlorides E O
Antimony Pentafluoride C H
Antimony Peroxide* C - -
Antimony salts B C T
Antimony Sulfate C D T,F
Antimony Trichloride E O
Antimony Trifluoride C D T
Antimony Trisulfate C D T,F
COLUMN #2 THE O-RING (V) Viton ® grade 747-75, (E) ETHYLENE PROPYLENE, (B) BUNA N, (Bu) BUTYL, (C) CHEMRAZ
OR Kalrez ®, (N) NEOPRENE

COLUMN #3 SOLUBLE IN WATER (C) COLD WATER, (H) HOT WATER , (O) NOT SOLUBLE, (S) SLIGHTLY SOLUBLE, (V)
REACTS VIOLENTLY WITH WATER, (D) DECOMPOSES, (H) HYDROLIZES, (M) MISCIBLE

COLUMN #4 HAZARDOUS, NEEDS TWO SEALS (F) FIRE, (T) TOXIC, (C) CARCINOGEN, [E) EXPLOSIVE

* OXIDIZER - WILL ATTACK ALL FORMS OF CARBON

® REGISTERED TRADEMARK OF DUPONT DOW ELASTOMERS

Link to Chemical Listing Guide

Link to the Mc Nally home page

 O-RING SELECTION GUIDE "B"

PLEASE SEE THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE FOR AN EXPLANATION OF THE CODES

Baking soda E C
Bardol B V O
Barium Carbonate E,V O T
Barium Chlorate C C T
Barium Chloride E,V C T
Barium Chloride 25% V C -
Barium Cyanide E,V C T
Barium Hydrate E,V S T
Barium Hydroxide E,V S T
Barium Iodide C C T
Barium Monohydrate B S T
Barium Monosulfide E,V C T
Barium Nitrate * V C F
Barium Octahydrate B C T
Barium Oxide C V T
Barium Peroxide * C S F,E
Barium Polysulfide C - -
Barium Salts E,V - -
Barium Sulfate V O
Barium Sulfide E,V C T
Barium Sulfonate C - -
Basic Iron Sulfate B - -
Bay Oil V - -
Bayol D,or 35 V - -
Beer E,V O
Beer Wort B O
Beet Juice & Pulp B O
Beet Sugar Liquors E,V O
Beet Sugar, Liquid E,V O
Belt Drive E - -
Benzadine 3 Sulfonic Acid C - -
Benzadine Acid C - -
Benzal Alcohol V - -
Benzal Amine N
Benzal Chloride C - -
Benzaldehyde E S
Benzaldehyde-disulfonic acid C - -
Benzamide C H
Benzanthrone C - -
Benzene (Benzol) V S F
Benzene Carbanol E - -
Benzene Carboxylic Acid V S
Benzene Hexachloride C - T
Benzene Sulfonic Acid 10% V -
Benzenecarbonitrile C - -
Benzidine C H C
Benzil C 0
BenzIlic Acid C H
Benzin B - -
Benzine ( gasoline) V O F
Benzo-tri-chloride C H
Benzocatechol C - -
Benzochloride V,E - -
Benzoic (Anhydride) C - -
Benzoic Acid (Solution) V S
Benzoic Acid over 250° F C O
Benzol (Benzene) V S F
Benzol Hydride E S
Benzolin V S
Benzonitrile C H T
Benzophenol V C
Benzophenone V C
Benzotrifluoride C O F
Benzoyl Chloride C D T
Benzoyl Peroxide * C S F,E
Benzoylsulfonic Acid C - -
Benzyl Acetate C S
Benzyl Alcohol V S
Benzyl Benzoate V O
Benzyl Bromide C O
Benzyl Butyl Phthalate C - -
Benzyl Cellulose C - -
Benzyl Chloride V O
Benzyl Phenol C S T
Benzyl Salicylate C O
Beryllium Chloride C C T
Beryllium Fluoride C C T
Beryllium Oxide C C T
Beryllium Sulfate C C T
Beta Carotene V - -
Bicarbonate of soda E,V C
Bichloride of Mercury E - -
Biphenyl V - -
Biphenyl Oxides V - -
Bischofite V,E - -
Bismuth Carbonate E,V O
Bismuth Nitrate* C D F
Bismuth Oxychloride C O
Bismuth Subcarbonate E,V O
Bismuthyl Carbonate E,V - -
Bittern C - -
Bivinyl V O F,E
Black Ash E,V - -
Black point 77 E,V - -
Black Sulphate Liquors E C
Black Sulphate liquors over 280°
C C
F.
Black Sulphite Liquors V C
Blanc Fixe, Synthetic E,V - -
Blank Fixe V - -
Blast furnace gas V - -
Bleach Liquor * E,V C F
Bleach solutions* E C T
Blend lube additive C - -
Blood E C
Blue Copperas E,V C T
Blue Coppreras E,V C
Blue Verdigris E - -
Blue Vitriol E C T
Boiled Linseed Oil V O
Boiler Feed Water (to 290 F. ) E C
Boiler feed water over 290°F C C
Bonderite Solutions V - -
Boracic Acid E,V H
Borax E,V C
Borax Solutions E,V C
Bordeaux mixture E,V - -
Boric Acid E,V H
Borneol C O F
Bornyl Acetate C O
Bornyl Alcohol C O F
Bornyl Chloride C O
Bornyl Formate C - F
Boron Bromide C D E
Boron Chloride C D T
Boron Fluids (HEF) V - -
Boron Fluoride C C T
Boron Hydride C C E
Boron Phosphate C C
Boron Tribromide C D E
Boron Trichloride C D T
Boron Trifluoride C C T
Boron Trioxide C - -
Boronated ashless C - -
Brake Fluid (non petroleum) E -
Brake fluid (petroleum) V - -
Bran Oil E - -
Bray GG-130 V - -
Brayco 719-R (WH 910) E - -
Brayco 885 (MIL-L-6085A) V - -
Bret 710 E - -
Bret 77 E - -
Brine, Sea Water E C
Brine-Calcium Chloride 30% E,V C -
Brine-Copper Chloride to 75% E,V C
Brine-Sodium Chloride E C
Brom 114 V - -
Bromic Acid C C T
Bromine Anhydrous Liquid V - -
Bromine Gas V - -
Bromine Pentafluoride C V E
Bromine Trifluoride C V E
Bromine Water V - -
Bromine* V S T
Bromobenzene V O
Bromobenzene Cyanide C - -
Bromochlorotrifluoroethane V - -
Bromoform C S T
Bromomethane V S
Bromotrifluoromethane C - -
Bronzing Liquid B - -
Brown Acetate E - -
Brown Stock E,V - -
Bruceite E - -
Brucine Sulfate C - -
Brucite E,V - -
Brudium V - T
Bunker C Fuel Oil #6 V O
Bunker Oil V O
Burnt Alum V,E - -
Burnt Lime E O F
Buryronitrile E - -
Butadien V O F,E
Butadien (Monomer) V,E - -
Butanal C S F
Butane V C F,E
Butane 2,2-Dimethyl V - -
Butane 2,3-Dimethyl V - -
Butanediols C - -
Butanoic Acid E,V - -
Butanoic Acid E,V C
Butanol (Butyl Alcohol) V - -
Butenedioic Acid V - -
Butoxethanol E - -
Butryolactone C - -
Butter Milk E,V C
Butter Of Antimony E - -
Butter-Aminal Fat E,V O
Butyl Acetate or N Butyl Acetate E S F
Butyl Acetyl - Ricinoleate E,V O
Butyl Alcohol V S T
Butyl Butanoate E,V - -
Butyl Carbitol E - -
Butyl Cellosolve E - -
Butyl Cellosolve Adipate E - -
Butyl CitratE C O
Butyl Ether E O F,E
Butyl Glycolate C - -
Butyl Hydrate V - -
Butyl Hydride V - -
Butyl Hydroxide V - -
Butyl Lactate C S
Butyl Mercaptan V S F
Butyl Methacrylate C O T
Butyl Oleate V O
Butyl Oxalate C - -
Butyl Oxide B - -
Butyl Phenols C O
Butyl Phthalate E - -
Butylene V O F
Butylene V O F
Butyraldehyde C S F
Butyric Acid V,E C
Butyric Aldehyde C S F
Butyric Anhydride C O
Butyrolactone C M
Butyroyl Chloride C M
Butyryl Chloride C M
Column #2. THE O-RING- (V) VITON ® grade 747-75, (E) ETHYLENE PROPYLENE, (B) BUNA N, (Bu) BUTYL, (C)
CHEMRAZ OR Kalrez®, (N) NEOPRENE
Column# 3. SOLUBLE IN WATER- (C) COLD WATER, (H) HOT WATER , (O) NOT SOLUBLE, (S) SLIGHTLY SOLUBLE,
(V) REACTS VIOLENTLY WITH WATER, (D) DECOMPOSES, (H) HYDROLIZES, (M) MISCIBLE
Column #4. HAZARDOUS, NEEDS TWO SEALS- (F) FIRE, (T) TOXIC, (C) CARCINOGEN, [E) EXPLOSIVE
* OXIDIZER - WILL ATTACK ALL FORMS OF CARBON
® DuPont Dow Elastomers

Link to Chemical Listing Guide

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 O-RING SELECTION GUIDE "C"

PLEASE SEE THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE FOR AN EXPLANATION OF THE CODES

Cadmium Chloride C C T
Cadmium Cyanide E,V - T
Cadmium Nitrate C C F,E
Cadmium Oxide C O T
Cadmium Sulfate C C T
Cadmium Sulfide C O T
Cajeputene V - -
Cake Alum B - -
Calamine V - -
Calcine Liquors V,E - -
Calcium Acetate E C
Calcium Acid Sulfate E,V C
Calcium Benzoate C - -
Calcium Bicarbonate C - -
Calcium Bisulfate E,V C
Calcium Bisulfide E,V - -
Calcium Bisulfite E,V C
Calcium Bromide C C
Calcium Carbonate Slurry E,V C
Calcium Chlorate * C C F,E
Calcium Chloride E,V C
Calcium Chromate C S C
Calcium Cyanide E C T
Calcium Dihydrogen Sulfite E,V C
Calcium Disulfate E,V - -
Calcium Fluoride C O T
Calcium Fluorphosphate V - -
Calcium Formate C - -
Calcium Gluconate C H
Calcium Hydrate E,V S
Calcium Hydride C D F
Calcium Hydrogen Sulfide E,V C
Calcium Hydrosulfide V C
Calcium Hydroxide E,V S
Calcium Hydrozide V,E - -
Calcium Hypochloride E,V - -
Calcium Hypochlorite* E,V D F
Calcium Hypophosphite C - -
Calcium Lactate C S
Calcium Magnesium Chloride C S
Calcium Metasilicate E.V C
Calcium Monoxide E - -
Calcium Naphthenate C - -
Calcium Nitrate* E,V S F
Calcium Oxide E C
Calcium Oxlate C O T
Calcium Oxychloride* E,V D F
Calcium Permanganate* C C F
Calcium Peroxide* C O F
Calcium Phenate C - -
Calcium Phenosulphonate C - -
Calcium Phosphate mono basic slurry E,V C
Calcium Propionate C C
Calcium Pyridine Sulfonate C - -
Calcium Salts E,V - -
Calcium Silicate E,V C
Calcium Stearate E,V O
Calcium Sulfaminate C - -
Calcium Sulfate E O
Calcium Sulfhydrate V C
Calcium Sulfide E,V S
Calcium Sulfite E,V S
Calcium Sulfonate C - -
Calcium Thiosulfate E,V C
Calcium Tungstate C S
Calciumn Carbide C D E
Caldium Oxide E - -
Calgon E - -
Caliche Liquors E,V - -
Calx E - -
Camphene C O F
Camphor C S F
Camphoric Acid C C
Candol V - -
Cane Sugar Liquors E,V C
Capric Acid C O
Caprilic Aldehyde E - -
Caprioc Aldehyde E - -
Caproic Acid C S
Caproic Aldehyde C O E
Caprol Hydride V - -
Caprolactam C C T
Capronaldehyde C - -
Caproyl Alcohol E - -
Capryl Alcohol B - -
Caprylic Alcohol E,V - -
Carbamate V - -
Carbamide E,V - -
Carbazotic Acid V C E
Carbinol E - -
Carbitol E - -
Carbolic Acid. (Phenol) V - -
Carbon Bisulphide V - -
Carbon Dioxide, Dry or wet V C
Carbon Disulphide V S
Carbon Fluorides C - -
Carbon Monoxide E,V S T
Carbon Oxychloride E S T
Carbon Tetrabromide C - -
Carbon Tetrachloride V O T
Carbonate of Soda C - -
Carbonated Beverages E M
Carbonic Acid E,V - -
Carbonic Anhydride E,V - -
Carbonyl Chloride E S T
Carbonyl Diamide E,V - -
Carboxy Benzene V S
Casein E,V O
Castor Oil V O
Catalyst Mixture C - -
Catsup V C
Caustic - Baryta E,V - -
Caustic Arsenic B D T
Caustic Chloride of Sodium C - -
Caustic Cyanogen C - -
Caustic Lime E,V - -
Caustic Potash E S T
Caustic Soda, E C
Caustic White water E C
Cellosolve E - -
Cellosolve Acetate E - -
Cellosolve Butyl E - -
Cellosolve Methyl C - -
Celluguard E,V - -
Cellulose Acetobutyrate C - -
Cellulose Ether C O
Cellulose Nitrate C O F.E
Cellulose Tripropionate C - -
Cellulube 300,500 E,V O
Cellulube 90, 100, 150, 220 E O
Cellulube A60 E O
Cellutherm 2505A V - -
Cerium Chloride C C
Cerium Fluoride C O T
Cerium Nitrate* C C F
Cerium Sulfate C C
Cerous Chloride C C
Cerous Fluoride C C T
Cerous Nitrate* C C F
Cetane (Hexadecane) V O O
Cetyl Alcohol C O F
Chaser ( aromatic oils) C - -
Chaulmoogric Acid C - -
Chemax hco-5 C - -
Chile Niter V,E - -
Chile Nitrate* E,V C F,E
Chile Saltpeter* E C F,E
China Clay (Kaoline) E O
China wood oil V O
China Wood Oil (Tung oil) V - -
Chloracetaldehyde C C
Chloracetaldehyde E - -
Chloracetic Acid E - -
Chloral C C
Chloramine C C
Chloranthaquinone C - -
Chlorate Of Lime E - -
Chlordane V O T
Chlorextol V - -
Chlorfoethylbenzene V - -
Chloric Acid * C - F
Chloride of lime E - -
Chlorinated Biphenyl V - -
Chlorinated Lime E,V D T
Chlorinated Salt Brine V C
Chlorinated Solvents, V - -
Chlorinated Water E M
Chlorine (Anhydrous or liquid)* V S F
Chlorine Dioxide* V D E
Chlorine Fluorides C - -
Chlorine Peroxide* V - F
Chlorine Trifluoride C - F
Chlorine water E C
Chlorine, Dry or wet * V S F
Chloro azotic Acid* V O T
Chloro nitrous Acid* V O T
Chloro Xylenois C - -
Chloro-Acetyl Chlorides C - -
Chloro-Alkyl Ethers C - -
Chloroacetic Acid E C
Chloroacetone E C
Chloroacetyl Chloride C - -
Chloroamino Benzoic Acid C - -
Chloroaniline C - -
Chloroazotic Acid V - -
Chlorobenzaldehyde C - -
Chlorobenzene (Mono-, Di-, Tri) V - -
Chlorobenzo-Chloride C - -
Chlorobenzo-Trifluoride C - -
Chlorobenzol V - -
Chlorobenzol V - -
Chlorobromomethane V - -
Chlorobromopropane C - -
Chlorobutadiene V - -
Chlorobutane C - -
Chlorobutanol VC S T
Chlorodifluoromethane C S T
Chlorododecane V - -
Chloroethane E,V H F
Chloroethane Sulfonic Acid C - -
Chloroethanoic Acid V,E - -
Chloroethanol C - -
Chloroethyl Alcohol E - -
Chloroform V S T
Chlorohydrin C M
Chloromethane V S F
Chloromethyl V - -
Chloromethyl Ether C - -
Chloronitrobenzene C - -
Chloropentafluoro-ethane C O
Chloropentane V - -
Chloroprene V - -
Chloropropylene Oxide E O T
Chlororoformyl chloride E S T
Chlorosilanes C - -
Chlorosulphonic Acid E D T
Chlorotoluene V S T
Chlorotoluene Sulfonic Acid C H O
Chlorotoluidine C - -
Chlorotrifluoroethylene C D F
Chlorotrifluoromethane C -
Chlorous Acid * C - -
Chlorowax 500c C O
Chlorox V - -
Chlorpicrin C - -
Chlorxylois C - -
Cholesterol C - -
Chresylic Acid V - -
Chrome Acid, greater than 50% V C T
Chrome Alum E,V - -
Chrome Ammonium Alum B - -
Chrome Plating solutions V - -
Chromic Acid to 50% V C T
Chromic Chloride C O T
Chromic Fluorides C C T
Chromic Hydroxide C O O
Chromic Nitrates * C C E
Chromic Oxide .88 Wt. Aqueous
V,E O
Solution
Chromic Phosphate C O
Chromic Sulfate C O
Chromium Chloride C O T
Chromium Fluoride C C T
Chromium Potasium Sulfate E,V C T
Chromium Sulfate (Basic) C O
Chromium Trioxide C - -
Chromyl Chlorides C V T
Chrysolepic Acid V - -
Cider E C
Cinene V - -
Cinene V C
Cinnamic Acid C O
Circo light process oil V - -
Citric Acid V,E C
Citrous Oils V - -
Citrous Pectin Liquor B - -
Clay slurry E, O
Cleaners, Naptha V - -
Coal gas V - -
Coal Tar (Bunker C #6 fuel) V O
Coal Tar Creosote V O
Cobalt Acetate C C
Cobalt Chloride E,V C
Cobalt Chloride 2N C C
Cobalt Linoleate C O
Cobalt Naplthenate C - -
Cobalt Sulfate C - -
Cobaltous Acetate C C
Cobaltous Chloride E,V C
Coca - Cola E C
Coco Butter B - -
Cocoa Butter V - -
Cocoanut Oil E,V - -
Cocoanut-Fatty Acid V - -
Cod Liver Oil E,V -
Coffee E,V C
Coffee Extract E,V C
Coke oven Gas V - -
Coliche liquors E - -
Collodil Silica V - -
Colza Oil E,V - -
Component header C - -
Concrete E C
Condensate less than 280° F. E M
Condensate over 280°F C M
Convelex 10 V - -
Coolanol V - -
Copper Acetate E S
Copper Ammonia Acetate E - -
Copper Arsenate, Basic E,V O T
Copper Borofluoride E,V - -
Copper Carbonate E,V O T
Copper Chloride E,V C
Copper Cyanide E,V O T
Copper Fluoborate V - -
Copper Fluoride E,V S T
Copper Gluconate C C
Copper Lasur V - -
Copper Napthenate C O
Copper Nitrate V C E
Copper Nitrite V S
Copper Plating solution E,V - -
Copper Salts E,V - -
Copper Sulfide V O T
Copper Sulphate V,E C T
Copper Sulphate - Blue Vitrol E,V - -
Copperas E - -
Copra Oil E,V C
Core oil B - -
Corn Oil V O
Corn Starch Slurry E,V C
Corn Syrup V C
Cottonseed Oil V O
Creosois V - -
Creosols V O T
Creosote & Light Oil V O T
Creosote, Coal Tar V O T
Creosote, Wood V O T
Creosylic Acid V - -
Cresol M,O, or P V - -
Cresylic Acid E O
Croton oil V O T
Crotonaldehyde C C F
Crotonolic Acid C S T
Crude Oil V O
Cryolite V - -
Crystal Ammonia B - -
Cubic Niter E,V - -
Cubic Saltpeter E.V - -
Cubnic V E -
Cumaldehyde C O F
Cumene V O T
Cumene-Hydroperoxide * C S F
Cupric Acetate E - -
Cupric Arsenate E,V - -
Cupric Carbonate V - -
Cupric Chloride V - -
Cupric Cyanide E.V - -
Cupric Fluoride E,V - -
Cupric Nitrate E,V - -
Cupric Sulfate E,V C T
Cupric Sulfide V - -
Cupric Sulphate E,V C T
Cuprous Ammonia Acetate (CAA ) C - -
Cuprous Chloride V O E
Cuprous Oxide C - -
Cutting Oil V O
Cyanamide C C
Cyanic Acid E O E
Cyanide Acid Solutions E - -
Cyanide compounds E - -
Cyanoacetic Acid C C
Cyanogen Chloride C C T
Cyanogen Gas C - -
Cyanogen in Water C - -
Cyanohydrin C - -
Cyanuric Chlorides C C
Cyclic Esters E - -
Cyclododectriene C - -
Cyclohexane V O F
Cyclohexanol V S T
Cyclohexanol Esters C - -
Cyclohexanone E S T
Cyclohexatriene V - -
Cyclohexene C O F
Cyclohexylamine E C F
Cyclohexylamine Carbonate C - -
Cyclohexylamine Laurate C - -
Cyclopentadiene C - -
Cyclopentane V O F
Cyclopolyolefins C - -
Cymene V O
Column #2. THE O-RING- (V) VITON ® grade 747-75, (E) ETHYLENE PROPYLENE, (B) BUNA N, (Bu) BUTYL, (C)
CHEMRAZ OR Kalrez®, (N) NEOPRENE
Column# 3. SOLUBLE IN WATER- (C) COLD WATER, (H) HOT WATER , (O) NOT SOLUBLE, (S) SLIGHTLY SOLUBLE,
(V) REACTS VIOLENTLY WITH WATER, (D) DECOMPOSES, (H) HYDROLIZES, (M) MISCIBLE
Column #4. HAZARDOUS, NEEDS TWO SEALS- (F) FIRE, (T) TOXIC, (C) CARCINOGEN, [E) EXPLOSIVE
* OXIDIZER - WILL ATTACK ALL FORMS OF CARBON
® DuPont Dow Elastomers

Link to Chemical Listing Guide

Link to the Mc Nally home page

 O-RING SELECTION GUIDE "D"

PLEASE SEE THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE FOR AN EXPLANATION OF THE CODES

Danforth's Oil V - -
DBD E O T
DC 200, 510,710 E - -
Dcf 200 C - -
De-Butanizer Reflux V - -
De-Ethanizer Charge V - -
Dead Oil E - -
Decahydronaphthalene V O
Decalin V O
Decane V O
Decanol B O
Decene C O
Decylene C O
Defoamers (oil base) V O
Degreasing fluid V C
Dehydrated Alcohol E C
Dehydrated Alcohol E,V C
Deionized Water * E C
Delco Brake Fluid E O
Delco Brake Fluid E O
Denatured Alcohol E,V C
Detergent, Water Solution E C
Developing Fluids (Photo) V C
Dextrin E,V - -
Dextro Lactic Acid C - -
Dextron V O
Dextrose E.V C
Diacetic Acid C C
Diacetone E - -
Diacetone Alcohol E M F
Diacetylmethane E S O
Dialkyl Sulfates C - -
Diallyl Ether C - -
Diallyl Phthalate C O F
Diamine E M E
Diaminoethane E - -
Diammonium Phosphate C - -
Diamyl Phenol V O T
Diamylamine E S
Diamylene V O F
Diatomaceous Earth E O O
Diazinon V S T
Diazon (insectacide) V - -
Dibenzofuran V O
Dibenzyl Ether E O
Dibenzyl Peroxide* C S F,E
Dibenzyl Sebacate V O O
Dibromethyl Benzene V O O
Dibromoethylbenzene V O
Dibromotetrafluoroethane E,V -
Dibutryl Cellosolve Adipate E - -
Dibutyl Ether E O F,E
Dibutyl Phthalate E O T
Dibutyl Sebacate E O
Dibutylamine C S
Dicalcium Phosphate V - -
Dicalite C O
Dichloro- Isoprpyl- Ether C O
Dichloro-Butane V O F
Dichlorobenzene V O
Dichlorodifluoromethane V C
Dichloroethane V S F
Dichloroethylene V S F
Dichlorohexane V - -
Dichloromethane V S
Dichloropentane V O
Dicyclohexylamine C S
Diesel Oil V O
Diester Lubricant MIL-L-7808 V O
Diester Synthetic Lubricants V O
Diethanolamine (DEA) C C
Diethyl Dioxide E - -
Diethyl Ether C S F
Diethyl Formaldehyde E - -
Diethyl Hydrazine E - -
Diethyl Maleate E C
Diethyl Oxide C S F
Diethyl Sebacate V - -
Diethyl Sulfate E O T
Diethylamine E M F
Diethylaniline E S
Diethylbenzene V O
Diethylcarbanol E,V - -
Diethylene Dioxide E M E
Diethylene Ether E M F
Diethylene Glycol E,V M O
Diethylene Oxide E M F
Diethylene Triamine E C T
Difluorodibromo-methane E - -
Dihydroxyethane E,V - -
Dihydroxypropane E,V - -
Dihydroxysuccinic Acid V - -
Diisobutyl Ketone E O T
Diisobutylene V - F
Diisodecyl Phthalate E O
Diisooctyl Sebacate V -
Diisoprene V - -
Diisopropyl Benzene V O
Diisopropyl Ether B M F
Diisopropyl Ketone E - -
Dilute Acids E - -
Dilute Alkalies E - -
Dimenthyl Formamide (DMF) E - -
Dimethyl V O F
Dimethyl aniline E S T
Dimethyl Acetamide E M T
Dimethyl amine C O F
Dimethyl carbinol V - -
Dimethyl henol V S T
Dimethyl ketol E M
Dimethyl Ketone E M F
Dimethyl methane V S F,E
Dimethyl ormamide E M
Dimethyl phthalate E O T
Dimethyl Polysiloxane E,V C
Dimethyl Polysilozane V - -
Dimethyl sulfoxide C M
Dimethyl Terephthalate V O
Dimethyl ther E C F
Dimethylbenzene V O F
Dinitrobenzene V S T
Dinitrochlorobenzene V S T
Dinitrotoluene C S T
Dioctyl Phthalate E O
Dioctyl Sebacate E O
Dioctyl-Amine C S
Dioform V - -
Dioxane E - -
Dioxolanes E C F
Dioxysuccinic Acid V - -
Dipentene V C
Dipentylamine E - -
Diphenyl V - -
Diphenyl dimide C O
Diphenyl Oxides V O
Diphenyl, Chlorinated V - -
Dipropyl V - -
Dipropyl methane B O F
Dipropyl Methane V O F
Dipropylene Glycol E C
Disodium Phosphate E,V C
Divinyl V O F,E
Divinyl Benzene V O E
DMF (Dimethyl Formamide) E M
DMP (Dimethyl Phthalate) E,V O T
DMT (Dimethyl Terephthalate) V O
Dodecanol B O
Dodecyl Alcohol B O
Dodecyl Benzene V -
Dodecyl Toluene V - -
Dolomite V -
DOP E O
Douglas Fir Oil W - -
Dow 209, 50% solution E O
Dow chemical 50-4 E - -
Dow ET588 E - -
Dow Guard E,V - -
Dow Per V - -
Dowanols E - -
Dowtherm, A,E or F less than 350°F V O
Dregs E,V - -
Drinking Water E C
Dry Cleaning Fluids V - -
DTE light oil E - -
Dye Colors V -
Dye Liquors + caustic boil out C -
Column #2. THE O-RING- (V) VITON ® grade 747-75, (E) ETHYLENE PROPYLENE, (B) BUNA N, (Bu) BUTYL, (C)
CHEMRAZ OR Kalrez®, (N) NEOPRENE
Column# 3. SOLUBLE IN WATER- (C) COLD WATER, (H) HOT WATER , (O) NOT SOLUBLE, (S) SLIGHTLY SOLUBLE,
(V) REACTS VIOLENTLY WITH WATER, (D) DECOMPOSES, (H) HYDROLIZES, (M) MISCIBLE
Column #4. HAZARDOUS, NEEDS TWO SEALS- (F) FIRE, (T) TOXIC, (C) CARCINOGEN, [E) EXPLOSIVE
* OXIDIZER - WILL ATTACK ALL FORMS OF CARBON
® DuPont Dow Elastomers

Link to Chemical Listing Guide

Link to the Mc Nally home page

 O-RING SELECTION GUIDE "E-H"

PLEASE SEE THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE FOR AN EXPLANATION OF THE CODES

Effluent, Clarified E,V C

Effluent, Sludge E,V C
Elco 28-EP Lubricant V - -
Embalming fluid E - -
EMK E - -
Enamel B - -
Epichlorohydrin E O T
Epoxy Resins E - -
Epsom salts E,V C
Erythrene V O F,E
Esam 6 fluid E - -
Esso fluids and oils V - -
Esstic 42,43 V - -
Ethamine E - -
Ethanal E - -
Ethane V O F
Ethane Hydrate V O F
Ethane Nitrile E - -
Ethanedionic Acid V,E - -
Ethanoic Acid C M
Ethanoic Anhydride C - -
Ethanol E - -
Ethanol Amine E - -
Ethanonitrile E - -
Ethanoyl Chloride V V F
Ethenyl Benzene >150F° C - -
Ethers C S F
Ethly Butanol B - -
Ethoxy Ethane C - --
Ethyl Acetate Organic Ester E S F,E
Ethyl acetic acid E,V C
Ethyl Acetoacetate E C
Ethyl Acrylate E C F
Ethyl Alcohol E M F
Ethyl Aldehyde E M F,E
Ethyl Amine E M F
Ethyl Benzene E,V O A
Ethyl Benzoate V O
Ethyl Bromide V S
Ethyl Butyl Alchol B S
Ethyl Cellosolve E - -
Ethyl Cellulose E O
Ethyl Chloride E,V H F
Ethyl Chlorocarbonate V D F
Ethyl Chloroformate VV D F
Ethyl Cyanide E C F
Ethyl Cyclopentane V O
Ethyl Ethanoate E - -
Ethyl Ether C S F
Ethyl Formate V S F
Ethyl Hexanol E,V - -
Ethyl Hexyl Alcohol E,V - -
Ethyl Hydrate E - -
Ethyl Mercaptan V - -
Ethyl Methyl Ketone E - -
Ethyl Orthosilicate V - -
Ethyl Oxalate V - -
Ethyl Oxide gas C - -
Ethyl Pentachlorobenzene V - -
Ethyl Propyl Carbinol V - -
Ethyl Pyridine E - -
Ethyl Silicate V,E - -
Ethyl Sulfate E - -
Ethylacrylic Acid E - -
Ethylene V S F,E
Ethylene Alcohol E,V - -
Ethylene Bromide V S C
Ethylene Chloride (dry) V S F
Ethylene Chlorohydrin V M T
Ethylene Diamine E C T
Ethylene Dibromide V S C
Ethylene Dichloride V S F
Ethylene Glycol E,V C
Ethylene Oxide C M F
Ethylene Trichloride V - -
Ethylic Acid E - -
Ethylic Alcohol E - -
Ethylmorpholene Stannous Octoate
E,V - -
(50/50 mixture)
Ethyne (acetylene) E,V S F,E
Ethyrene V - -
Ex-Tri V - -
Fat Lime E - -
Fatty Acids V - -
FC-43 Heptacosofluoro-tri -
E,V - -
Butylamine
Ferric Chloride * E,V O
Ferric Dichloride E,V - -
Ferric Nitrate E,V - -
Ferric Perchloride B - -
Ferric Persulfate B - -
Ferric Salts E,V - -
Ferric Sulfate E - -
Ferric Sulphate E - -
Ferric Trisulfate B - -
Ferriferous Chloride B - -
Ferriferous Persulfate B - -
Ferrous Salts E,V - -
Ferrous Ammonium Sulfate V - -
Ferrous Chloride E,V - -
Ferrous Hydroxide E,V - -
Ferrous Nitrate E,V - -
Ferrous Sulfate E,V - -
Ferrous Sulfide B - -
Fertilizer Salts W - -
Film Dope C - -
Filter Alum B - -
Firedamp V - -
Fish Oil V - -
Fisher reagent E - -
Flaxseed Oil V - -
Flores Martis B - -
Fluoboric Acid E - -
Fluorinated Cyclic Esters E - -
Fluorine * C - F
Fluorocarbon oils E - -
Fluorochloroethylene V - -
Fluorolube E - -
Fluosilicic Acid E,V - -
Flurobenzene V - -
Formaldehyde E - -
Formaldehyde-Formalin Bu - -
Formaldehyde-Formalin <10% Bu - -
Formalin Bu - -
Formic Acid E - -
Formonitrile E,V - -
Freon BF V - -
Freon MF,PCA,TF B - -
Freon K-152A,K142B, C318 E - -
Freon 112 ,113 V - -
Freon 114 E,V - -
Freon 115 E,V - -
Freon 21 C - -
Freon 22 E - -
Freon 22 and ASTM Oil #2 (50/50
N - -
Mixture)
Freon 31 E - -
Freon 32 E - -
Freon 114B2 V - -
Freon 13,13B1,14 E,V - -
Freon 12 and Suniso 4G (50/50
V - -
Mixture)
Freon 11 with oil B - -
Freon 12 V - -
Freon 12 and ASTM Oil #2 (50/50
V - -
Mixture)
Freon, 11 V - -
Fructose E,V - -
Fruit Juices (Concentrated) N - -
Fruit Juices (Dilute) N - -
Fuel Oil Acedic V - -
Fuel Oil #6 V - -
Fumaric Acid V - -
Fumarole Acid E,V - -
Fuming Sulphuric Acid (20/25%
V - -
(Oleum)*
Furan (Furfuran) C - -
Furane C - -
Furfuraldehyde E - -
Furfuryl Alcohol E - -
Furic Acid C - -
Furyl Carbinol E - -
Fusel Oil E,V - -
Fyrquel 150,220,300,550 E - -
Gallic Acid V - -
Gallotannic acid E,V - -
Gas Oil B - -
Gasoline-Refined V O F.E
Gasoline-Sour V O F
Gasoline-Tanker Service V O F
Gelatin E,V - -
Generator Gas V - -
German Saltpeter E,V - -
Gibbsite E - -
Girling brake fluid E - -
Glacial Acetic Acid E - -
Glauber's Salt V - -
Glucose E,V C
Glue E - -
Glue Sizing E - -
Glutamic Acid C - -
Glycerine E,V - -
Glycero Monochlorhydrin C - -
Glycerol E,V - -
Glycerol Dichlorhydrin C - -
Glycerol Triacetate C - -
Glycerophosphoric Acid C - -
Glyceryl Hydroxide E,V - -
Glyceryl Phosphate C - -
Glyceryl Triacetate B - -
Glycidol C - -
Glycol Acetate E,V - -
Glycol Butyl Ether E - -
Glycol Chlorohydrin E - -
Glycol Diethylene E,V - -
Glycol Ether C - -
Glycol Ethylene B - -
Glycol Monoacetate E,V - -
Glycol Propylene E,V - -
Glycolic Acid E - -
Glycols E,V C
Glycoxal, 40% C - -
Glyoxylic Acid C - -
Gold Monocyanide E,V - -
Grain Mash E,V - -
Grape Juice E C
Grease (petroleum base) V O
Green Copperas V - -
Green Sulphate Liquor E H
Gulf Endurance oils V O
Gulf FR fluids E - -
Gulf GS-7050 Grease V S
Gun Cotton C O F,E
Halothane V - -
Halowax Oil V - -
Hannifin lube A V - -
HCL V - -
Heavy Water E - -
HEF-2 and -3 High Energy Fuel) V - -
Helium E,V - -
Hepar Calis E,V - -
Heptachlor C - -
Heptachlorobutene C - -
Heptaldehyde C - -
Heptalene B - -
Heptanal B - -
Heptane B O F
Heptanolic Acid C - -
Heptyl Aldhyde V - -
Heptyl Carbinol E - -
Heptyl Hydride V - -
Heptylene B - -
Hexachlorbutene C - -
Hexachloro Acetone E - -
Hexachlorobutadiene C - -
Hexachloroethane C - -
Hexadecane V O
Hexadecanoic Acid V - -
Hexaethyl Tetra-phosphate C - -
Hexafluoroethane C - -
Hexafluoroisopropanol C - -
Hexafluoroxylene C - -
Hexahydrobenzene V - -
Hexahydrophenol V - -
Hexalin V - -
Hexamethylene V - -
Hexamethylene Diamine C - -
Hexamethylene Tetramine E - -
Hexamethylenediamine Dimmonium
C - -
Adipate
Hexamethylenediamine Tetramine
C - -
(Urotropine)
Hexamethylphosphoramide C - -
Hexamine E - -
Hexane V - -
Hexanedioic Acid C S
Hexanol V - -
Hexanol Tert V - -
Hexone E - -
Hexyl Acetate C - -
Hexyl Alcohol V - -
Hexyl Hydride B - -
Hexylene V - -
Hexylene Glycol V - -
Hexylresorcinol C - -
Hi-Tri V - -
High Viscosity Lubricant U4,H2 E,V - -
Hilo MS#1 E - -
Home Heating Oil V O
Honey E,V H
Houghto-Safe 271 (Water and
E,V - -
Glycol Base)
Hydrargylite E - -
Hydrargyrum E,V - -
Hydrated Baryta E,V - -
Hydrated Lime E,V - -
Hydratite Liquid V - -
Hydraulic Fluids Pydrauls &
E - -
Skydrauls)
Hydraulic Oil ( Phosphate Ester) E - -
Hydraulic Oil (Petroleum Base) V O
Hydrazine E M E
Hydrazine Hydrachloride C - -
Hydrazine Hydrate C M F
Hydrazine, Unsynmmetrical
C - -
Dimethyl
Hydrazino Benzene W - -
Hydriodic Acid E,V - -
Hydro-Drive, MIH 50,MIH 10
V O -
(Petroleum Base)
Hydroabietyl Alcohol C - -
Hydrobromic Acid E,V - -
Hydrobromic Acid Gas V - -
Hydrobutanedioic Acid V - -
Hydrocarbons, Alicylic V O -
Hydrocarbons, Aliphatic V O -
Hydrocarbons, Chlorinated V O -
Hydrocarbons, Light V O -
Hydrocarbons, Normal V O -
Hydrocarbons, Olefinic V O -
Hydrocarbons, Saturated V O -
Hydrochloric Acid Concentrated V - -
Hydrochloric Acid 3 Molar E,V - -
Hydrocyanic Acid E,V - -
Hydrofluoric Acid, * V - -
Hydrofluoric Acid, Anhydrous* V - -
Hydrofluosilic Acid E,V - -
Hydrogen Bromide V - -
Hydrogen Chloride gas E - -
Hydrogen Cyanide E - -
Hydrogen Dioxide V - -
Hydrogen Fluoride V - -
Hydrogen Gas E,V - -
Hydrogen Oxide E,V - -
Hydrogen Peroxide * V - F
Hydrogen Sulphide E - -
Hydrolube E,V - -
Hydrolube (Water and Ethylene
E,V - -
Glycol)
Hydroquinone V - -
Hydroxether E - -
Hydroxy Succinic Acid V - -
Hydroxy Toluene V - -
Hydroxy-2-Propane E C
Hydroxyacetic Acid (Hydro -
C - -
Acetic)
Hydroxyacetone E C
Hydroxybenzene V - -
Hydroxybutane E,V - -
Hydroxycitronellal C - -
Hydroxyethyl Acetate E,V - -
Hydroxyformic Acid E,V - -
Hydroxyoctane B - -
Hydyne E - -
Hyjet - S lll or W E - -
Hypnone E S
Hypo E,V - -
Hypochlorous Acid V - -
Hypoid Lubes V - -
Column #2. THE O-RING- (V) VITON ® grade 747-75, (E) ETHYLENE PROPYLENE, (B) BUNA N, (Bu) BUTYL, (C)
CHEMRAZ OR Kalrez®, (N) NEOPRENE
Column# 3. SOLUBLE IN WATER- (C) COLD WATER, (H) HOT WATER , (O) NOT SOLUBLE, (S) SLIGHTLY SOLUBLE,
(V) REACTS VIOLENTLY WITH WATER, (D) DECOMPOSES, (H) HYDROLIZES, (M) MISCIBLE
Column #4. HAZARDOUS, NEEDS TWO SEALS- (F) FIRE, (T) TOXIC, (C) CARCINOGEN, [E) EXPLOSIVE
* OXIDIZER - WILL ATTACK ALL FORMS OF CARBON
® DuPont Dow Elastomers

Link to Chemical Listing Guide

Link to the Mc Nally home page

 O-RING SELECTION GUIDE "I-L"

PLEASE SEE THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE FOR AN EXPLANATION OF THE CODES

Ice Spar E,V - -

Icestone E,V - -

Idoform E - -

Indole C - -

Industron FF44,FF48,FF53 V - -

Ink E,V C

Insecticides C - -

Iodine * V - -

Iodine Pentafluoride C - -

Iron Chloride E - -

Iron Dichloride E,V - -

Iron Hydroxide E,V - -

Iron Monosulfide V - -

Iron Nitrate E,V - -

Iron Perchloride B - -

Iron Persulfate B - -

Iron Protochloride E,V - -

Iron Salts E,V - -

Iron Sesquichloride E,V - -

Iron Sesquisulfate E,V - -

Iron Sulfate E - -

Iron Sulfide V - -

Iron Tersulfate E,V - -

Iron Trichloride E,V - -

Iron Vitriol E,V - -

Iso Eugenpl C - -

Iso Octane V - -

Iso Pentane V - -

Isoamyl Acetate C - -

Isoamyl Alchol E,V - -

Isoamyl Butyrate C - -

Isoamyl Chloride C - -

Isoboreol C - -

Isobutane V - -

Isobutanol E,V - -
Isobutric Acid C - -

Isobutryladehyde C - -

Isobutyl Acetate C - -

Isobutyl Alcohol E,V - -

Isobutyl Carbinol E,V - -

Isobutyl Methacrylate C - -

Isobutyl Methel Ketone E - -

Isobutyl n-Butyrate E,V - -

Isobutyl Phosphate C - -

Isobutylene V - -

Isobutyraldehyde E - -

Isobutyric Acid E - -

Isocrotyl Chloride C -- -

Isocyanic Acid E O E

Isodecanol C - -

Isododecane V - -

Isophorone (Ketone) E - -

Isopropanol E,V - -
Isopropyl Acetate E - -

Isopropyl Acetone C - -

Isopropyl Alcohol E,V - -

Isopropyl Benzene V - -

Isopropyl Carbinol E - -

Isopropyl Chloride V - -

Isopropyl Ether B M F

Isopropyl Methyl Benzene V - -

Isopropyl Toluene V - -

Isopropylformate C - -

Isotane V - -

Isovaleric Acid C - -

Jet Fuel (JP3,4,5) V O F

Jews Pitch V - -

JP 3(MIL-J-5624 V O F

JP 4(MIL-J-5624) V O F

JP 5(MIL-J-5624) V O F

JP 6(MIL-J-25656) V O F
JP X(MIL-F- 25604) V O F

Kalinite E,V - -

Kandol V - -

Kaoline E C

Kel-F liquids E - -

Kerosene (Similar to RP-1 and JP-1) V O F

Ketchup E,V C

Keto Hexamethylene E - -

Ketones E - -

Keystone #87HX-Grease V O

Krystallin V - -

Kyanol V - -

Lacquer Solvents C - -

Lacquers C - -

Lacquers with Ketone solvents C O

Lactams-Amino Acid E - -

Lactic Acid hot V - -

Lactic Acid cold E,V - -

Lactol V - -

Lactones (Cyclic Esters) E - -

Lard, Animal Fat E O

Latex V O

Laughing Gas E,V - -

Lauric Acid V - -

Lauryl Alcohol B - -

Lavender Oil V - -

Lead Acetate E - -

Lead Arsenate C - -

Lead Azide C - -

Lead Bromide C - -

Lead Carbonate C - -

Lead Chloride E,V - -

Lead Chromate C - -

Lead Dioxide C - -

Lead Linoleate C - -

Lead Napthenate C - -
Lead Nitrate E - -

Lead Oxide C - -

Lead Salts E,V - -

Lead Sulphamate E,V - -

Lead Sulphate E,V - -

Lead Tetraethyl V - -

Lehigh X1169 V - -

Lehigh X1170 V - -

Lemon Oil V - -

Leucogen E,V - -

Levolinic acid V - -

Levulinic Acid C - -

Light Analine V - -

Light Grease V O

Light Petroleum Gas (LPG) V O

Ligroin (Petroleum Ether or Benzine) V O

Lime (Calcium Oxide) E - -

Lime Bisulfite V - -
Lime Bleach V,E - -

Lime Hydrate E,V - -

Lime Nitrate E,V - -

Lime Saltpeter E.V - -

Lime Slurries E - -

Lime Soda E - -

Lime Sulphur E,V - -

Lime Water E C

Lime, Caustic E,V - -

Limestone E,V - -

Limonene V - -

Limonene V C

Lindol (TCP) C - -

Lindol, Hydraulic Fluid (Phosphate

E - -
Ester Type)

Lineoleic Acid C - -

Linseed Oil V O

Liquid Oxygen C - -

Liquid Petroleum Gas V O F

Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG) V O F

Liquid Rosin V - -

Liquid Soap E,V C

Liquimoly V - -

Liquor- Black (sulfite) <350°F V C

Liquor- Black (sulfite) >350°F C H

Liquor-Black (sulphate) <280°F E C

Liquor-Black (sulphate) >280°F C H

Liquor-Green < 280° F E C

Liquor-Green > 280° F C H

Liquor-White <280° F . E C

Liquor-White >280° F C H

Lithium Bromide Brine E,V - -

Lithium Carbonate C - -

Lithium Chloride E,V - -

Lithium Citrate C - -

Lithium Hydroxide E - -

Lubricating Oils,Di-Ester V O
Lubricating Oils,Petroleum Base V O

Lubricating Oils,SAE 10,20,30,40,50 V O

Lye Solutions E S T

Column #2. THE O-RING- (V) VITON ® grade 747-75, (E) ETHYLENE PROPYLENE, (B) BUNA N, (Bu) BUTYL, (C)
CHEMRAZ OR Kalrez®, (N) NEOPRENE
Column# 3. SOLUBLE IN WATER- (C) COLD WATER, (H) HOT WATER , (O) NOT SOLUBLE, (S) SLIGHTLY SOLUBLE,
(V) REACTS VIOLENTLY WITH WATER, (D) DECOMPOSES, (H) HYDROLIZES, (M) MISCIBLE
Column #4. HAZARDOUS, NEEDS TWO SEALS- (F) FIRE, (T) TOXIC, (C) CARCINOGEN, [E) EXPLOSIVE
* OXIDIZER - WILL ATTACK ALL FORMS OF CARBON
® DuPont Dow Elastomers

Link to Chemical Listing Guide

Link to the Mc Nally home page

 O-RING SELECTION GUIDE "M-O"

PLEASE SEE THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE FOR AN EXPLANATION OF THE CODES

Machine Oil V O
Maddrell's Salt E,V - -
Magnesium Acetate E - -
Magnesium Ammonium sulfate E,V - -
Magnesium Bisulfite E - -
Magnesium Carbonate V - -
Magnesium Chloride E,V - -
Magnesium Citrate E,V - -
Magnesium Dioxide E,V - -
Magnesium Hydrate E - -
Magnesium Hydroxide E,V - -
Magnesium Nitrate E - -
Magnesium Oxide E,V - -
Magnesium Salts E,V - -
Magnesium Sulphate E,V - -
Magnesium Sulphite E.V - -
Maize Oil V O
Malathion V - -
Maleic Acid V - -
Maleic Anhydride V - -
Malic Acid V - -
Malonyl Nitrile E - -
Malt Beverage E C
Manganese Chloride V - -
Manganese Nitrate B - -
Manganese Salts V - -
Manganese Sulfide V - -
Manganese Sulfite V - -
ManganeseSulfate E,V - -
Maple Sugar Liquors E,V C
Marsh Gas V - F,E
Mash B - -
Mayonnaise V C
Mcnalliumoxide V C
MCS 312 V - -
MCS 352 E - -
MCS 463 E - -
MEA (Monoethanolamine) E - -
Mecuric Sulfate E,V - -
Mecurous salts E,V - -
Medthyl Acetone E - -
Melamine Resins E - -
Mercaptans C - -
Mercuric Chloride E,V - -
Mercuric Cyanide E,V - -
Mercurous Nitrate E,V - -
Mercury E,V O T
Mercury Bichloride E,V - -
Mercury Chloride E,V - -
Mercury Salts V - -
Mercury Vapors E,V - -
Mesityl Oxide (Ketone) E - -
Methadiene V - -
Methallyl Alcohol B - -
Methanal E,V - -
Methanamide E - -
Methane V - F,E
Methanoic Acid E - -
Methanol E - -
Methenyl Trichloride V S T
Methyl Acetate E - -
Methyl Acetoacetate E - -
Methyl Acrylate E - -
Methyl acrylic Acid E - -
Methyl Alcohol E - -
Methyl amine E O F,T
Methyl Amyl Alcohol B - -
Methyl Amyl Carbinol B - -
Methyl Benzene V - -
Methyl Benzoate V - -
Methyl Bromide V - -
Methyl Butanol B - -
Methyl butyl ketone E - -
Methyl Carbonate V - -
Methyl Cellosolve E - -
Methyl Cellulose B - -
Methyl Chloride VV S E
Methyl Chloroform V - -
Methyl Chloroformate V - -
Methyl Cyanide E C T,F
Methyl Cyclopentane V - -
Methyl Dibromide V - -
Methyl Dichloride V - -
Methyl Ether V,E C F
Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK) E O F,E
Methyl Ethyl Ketone Peroxide* C - -
Methyl Formate N - -
Methyl Hexane V - -
Methyl Hexanol B - -
Methyl Hydrate B - -
Methyl Hydride V - -
Methyl Hydroxide B - -
Methyl Iodide E - -
Methyl Isobutenyl Ketone(MIBK) C - -
Methyl Isopropyl Ketone E - -
Methyl Mercaptan E - -
Methyl Methacrylate C - -
Methyl Methane V - -
Methyl Oleate V - -
Methyl Oxide E,V C F
Methyl Phenol V - -
Methyl Phenol Ether C O
Methyl Phenyl Ketone E - -
Methyl Polysiloxanes E,V - -
Methyl Propanol E,V - -
Methyl Propyl Carbinol B - -
Methyl Propyl Salicylate E - -
Methyl Sulfoxide C - -
Methylacetal E - -
Methylated Spirits E - -
Methylene Bromide C - -
Methylene Chloride V S
Methylene Dichloride V - -
MIL H 22251 E - -
MIL H 7083 E - -
MIL P 27402 E - -
Milk E,V C
Milk of lime E - -
Milk Of Magnesia E,V C
Mine Water E,V C
Mineral Naptha V - -
Mineral Oils V O
Mineral Pitch V O
Mineral Spirits V O
Minesate, Sunoco 3XF V - -
Miribilite E,V - -
Mixed acids C - -
Mobil oil SAE 20 V O
Mobilgas WA200 Typ A automatic
V O
transmission fluid
Molasses V H
Molten Sulfur <350°F V O
Molybdic Acid E,V - -
Molysite E,V - -
Mono bromo benzene V - -
Mono chloro acetic Acid E - -
Mono chloro acetone E - -
Mono chloro benzene V - -
Mono chloro benzene V - -
Mono chloro difluoro methane E - -
Mono chloro ethane V - -
Mono chloro phenol V - -
Mono ethanol amine E - -
Mono ethyl amine E - -
Mono isopropanol Amine C - -
Mono methyl Amine E - -
Mono methyl Analine E - -
Mono methyl aniline V - -
Mono methyl Ether E,V - -
Mono methyl Hydrazine E - -
Mono nitro chloro benzene V - -
Mono vinyl Acetylene V - -
Mono vinyl Arsenate E,V - -
Monoammonium Phosphate E - -
Monsel's Salt E,V - -
Mopar Brake Fluid E - -
Morrhua Oil E,V - -
Mosaic Gold B - -
Motor Oil V O
Mullite (clay) E O
Muriate Of Ammonia E,V - -
Muriatic Acid E,V - -
Mustard E,V C
n-Heptane V - -
n-Hexaldehyde C - -
n-Hexaldehyde E - -
n-Hexane V - -
n-Hexene-1 V - -
Napalm V - F
Naphtha V - F
Naphthalene V - -
Naphthalenic V - -
Naphthenic Acid V - -
Natural Gas V O F,E
Neatsfoot Oil V - -
Neohexane V - -
Neon E,V - -
Neosol B - -
Neville Acid V - -
Niacin E - -
Nickel E,V - -
Nickel Acetate E - -
Nickel Ammonia Sulfate V - -
Nickel Chloride E,V - -
Nickel Nitrate E,V - -
Nickel Plating Solution B - -
Nickel Salts E,V - -
Nickel Sulfate -E,V - -
Nickel Sulphate E,V - -
Nicotine V - -
Nicotine Bentonite B - -
Nicotine Sulfate B - -
Nicotinic Acid E - -
Niter Cake E,V - -
Niter-potassium Nitrate E,V - -
Niter-sodium Nitrate E - -
Nitrating Acid N - -
Nitric Acid to 100%* C1 - F
Nitro carbol E - -
Nitro benzene V - -
Nitro benzine V - -
Nitro benzol V - -
Nitro calcatite E,V - -
Nitro cellulose C O F,E
Nitro Cotton C O F,E
Nitro ethane C - -
Nitro hydrochloric acid V O T
Nitro methane E - -
Nitro muriatic Acid V - -
Nitro propane E - -
Nitrogen Gas E,V - -
Nitrogen Monoxide E,V - -
Nitrogene Tetroxide C - -
Nitrous acid V - -
Nitrous Monoxide E,V - -
Nitrous Oxide E,V - -
Nitroxanthic Acid V - -
Nonanoic Acid B - -
Nonenes B - -
Norge Niter E,V - -
Norge Saltpeter E,V - -
Norway Saltpeter E,V - -
Noryl G.E. phenolic E - -
NRRO V - -
Nut Oil V - -
Nutra sweet E,V - -
Oakite Alkaline Materials E - -
Octa chloro toluene V - -
Octa decadienoic Acid C - -
Octa decane V - -
Octanol E,V - -
Octyl Alcohol V - -
Oil, Corn V - -
Oil, Asphalt Base V O
Oil, Bay V - -
Oil, Bone V - -
Oil, Castor V - -
Oil, Cinammon V - -
Oil, Citric V - -
Oil, Clove V - -
Oil, Cocanut V - -
Oil, Cod Liver V - -
Oil, Cotton Seed V - -
Oil, Creosote V - -
Oil, diesel V - -
Oil, Ginger E,V - -
Oil, Hydraulic (petroleun base) V - -
Oil, Lemon V - -
Oil, Linseed V - -
Oil, Lubricating V - -
Oil, MIneral V - -
Oil, Mineral Base V - -
Oil, Mirbane V - -
Oil, Olive V - -
Oil, Orange V - -
Oil, Palm V - -
Oil, Peanut V - -
Oil, Peppermint V - -
Oil, Petroleum Crude V - -
Oil, Pine V - -
Oil, Rapeseed E,V - -
Oil, Red V - -
Oil, Rosin V - -
Oil, Sesamee Seed V - -
Oil, Silicone E,V - -
Oil, Soybean V - -
Oil, Sperm V - -
Oil, Tanning V - -
Oil, Turbine V - -
Oil, Turpentine V - -
Oil, Ucon V - -
Oil, Vegetable V - -
Oil, Vitriol V - -
Oleic Acid V - -
Oleum (Fuming Sulfuric Acid) * V O F
Oleum Lini V - -
Oleum Spirits V - -
Oleyl Alcohol C - -
Olive Oil V - -
Oronite 8200 V - -
Oronite 8515 V - -
Orthcarsenic Acid E,V C T
Ortho Chloranaline C - -
Ortho Chloro ethyl benzene V - -
Ortho Chloro phenol C - -
Ortho Cresol C - -
Ortho Dichlor benene V - -
Ortho dichloro benzol V - -
Ortho Nitro toluene C - -
Ortho Phosphoric Acid V - -
Orthoboric Acid E,V - -
Orthoxylene V - -
Oxalic Acid (Weak) E,V - -
Oxy ethylene Succinic Acid V - -
Oxygen to 210 F E,V - -
Ozone E,V - -
Column #2. THE O-RING- (V) VITON ® grade 747-75, (E) ETHYLENE PROPYLENE, (B) BUNA N, (Bu) BUTYL, (C)
CHEMRAZ OR Kalrez®, (N) NEOPRENE
Column# 3. SOLUBLE IN WATER- (C) COLD WATER, (H) HOT WATER , (O) NOT SOLUBLE, (S) SLIGHTLY SOLUBLE,
(V) REACTS VIOLENTLY WITH WATER, (D) DECOMPOSES, (H) HYDROLIZES, (M) MISCIBLE
Column #4. HAZARDOUS, NEEDS TWO SEALS- (F) FIRE, (T) TOXIC, (C) CARCINOGEN, [E) EXPLOSIVE
* OXIDIZER - WILL ATTACK ALL FORMS OF CARBON
® DuPont Dow Elastomers

Link to Chemical Listing Guide

Link to the Mc Nally home page
 O-RING SELECTION GUIDE "P"

PLEASE SEE THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE FOR AN EXPLANATION OF THE CODES

2-Propanone E M F
n- Propyl Acetone E - -
n-Propyl Acetate E - -
Paint Thinner, Duco V - -
Palm Oil V - -
Palmetic Acid V - -
Palmitic Acid V - -
Paper stock E O
Par aldehyde C - -
Par-al-ketone C - -
Para xylene V - -
Para cymene V - -
Para Dichloro benzol V - -
Para thion C - -
Para-acetylphenetidin C S
Para-Amino benzoic Acid C - -
Para-Amino salicylic Acid C - -
Para-Bromo benzyl penyl ether C - -
Para-Chloro phenol C - -
Para-Cresol C - -
Para-Diaminodiphenyl C H C
Para-Dichloro benzene V - -
Para-ethoxyacetanilide C S
Para-Formaldehyde C - -
Para-Nitro analine C - -
Para-Nitro benzoic Acid C - -
Para-Nitro phenol C - -
Para-Toluene Sulfonic Acid C - -
Paraffin (Molten) V - -
Parker O Lube V - -
Patent Alum E,V - -
Peanut Oil V - -
Pearl Ash V,E - -
Pectin Liquor V - -
Pella Oil V - -
Penta chloro diphenol V - -
Penta chloro ethane C- -
Penta chloro phenol c - -
Penta erythritol c - -
Penta erythritol Tetranitrate c - -
Pentane 2 Methyl or 3 Methyl V - -
Pentane (Liquid) V C F,E
Pentane 2-4 Dimethyl V - -
Pentane n-Penta V - -
Pentanedione 2-4 E S
Pentanoic Acid E - -
Pentyl Penta noate C - -
Peppermint Oil V - -
Per fluoro tri ethylamine C - -
Per manganic acid C - -
Per sulfuric Acid C - -
Peracetic Acid C - -
Peralgonic Acid C - -
Perchloric Acid-2N * V - -
Perchloro ethylene to 170° F V - -
Perchloro methane V O T
Perester C - -
Peroxide* V - -
Peroxydol E,V - -
Peroxyhydrate B - -
Perphosphate E,V - -
Peru Saltpeter E,V - -
Petrol V - -
Petrolatum V - -
Petrolene V - -
Petroleum Ether V - -
Petroleum Jelly V - -
Petroleum Oil, Crude V - -
Petroleum, Naptha V - -
Phen oxy benzene V - -
Phenacetin C S
Phene V - -
Phenol V C
Phenol (10% Aqueous) V - -
Phenol Sulfonic Acid C - -
Phenol-Formaldehyde C - -
Phenolic Sulfonate C - -
Phenoxin V - -
Phenyl Acetate C S
Phenyl Acetamide C - -
Phenyl Acetic Acid E - -
Phenyl Amine E - -
Phenyl Benzene V - -
Phenyl Bisulfide V - -
Phenyl Cellosolve E,V - -
Phenyl Chloride V - -
Phenyl Ethane V - -
Phenyl Ether V - -
Phenyl Ethyl Alcohol C - -
Phenyl Ethyl Ether C - -
Phenyl Ethyl Molonic Ester C - -
Phenyl Ethylene V - -
Phenyl Formic Acid V - -
Phenyl glycine C - -
Phenyl Hydrazine V - -
Phenyl Hydride V - -
Phenyl Hydroxide V - -
Phenyl Mercuric Acetate C - -
Phenyl Methane V - -
Phenyl Methyl Ketone E S
Phenyl Sulfonic Acid V - -
Phenylene Diamine C - -
Phenylic Acid V - -
Phorne C - -
Phorone E- - -
Phosgene gas or liquid E S T
Phosphate Esters E - -
Phosphoric Acid (crude) V - -
Phosphoric Acid Triphenyl Ester E,V - -
Phosphorous Pentoxide E,V - -
Phosphorous Trichloride E,V - -
Photagraphic Developers V - -
Photogen V - -
Photographic Emulsion E,V - -
Phthalate Esters C - -
Phthalic Acid E,V - -
Phthalic Acid Anhydride E - -
Phthalic Anhydride E - -
Phthalic Terephthalic Acid C - -
Pickle Alum E,V - -
Pickling Solution V - -
Picoline, Alpha E - -
Picric Acid, H20 Solution V C E
Picric Acid, Molten V C E
Pimelic Ketone E - -
Pimilic Ketone E - -
Pine Oil V - -
Pinene V - -
Piperazine C - -
Piperdine C - -
Piric Acid Molten C - -
Piric Acid Water Solution C - -
Pitch V - -
Plasticizer C - -
Plating Solutions, Antimony V - -
Plating Solutions, Arsenic V - -
Plating Solutions, Brass E,V - -
Plating Solutions, Bronze E,V - -
Plating Solutions, Cadmium E,V - -
Plating Solutions, Chrome E,V - -
Plating Solutions, Cobalt C - -
Plating Solutions, Copper E - -
Plating Solutions, Gold E,V - -
Plating Solutions, Indium V - -
Plating Solutions, Iron V - -
Plating Solutions, Lead E,V - -
Plating Solutions, Nickel E,V - -
Plating Solutions, Others E,V - -
Plating Solutions, Platinum V - -
Plating Solutions, Rhodium E,V - -
Plating Solutions, Silver E,V - -
Plating Solutions, Tin E,V - -
Plating Solutions, Zinc E.V - -
Pneumatic Service V - -
Poly Butadiene C - -
Poly Ethylene C - -
Poly Ethylene Terephthalate C - -
Poly Glycerol C - -
Poly Gycols E,V - -
Poly Isobutylene C - -
Poly Isoprene C - -
Poly Methyl Methacrylate C - -
Poly Proplylene C - -
Poly Styrene C - -
Poly Vinyl Acetates E - -
Poly Vinylidene Chloride C - -
Polyester Monomers C - -
Polyethylene Glycol E,V - -
Polyv Vinyl Alchol V - -
Potash E,V - -
Potash Alum E,V - -
Potash Caustic E - -
Potasium Aluminum Sulfate E,V - -
Potasium Thiosulphate V - -
Potassium Chromic Sulfate E,V - -
Potassium Stannate C - -
Potassium Acetate E - -
Potassium Acid Sulfate C - -
Potassium Alum E,V - -
Potassium Antimonate C O -
Potassium Bicarbonate E,V - -
Potassium Bichromate E,V - -
Potassium Bifluoride C - -
Potassium Bisulfate E,V - -
Potassium Bisulfite E,V - -
Potassium Bitartrate C - -
Potassium Borates E,V - -
Potassium Bromate E,V - -
Potassium Bromide E,V - -
Potassium Carbonate E,V - -
Potassium Chlorate E,V - -
Potassium Chloride E.V - -
Potassium Chromate E,V - -
Potassium Citrate C - -
Potassium Cupro Cyanide E,V - -
Potassium Cyanide E,V - -
Potassium Dichromate E,V - -
Potassium Diphosphate C - -
Potassium Ferricyanide E,V - -
Potassium Ferrocyanide C - -
Potassium Fluoride E,V - -
Potassium Glucocyanate C - -
Potassium Hydrate Z S
Potassium Hydrogen C - -
Potassium Hydroxide E - -
Potassium Hypochlorite E - -
Potassium Iodate C - -
Potassium Iodide E,V - -
Potassium Metra bisulfite C - -
Potassium Metra silicate C - -
Potassium Monochromate C - -
Potassium Muriate E,V - -
Potassium Nitrate E,V - -
Potassium Nitrite E,V - -
Potassium Per fluoro acetate E - -
Potassium Per manganate * B - -
Potassium Perchlorate V - -
Potassium Peroxide* C - -
Potassium Persulfate E,V - -
Potassium Phosphate,Di or Tri E,V - -
Potassium Rhodanid C - -
Potassium Salts E,V - -
Potassium Silicate E,V - -
Potassium Sodium Tartrate C - -
Potassium Stearate C - -
Potassium Sulfate E - -
Potassium Sulfate Hydroxide C - -
Potassium Sulfide E,V - -
Potassium Sulfite E,V - -
Potassium Sulphate E,V - -
Potassium Sulphite E,V - -
Potassium Tartrate C - -
Potassium Triphosphate E,V - -
Potato Oil E,V - -
Potato Spirit E,V - -
Potsassium Oxalate C - -
Poyassium Pyrosulfate C - -
Prestone Antifreeze E,V - -
PRL - High Temp. Hydr. Oil. V - -
Producer Gas V - -
Propane V S F,E
Propane Propionitrile V - -
Propanediol E,V - -
Propanetriol E,V - -
Propanol E,V - -
Propene V - -
Propene Nitrile C O F
Propenoic Acid C M
Propenoic Acid Nitrile C - -
Propenol E,V - -
Propenol V - -
Propenyl Hydrate E,V - -
Propio nitrile E - -
Propion Aldehide E - -
Propionic Acid E - -
Propy Benzene C - -
Propyl Acetate E - -
Propyl Acetate E - -
Propyl Acetone E - -
Propyl Alchol E,V - -
Propyl Alcohol E,V - -
Propyl Amine C - -
Propyl Amine E - -
Propyl Cyanide E - -
Propyl formic Acid E,V C
Propyl Nitrate E - -
Propyl Nitrate E - -
Propyl Propionate C - -
Propylene V - -
Propylene Carbonate C - -
Propylene Chloride C - -
Propylene Dichloride V - -
Propylene Glycol B - -
Propylene Oxide E - -
Propylene Polymer C - -
Prussic Acid E,V - -
Pulp Stock E - -
Pydraul, 135, A200, 312 V - -
Pydraul, 150 E,V - -
Pydraul, AC, F9, 600, 625 V - -
Pyracetic Acid V - -
Pyranol V - -
Pyranol, Transformer oil V - -
Pyrene V - -
Pyrex V - -
Pyridine Oil E - -
Pyridine Sulfate C - -
Pyridine Sulfonic Acid C - -
Pyrite B - -
Pyroacetic Spirit E - -
Pyrogallic Acid V - -
Pyrogallol V - -
Pyrogallolcarboxylic Acid V - -
Pyrogard 42,43,53,55 (Phosphate
E - -
Ester)
Pyrogard C, D V - -
Pyroligneous Acid E - -
Pyroligneous Spirit B - -
Pyrolube V - -
Pyrosulfuric Acid C - -
Pyrosulfuryl Chloride C - -
Pyroxylic Spirit B - -
Pyruvic Acid E C
Column #2. THE O-RING- (V) VITON ® grade 747-75, (E) ETHYLENE PROPYLENE, (B) BUNA N, (Bu) BUTYL, (C)
CHEMRAZ OR Kalrez®, (N) NEOPRENE
Column# 3. SOLUBLE IN WATER- (C) COLD WATER, (H) HOT WATER , (O) NOT SOLUBLE, (S) SLIGHTLY SOLUBLE,
(V) REACTS VIOLENTLY WITH WATER, (D) DECOMPOSES, (H) HYDROLIZES, (M) MISCIBLE
Column #4. HAZARDOUS, NEEDS TWO SEALS- (F) FIRE, (T) TOXIC, (C) CARCINOGEN, [E) EXPLOSIVE
* OXIDIZER - WILL ATTACK ALL FORMS OF CARBON
® DuPont Dow Elastomers

Link to Chemical Listing Guide

Link to the Mc Nally home page

 O-RING SELECTION GUIDE "Q-S"

PLEASE SEE THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE FOR AN EXPLANATION OF THE CODES

Quicklime E - -
Quicksilver E,V - -
Quinine C - -
Quinine Bisulphate E,V - -
Quinine Hydrochloride C - -
Quinine Tartrate C - -
Quinizarin C - -
Quinne Sulphate E,V - -
Quinoine C - -
Quinone A - -
Radiation E - -
Raffinate C - -
Range Oil E O
Rape Oil E,V - -
Rapeseed Oil E,V - -
Raw Linsed Oil V - -
Red Oil RJ-I (MIL-F-25558) V - -
Red Oil RP-I (MIL-R-25576) V - -
Red Oil (Mil-H-5606 B - -
Refined Linseed Oil V - -
Resins less than 350 F° V - -
Resorcinol V - -
Retinol V - -
Rhigolene V - -
Rhodan Salts E,V - -
Rhodium C - -
Riboflavin C - -
Ricinoleic Acid C - -
Ricinus Oil V - -
Road binders V - -
Rock Salt E,V - -
Roman Vitriol E,V - -
Rose Oil V - -
Rosin Oil V - -
Rosin Size E,V - -
Rosins E,V - -
Rotenone And Water E,V - -
Rum E,V C
Rust Inhibitors V - -
Saccharose E,V - -
Saccharum Solutions E,V - -
Safety Kleen (mixed solvents) C - -
Sal Ammonia E,V - -
Sal Ammoniac E,V C
Sal Chalybdis E,V - -
Sal Soda E,V - -
Sal Tartan E,V - -
Sal Volatile E,V - -
Salad Dressing V C
Salicyladehyde E,V - -
Salicylic Acid E,V - -
Salimiak E,V - -
Saliter E,V - -
Salt E,V - -
Salt Brine Z - -
Salt Cake E,V - -
Salt Of Lemery E,V - -
Salt Of Tartar E,V - -
Salt Of Vitriol E,V - -
Salt Water E - -
Saltpeter- Calcium Nitrate Potsassium
E,V - -
Nitrate or Sodium Nitrate
Sand Acid (Fluorosilicacid) V - -
Santo Safe 300 V - -
Sea (Salt) Water E - -
Seed oil E,V - -
Sesame seed Oil V - -
Sewage E - -
Shale Naptha V,E - -
Shellac V - -
Sherwood Oil V - -
Shortening V - -
Sieman's Gas V - -
Silent Spirit E - -
Silicate Esters V - -
Silicate Of Soda E,V - -
Silicic Acid E,V - -
Silicofluoric Acid V - -
Silicone Fluid E - -
Silicone Greases E,V - -
Silicone Oils E,V - -
Silver Acetate V - -
Silver Cyanide E,V - -
Silver Nitrate E,V - -
Silver Salts E,V - -
Silver Sulfate E,V - -
Skelly, Solvent B,C,E V - -
Skydrol 500 E - -
Skydrol 7000 E - -
Slaked Lime E,V - -
Sludge Acid E - -
Soap Liquor V - -
Soap Solutions E,V - -
Soda E,V - -
Soda ,Baking E,V - -
Soda Ash E,V - -
Soda Niter E,V - -
Soda Saltpeter E,V - -
Soda, Caustic E - -
Soda, Lime E - -
Soda, Washing E - -
Sodan B - -
Sodium to 350° F. V - -
Sodium Acetate E - -
Sodium Acid Carbonate E,V - -
Sodium Acid Sulfate E,V - -
Sodium Allum E,V - -
Sodium Aluminate E,V - -
Sodium Aluminum Sulfate E,V - -
Sodium Arsenate V - -
Sodium Benzoate E,V - -
Sodium Bicarbonate (Baking Soda) E,V - -
Sodium Bichromate E,V - -
Sodium Bisulfate E,V - -
Sodium Bisulfite E,V - -
Sodium Borate E,V C
Sodium Borohydride V - -
Sodium Bromides E,V - -
Sodium Carbonate (Soda Ash) E,V - -
Sodium Chlorate C - -
Sodium Chloride E,V - -
Sodium Cyanide E - -
Sodium Diphosphate B - -
Sodium Ethoxide B - -
Sodium Ferricyanide E,V - -
Sodium Ferrocyanide E,V - -
Sodium Fluoaluminate E,V - -
Sodium Fluoborate V - -
Sodium Fluoride E,V - -
Sodium Hexa meta\ phosphate E,V - -
Sodium Hydrate E,V - -
Sodium Hydrochlorite V - -
Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate E,V - -
Sodium hydrogen Sulfate E,V - -
Sodium Hydrosulfite E,V - -
Sodium Hydroxide E C
Sodium Hypochlorite < 20% V - -
Sodium Hypochlorite > 20 % C - -
Sodium Metaphosphate E,V - -
Sodium Metasilicate V - -
Sodium Nitrate E,V - -
Sodium Nitrite E,V - -
Sodium Perborate E,V - -
Sodium Peroxide * E,V - -
Sodium Phosphate (Mono) E,V - -
Sodium Phosphate (Tribasic) E,V - -
Sodium Phosphate Dibasic) E,V - -
Sodium Plumbite B - -
Sodium Polyphosphate E,V - -
Sodium Pyroborate E,V - -
Sodium Salts E,V - -
Sodium Silicate E,V - -
Sodium Subsulfite E,V - -
Sodium Sulfhydrate E - -
Sodium Sulfide E,V - -
Sodium Sulfite E,V - -
Sodium Sulphate E,V - -
Sodium Sulphide & Sulphite V - -
Sodium Superoxide V - -
Sodium Tetraborate (Borax) E - -
Sodium Thiocyanate E,V - -
Sodium Thiophosphates E,V C
Sodium Thiosulfate E,V - -
Sodium Triphosphates B - -
Sodium Tripolyphosphate B - -
Solene V - -
Soluble Glass E - -
Solvents, General C - -
Sorgum V - -
Sour Crude Oil N - -
Sour Natural Gas N - -
Sovasol No. 73 & 74 V - -
Sovasol No. 1,2& 3 V - -
Soy Sauce V - -
Soya Oil V - -
Soybean Oil V - -
Spent sulfite liquor V - -
Sperm Oil V - -
Spirit E,V - -
Spirits Of Turpentine V - -
Spry V - -
SR-10 Fuel V - -
SR-6 Fuel V - -
Standard Oil Mobilube GX-90 EP
V - -
Lube
Stannic Chloride E,V - -
Stannic Fluoborate V O -
Stannic Salts V - -
Stannic Sulfide B - -
Stannous Chloride 15% E,V - -
Stannous Sulfide B - -
Starch Gum E,V - -
Starch Slurry E,V - -
Starch Syrup E,V - -
Stauffer 7700 V - -
Steam, Below 300F E - -
Stearic & Oleic Acid C - -
Stearic Acid B - -
Stearin E - -
Steep Liquor (Water) C - -
Stoddard Solvent V - -
Styrene (Monomer) V - -
Styrene (Monomer) above 150 F C - -
Styrene Polymer V - -
Succinic Acid E,V - -
Sucrose Solution E,V C
Sucrose Solutions V - -
Sugar Of Lead E - -
Sugar Solutions E,V C
Sulfamic Acid V - -
Sulfate Liquors E - -
Sulfite Liquors V - -
Sulfolane V - -
Sulfonic Acid C - -
Sulfuric Acid greater than 50% C - -
Sulfuric Acid * V - -
Sulfuric Acid Diethyl Ester E - -
Sulfuric Chlorohdrin E D T
Sulfurous Anhydride V - -
Sulphite Liquors V - -
Sulphite Pulp V - -
Sulphur E,V - -
Sulphur Chloride V - -
Sulphur Dichloride V - -
Sulphur Dioxide E - -
Sulphur Hexafluoride E - -
Sulphur Liquors V - -
Sulphur Molten < 350°F V - -
Sulphur Trioxide * dry or wet C - -
Sulphuric Acid *greater than 50% C1 - -
Sulphuric Acid Fuming * C1 - -
Sulphurous Acid V - -
Sunsafe (Fire Resist. Hydr. Fluid) V - -
Super Shell Gas V - -
Swan Finch EP Lube C - -
Sym-tetrabromethane E,V O T
Sym-tetrachloroethane W S T
Syrup (High Sugar) V - -
Column #2. THE O-RING- (V) VITON ® grade 747-75, (E) ETHYLENE PROPYLENE, (B) BUNA N, (Bu) BUTYL, (C)
CHEMRAZ OR Kalrez®, (N) NEOPRENE
Column# 3. SOLUBLE IN WATER- (C) COLD WATER, (H) HOT WATER , (O) NOT SOLUBLE, (S) SLIGHTLY SOLUBLE,
(V) REACTS VIOLENTLY WITH WATER, (D) DECOMPOSES, (H) HYDROLIZES, (M) MISCIBLE
Column #4. HAZARDOUS, NEEDS TWO SEALS- (F) FIRE, (T) TOXIC, (C) CARCINOGEN, [E) EXPLOSIVE
* OXIDIZER - WILL ATTACK ALL FORMS OF CARBON
® DuPont Dow Elastomers

Link to Chemical Listing Guide

Link to the Mc Nally home page

 O-RING SELECTION GUIDE "T-Z"

PLEASE SEE THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE FOR AN EXPLANATION OF THE CODES

Table salt E,V - -

Tail liquor V - -
Tall oil B - -
Tallol B - -
Tallow B - -
Tan V - -
Tannic Acid E,V - -
Tannin E,V - -
Tar Camphor V - -
Tar, Bituminous V - -
Tar, Hot (350 F max.) V - -
Tartaric Acid V - -
Terpene V - -
Terpineol V - -
Tertiary Butyl Calectechol V - -
Tertiary Butyl Mercaptan V - -
Tertiary Butyl Alcohol V - -
Tetra bromo ethane V - -
Tetra butyl Titanate V - -
Tetra chloro ethane V - -
Tetra chloro ethylene V - -
Tetra chloro methane V - -
Tetra decanol B - -
Tetra ethyl Lead V - -
Tetra ethyl Lead blend V - -
Tetra ethyl Orthosilicate B - -
Tetra ethylene Glycol V - -
Tetra hydro furan E - -
Tetra hydro naphthalene V - -
Tetra methylene Oxide E - -
Tetralin V - -
Tetrane V - -
Thenardite E,V - -
Therminol <350°F V O F
Thio Acid Chloride C - -
Thio amyl Alcohol C - -
Thio diacetic Acid C - -
Thio ethanol C - -
Thio glycolic Acid C - -
Thio phosphoryl Chloride C - -
Thiokol E,V - -
Thionl Chloride V - -
Thionyl Chloride C - -
Thiophene C - -
Thioreau C - -
Thorium Nitrate C - -
Tide water oil V - -
Tiglic Acid C S T
Tin Ammonium Chloride C - -
Tin Bichloride V - -
Tin Chlorides V - -
Tin Crystals V - -
Tin Dichloride V - -
Tin Protochloride V - -
Tin Salts V - -
Tin Tetrachloride E,V - -
Tincal E,V - -
Titanic Acid C - -
Titanium Dioxide E - -
Titanium Salts V - -
Titanium Sulfate C - -
Titanium Tetrachloride V - -
Tolu quinone C - -
Toluene sulphonic Acid C- - -
Toluene Bisodium Sulfite C - -
Toluene Diisocyanide E - -
Toluene Sulfonamide C - -
Toluene Sulphfonyl Chloride C - -
Toluene-Toluol V - -
Toluidine C - -
Toluidine C - -
Toluol V - -
Tolylaidehyde C - -
Tomato Juice B - -
Torula Yeast V - -
Town Gas V - -
Toxaphene C - -
Transformer Oil V - -
Transmission Fluid Type A V - -
Tri alkyl pentaborane V - -
Tri ammonium Phosphate E,V - -
Tri bromethyl benzene C - -
Tri but oxyethyl Phosphate E,V - -
Tri calcium Phosphates V - -
Tri chloro acetic Acid E - -
Tri chloro benzene V - -
Tri chloro ethane V - -
Tri chloro ethane, Dry V - -
Tri chloro ethane, Wet V - -
Tri chloro ethanol amine C - -
Tri chloro ethylene V - -
Tri chloro ethylene, Dry V - -
Tri chloro ethylene, Wet V - -
Tri chloro fluoro methane B - -
Tri chloro methane V S T
Tri chloro monofluoro methane V - -
Tri chloro nitro methane C - -
Tri chloro trifluororthane C - -
Tri cresyl Phosphate V,E - -
Tri ethanol amine V - -
Tri ethyl Aluminun V - -
Tri ethyl Borane V - -
Tri ethyl Phosphate C - -
Tri ethylamine V - -
Tri ethylene Glycol V - -
Tri ethylene tetramine C - -
Tri fluorethane V - -
Tri fluoro acetic Acid C - -
Tri fluoro choloro ethylene C - -
Tri fluoro ethane V - -
Tri fluoro methane C - -
Tri fluoro vinyl Chloride V - -
Tri hydrox benzoic Acid E,V - -
Tri methyl benzene C - -
Tri methyl methane V - -
Tri methyl pentane V - -
Tri methylene Glycol E,V - -
Tri octyl Phosphate E - -
Tri poly phosphate E - -
Tri potassium Phosphate C - -
Tri sodium Phosphate C - -
Tri sodium Phosphate E - -
Tri-normal-butyl Phosphate E - -
Triacetin E - -
Triaryl Phosphate E,V - -
Triazane E - -
Tributly Phthalate E - -
Tributyl Amine C - -
Tributyl Citrate C O
Tributyl Mercaptan V - -
Tributyl Phosphate E - -
Trichloro acetyl Chloride C - -
Trichloro-tert-butyl Alchol C S T
Trichloropane V - -
Trii sopropyl benzyl chloride C - -
Trinidad Pitch V - -
Trinitrophenol V,E - -
Trinitrotoluene V - -
Tritium C - -
Tung Oil (China Wood Oil) V - -
Turbine Oil V O
Turbine Oil #15 (MIL-L-7808A) V O
Turbo Oil #35 V O
Turpentine V - -
Turps V O
Type I Fuel(ASTM Ref. Fuel A) V O
Type I Fuel(MIL-S-3136) V O
Type II Fuel MIL-S-3136 V O
Type III Fuel MIL-S-3136 V O
Ucon Hydrolubes V - -
UDMH V - -
Undecycenic Acid C - -
Undecylic Acid C - -
Univis 35 (mineral oil) V - -
Univis 40 (hydraulic Fluid) V - -
Unslaked Lime E - -
Unsymmetrical Dimethyl Hydrazine
E - -
(UDMH)
Uranium C - -
Uranium Hexachloride V - -
Uranium Sulfate C - -
Urea E,V - -
Urea Carbamate E - -
Urea Formaldehyde B - -
Urine E,V - -
Valeric Acid E - -
Vanadium Oxide C - -
Vanadium Pentoxide C - -
Vanilla Extract B C
Varnish V O
Vasoline V O
Vegetable Juices V - -
Vegetable Oil E,V - -
Versilube F-50 V - -
Vinegar E,V - -
Vinyl Acetate E,V - -
Vinyl Acrylate C - -
Vinyl Benzene V - -
Vinyl Benzoate C - -
Vinyl Chloride, C - -
Vinyl Cyanide C O F
Vinyl ethylene V O F.E
Vinyl Fluoride V - -
Vinyl Pyridine C - -
Vinyl Toluene V - -
Vinyl Trichloride V - -
Vinylidene Chloride V - -
Vitriol, Oil of V - -
VV-H-910 E,V - -
Wagner 21B Brake Fluid E O
Walnut Oil V O
Washing Soda E,V O
Water Glass E,V - -
Water, Acid mine E C
Water, Deionized * E C
Water, Distilled E C
Water, to 280 F E C
Wax E,V O
Wemco C V - -
Whey V - -
Whiskey & Wines V - -
White Copperas E,V - -
White Lead Sulfate V - -
White liquor E - -
White Oil V - -
White Pine Oil V - -
White Spirit V - -
White Vitriol E,V -
White water E C O
Whiting E,V - -
Wines E,V C
Wolmar Salts E,V - -
Wood Alcohol E C
Wood ether E,V C F
Wood Oil V - -
Wort N C
Xenon E,V - -
Xylene V O F
Xylidines C - -
Xylol V - -
Yeast E,V - -
Zeolites C - -
Zeolites E,V - -
Zinc Acetate E - -
Zinc Ammonium Chloride C - -
Zinc Carbonate C - -
Zinc Chloride E,V - -
Zinc Chromate C - -
Zinc Cyanide C - -
Zinc Diethyl dithio carbamate C - -
Zinc Dihydrogen Phosphate C - -
Zinc Fluoro silicate C - -
Zinc Hydrosulfite E - -
Zinc Napthenate C - -
Zinc Nitrate B - -
Zinc Oxide C - -
Zinc Phenol sulfonate C - -
Zinc Phosphate C - -
Zinc Salts E,V - -
Zinc Silico fluoride C - -
Zinc Stearate C - -
Zinc Sulfide C - -
Zinc Sulphate E,V - -
Zirconium Nitrate C - -
Column #2. THE O-RING- (V) Viton ® grade 747-75, (E) ETHYLENE PROPYLENE, (B) BUNA N, (Bu) BUTYL, (C)
CHEMRAZ OR Kalrez®, (N) NEOPRENE
Column# 3. SOLUBLE IN WATER- (C) COLD WATER, (H) HOT WATER , (O) NOT SOLUBLE, (S) SLIGHTLY SOLUBLE,
(V) REACTS VIOLENTLY WITH WATER, (D) DECOMPOSES, (H) HYDROLIZES, (M) MISCIBLE
Column #4. HAZARDOUS, NEEDS TWO SEALS- (F) FIRE, (T) TOXIC, (C) CARCINOGEN, [E) EXPLOSIVE
* OXIDIZER - WILL ATTACK ALL FORMS OF CARBON
® DuPont Dow Elastomers

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