Chapter 15

Conservation of Energy and

Momentum

We go directly to the law of conservation of energy, mechanical and electromagnetic, for a

system of particles that interact by electromagnetic forces and are also subject to external
electromagnetic fields. Then we examine more in detail the magnetic energy.

15.1 Energy density and flow

We assume (for the time being) that only electromagnetic forces are present and that particle
motions are confined to a finite volume V . At speeds small compared to c, the particles obey
Newton’s equations
dvi
mi = qi E(xi ) + vi × B(xi ) (15.1)
dt
Multiplying both sides by vi and summing over i we obtain
X d 1  X
mi vi2 = qi vi · E(xi ) (15.2)
i dt 2 i

or Z
d
Ukin = J(x) · E(x)d3 x (15.3)
dt V
where we have introduced the total kinetic energy
X 1 
Ukin = mi vi2 (15.4)
i 2

and the current density X

J(x) = qi vi δ(x − xi ) (15.5)
i

Equation (15.3) says that J · E is the power per unit volume supplied by the field to the
particles. We note that E is the total field, including the field generated by the particles

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themselves. It is convenient to introduce the kinetic energy density
X 1 
ukin (x) = mi vi2 δ(x − xi ) (15.6)
i 2
R
such that Ukin = V ukin (x)d3 x. Then Eq. (15.3) can be written
Z " #
∂
ukin (x) − J(x) · E(x) d3 x = 0 (15.7)
V ∂t
We now obtain another expression for J · E from Maxwell’s equations. We multiply
by B· both sides of Faraday’s law and obtain
∂B
B·∇×E+B· =0 (15.8)
∂t
Similarly, we multiply by E· both sides of the Ampère-Maxwell law and obtain
∂E
E · ∇ × B − µ0 0 E ·
= µ0 J · E (15.9)
∂t
Subtracting side by side and using ∇· (E × B) = B · ∇ × E − E · ∇ × B we find
µ0 ∂  
∇· (E × B) + 0 E 2 + B 2 /µ0 = −µ0 J · E (15.10)
2 ∂t
This is the equation we were looking for. We rewrite it as
∂uem
∇·S+ = −J · E, (15.11)
∂t
having defined the important quantities
S = E × B/µ0 (15.12)
1 
0 E 2 + B 2 /µ0
uem = (15.13)
2
It is easy to see that uem is the electromagnetic energy density and that the Poynting vector
S represents the energy flow: combine (15.3) and (15.11) to obtain
∂
∇·S+
(uem + ukin ) = 0 (15.14)
∂t
which is of the standard form of an equation of continuity for the total energy density
uem + ukin. Integrating over the volume V bounded by the surface S with outward-pointing
normal n:
I
∂U
S · n da + =0 (15.15)
S ∂t
where U = Uem + Ukin and Uem is the electromagnetic energy contained in volume V
Z Z
3 1 
Uem = u em d x = 0 E 2 + B 2 /µ0 d3 x (15.16)
V V 2

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15.2 Conservation of Momentum
The total force on a collection of charged particles is
Z
F= d3 x (ρE + J × B) . (15.17)

Using Newton’s Second Law, we have

dPmech Z 3
= d x (ρE + J × B) . (15.18)
dt
Use Maxwell’s equations to eliminate the sources in favor of the fields:
" ! #
dPmech Z 3 1 ∂E
= d x 0 (∇ · E)E + ∇ × B − µ 0 0 ×B . (15.19)
dt µ0 ∂t
Next, use
∂E ∂ ∂B
×B = (E × B) − E ×
∂t ∂t ∂t
∂
= (E × B) + E × (∇ × E), (15.20)
∂t
to write
Z
dPmech
= d3 x [0 (∇ · E)E − 0 E × (∇ × E) + (∇ · B)B/µ0 − (B/µ0 ) × (∇ × B)
dt
∂
− (E × B)]. (15.21)
∂t
Moving the time derivative over to the left hand side, we have
dPmech d Z 3 Z
+ d x (E × B/µ0 ) = d3 x [0 (∇ · E)E − 0 E × (∇ × E)
dt dt
+(∇ · B)B/µ0 − (B/µ0 ) × (∇ × B)]. (15.22)

Now work on the right hand side; a typical term is

[(∇ · E)E − E × (∇ × E)]α = (∂β Eβ )Eα − αβγ Eβ γδλ ∂δ Eλ

= Eα ∂β Eβ − Eβ ∂α Eβ + Eβ ∂β Eα , (15.23)

were we’ve used αβγ γδλ = δαδ δβλ − δαλ δβδ . This can finally be written as a total derivative:
1
[(∇ · E)E − E × (∇ × E)]α = ∂β (Eα Eβ − E 2 δαβ ). (15.24)
2
Then, introducing the field momentum,
Z
Pfield = d3 x E × B/µ0 , (15.25)
V

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and the Maxwell stress tensor,
1
Tαβ = 0 Eα Eβ + Bα Bβ /µ0 − (0 E 2 + B 2 /µ0 )δαβ , (15.26)
2
we have
Z
d ∂Tαβ
(Pmech + Pfield )α = d3 x
dt V ∂xβ
I
= Tαβ nβ da. (15.27)
S

We see that Tαβ nβ is the αth component of the momentum flux across the surface S into the
volume V .

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