Compressors

A compressor is a mechanical device that converts power from a prime mover (an electric motor
or combustion engine) into pressurized gas (usually air). An air compressor comprises a
compressing unit and a receiver tank that stores the pressurized gas and controls the pulsing of
airflow. Compressed air have wide range of applications: from bike tire’s pump, paint spray,
impact wrenches, leaf blowers, medical applications, gas stations, to heavy industries.
Components: prime mover, compressor tank, air pump, pressure valve and on/ off switch.
Compressed air tank: perhaps, the tank is the most important component of this device. It
stores the compressed air under pressure and releases it whenever the stored energy is needed.
An electric motor or engine sends electrical or mechanical power to the compressor pump. This
allows the pump to force air into the compressor tank; pump motor is turned on when the
compressor tank’s pressure falls below the pressure switch cut which is the maximum pressure at
which the device will stop working. When the air pressure falls below this point, the motor or
engine pumps air into the compartment to reach the desired psi of the unit. In units that have an
ON/ OFF switch, air compressor works when the ON button is pressed and stops when the OFF
button is pushed. Otherwise, the device can begin operation when plugged it in or started the
engine. Besides, compressor will not start if the tank pressure is above the pressure switch cut.
There are different compressor tanks depending on the design, size, and application of the unit,
but most models are tubular or pancake styled. If the unit is a positive-displacement type, it
compresses the air into the tank with the action of pistons or vanes. In centrifugal units, the
compression takes place through the high-velocity motion of a fast-spinning impeller.
Air compressor pump: device collects air from the atmosphere into the compressor tank. It also
discharges the stored air under high pressure so air tools can be powered without electricity or
gas. Air compressors used at home and small workshops have small air pumps. It is the metallic
compartment above the compressor tank. Some pumps have fins on the side to increase heat
dissipation as the unit can reach high temperatures during operation. Manufacturers often cover
the pump with plastic to prevent scalding, but this reduces heat dissipation. Too much heat can
damage air compressor pump and reduce its efficiency and longevity. It’s better to buy a unit
with a naked metal design but must be careful not to touch it when it is hot.
The pressure switch: except units that have ON/OFF switch, most compressors start and stop
working at the behest of the pressure switch. The pressure switch can be an internal unloader
valve or an external unloader valve based on the design and make of the unit. These valves
monitor the level of pressure in the compressor tank. When the pressure reaches a certain level
the switch (pressure cut out) cuts off the air supply and the unit stops working. If the pressure
falls below a certain level (pressure cut in), the switch closes to allow the flow of energy to the
motor. This activates the pump to store air into the compressor tank. Most units come out of the
box with a preset pressure value. However, some models allow to adjust the pressure settings to
meet the requirements of different tools. The air compressor has two pressure gauges including
the proper air pressure (psi) and air flow (cfm). Proper air pressure (psi) measures the pressure in
the compressor tank while the air flow (cfm) shows the pressure in the tool.
The parts mentioned above are the most important components of the air compressor system.
However, there are many other parts such as cylinders, pistons, crankshafts and other
components that make the air compressor work.
Types-- two main types of air compressors: (i) positive displacement; further divided into (a)
reciprocating and (b) rotary type such as the rotary vane and helical screw and (ii) centrifugal.
Positive-displacement compressors work by forcing air in a chamber whose volume is decreased
to compress the air. Once the maximum pressure is reached, a port or valve opens and air is
discharged into the outlet system from the compression chamber.
Reciprocating air compressor: piston-powered; features a piston that compresses and displaces
air within a cylinder and releases the pressurized air through a valve into tanks. If the
reciprocating air compressor works with one side of the piston, it is called single-acting. A
double-acting reciprocating air compressor uses both sides of the piston to compress the air.
These compressors can also have pressure ranging from 70 to 100 psi (1 psi = 6.895 kPa) in
single-stage units and 100-250 psi in two-stage models. Units can either be water-cooled or air-
cooled; available in lubricated and non-lubricated versions.
Single-acting: There is an inlet or suction valve and a discharge valve.  Both are one way valves,
and both are spring loaded so it takes a certain amount of force to open them.  The inlet valve
will only let air come into the cylinder and the discharge valve will only let air out.  As the piston
moves downward through the cylinder, air is sucked in the inlet valve.  When the piston moves
up through the cylinder the inlet valve closes and the discharge won’t open until a certain amount
of force is applied.  This causes the air to be trapped inside while the volume is reduced,
increasing the pressure.  When the pressure is enough to open the discharge valve, then the air
goes out at the higher pressure. Single-acting reciprocating compressors only have valves on top
of the cylinder, so there is one compression cycle for every turn of the crankshaft.

These air
compressors
commonly seen
everywhere; inexpensive when compared to the other technologies and good for intermittent duty
cycles.  Compared to a rotary screw, they usually have less maintenance and are easy and simple
to maintain.  It makes them a great choice when compressed air use is below 100 cfm at 40 psi or
more.
Often reciprocating compressors have multiple stages.  This is not to be confused with multiple
cylinders.  A compressor can multiple cylinders, but only be one stage.  A multiple-stage
compressor pumps up the air to one pressure, and then uses another cylinder with a smaller
diameter to pump to a higher pressure.  Normally the air is cooled in between the stages with an
intercooler.  This intercooler is a finned tube that runs from one head to another or to one side of
the head to the other. If all the cylinders are the same size, then it’s single-stage. For the same
size horsepower, a single-stage will give more cfm than a two-stage.  However, two-stage are
most common in industry, 5 hp and above range.
Lubrication: Oil-lubricated piston compressors are by far the most common in the 5-30 hp
range. Unless for medical air application and a few other special applications, oil-lubricated is
the mostly used. There are splash-lubricated compressors and pressure-lubricated compressors.
A splash lubricated compressor uses a dipper on the end of the connecting rod.  When the
crankshaft turns, usually between 400 and 1000 rpm, the dipper splashes into the oil, causing the
oil to distribute throughout the lower end of the pump.  Most of the ones seen are splash-
lubricated.  It’s a very simple and effective method of lubricating the pump.  It’s also
inexpensive to manufacture so it keeps the initial cost of the compressor down.  In nearly all
cases, splash-lubricated reciprocating should only have a duty-cycle of about 60%.

Splash Lubricated Compressor

Pressure Lubricated Compressor
A pressure lubricated compressor uses an internal oil
force the oil up the connecting rod to make sure key parts of the pump are lubricated.  The pump
will require a certain oil pressure in order to run.  An oil pressure gauge on the pump indicates
the oil pressure.  Some have an oil-filter on it and some do not.  However, if an oil filter or a
gauge is seen on the pump crankcase, then it’s a pressure-lube pump.  A pressure-lubricated
pump may also use a dipper to splash oil around, as well.  Pressure lubricated pumps can
sometimes be rated with a 100% duty cycle (depends on compression ratio).  Pressure-lubricated
pumps on average will last longer and have a higher duty-cycle than splash-lubricated pumps. 
However, they usually cost a lot more. 
Duty-cycle: A compressor’s duty-cycle is the percentage of time, while it’s in use, that the
compressor is running fully-loaded. The other percentage or time it needs to be off or running
unloaded. A splash-lube pump should have about a 60% duty cycle. That means over a 10 hour
work day, the compr. should run about 6 hours and be off about 4 hours. Of course, the compr.
will not run 6 hours straight and be off four hours straight. The compressor will turn on and off,
depending on the air demand; 60% running time on the average. Duty-cycle relates to sizing of a
compressor.  For business, using all day a 15 cfm is a pretty choice. However, if it’s a splash-
lube piston compressor, then15 cfm need to be divided by 0.6. That becomes 25 cfm. A splash-
typical 5-hp piston is about 18 cfm, but not a good choice; rather a 7.5-hp piston with 25 cfm.
Diaphragm reciprocating compressors: similar to the single-acting reciprocating one. The
difference is that instead of a piston moving inside a cylinder, the piston moves a diaphragm that
contracts and expands. The compression of gas occurs by means of a flexible membrane, oil-free
compression; hermetic separation between gas and oil chambers. It is abrasion free, high
discharge pressure (up to 3000 bar) and automatic shutdown in case of membrane failure. Used
in automotive industry, bio gas plants, chip manufacturing, chemical and petrochemical industry,
food industry, industrial gas manufacturing, hydrogen filling station and laboratories (research).

A Diaphragm compressor is a combination of two systems - a hydraulic system and a gas

compression system. A metal diaphragm group is the isolating component between these two
systems. Process gas is completely isolated from the environment and the hydraulic system. Gas
compression system consists of three flat metal diaphragms, which are clamped between two
precisely contoured cavity plates, and process gas inlet and outlet check valves. Hydraulic
system includes a motor-driven crankshaft that reciprocates a piston in the hydraulic fluid
medium. This pulses the hydraulic fluid against the lower side of the diaphragm group, causing it
to sweep the cavity displacing the process gas.
Double-acting reciprocating compressors: similar to single-acting, but have inlet and discharge
valves on both sides of the cylinder; continuous air flow. This gives two compression cycles for
every turn of the crankshaft. These compressors are efficient but not common; very large and
high power, over 100 hp. On being around one feels like he/ she were in an earthquake. If the
compressor do not have the right foundation and vibration isolation, it could tear down the
building where it is in. These were used in manufacturing plants, but in the last 20-30 years the
role was taken over by rotary screw types.
Rotary sliding vane compressor: comprises a system of a rotor, stator and blades. The device
compresses air with each rotation of the rotor, producing oily air because the vanes glide through
an oil film.

While the sliding vane compressor cannot produce oil-free air, it produces cleaner air compared
to reciprocating compressors; the unit does not pulsate, quieter and more reliable.
Helical screw compressor: device uses geared meshing male and female rotors. When the screw
turns, the system draws air into the compartment at the suction side and moves through the
threads as the screws rotate. The meshing rotors force the gas through the compressor, and the
gas exits at the end of the screws. Because of the rotary mechanism of this device, it produces
less vibration and noise than a reciprocating unit. Plus, the air it produces does not pulsate and is
perfect for oil-free applications. In a dry-running rotary-screw compressor timing gears ensure
that the male and female rotors maintain precise alignment. In an oil-flooded rotary-screw
compressor, lubricating oil bridges the space between the rotors, both providing a hydraulic seal
and transferring mechanical energy between the driving and driven rotor.
The effectiveness of this mechanism is dependent on precisely fitting clearances between the
helical rotors and between the rotors and the chamber for sealing of the compression cavities.
However, some leakage is inevitable, and high rotational speeds must be used to minimize the
ratio of leakage flow rate over effective flow rate.
Centrifugal compressors: use high-velocity spinning impellers to drive gases for increasing
pressure. They can work continuously and handle large volume of gases. Common uses: oil-free
applications in commercial refrigeration, petrochemical and natural gas industries, and
processing plants. Unlike pumps that are mostly centrifugal, most air compressors operate on the
positive-displacement principle. Air compressors come in different sizes from the small models
that power your tires to giant turbo-compressors used in industries for heavy-duty pneumatic
applications. Air compressors can be electric/gas, oil/oil-less, and low/high a pressure, portable
or heavy-duty, but they serve vital functions in our lives.

How to use: setup is straightforward and most supplies are readily available.
Safety equipment and supplies: Safety goggles protect will eyes from a hot burst of air and debris
while closed-toe shoes or boots ensure tools don’t drop on legs. If it is gas-powered, it can be
noisy so better to wear earmuffs and also tidy up the work area. Should get some oil ready if it’s
oiled model. Also, need to have any attachments at hand if tools require adapters to work with
the air compressor. Plus, the manual be read and understand before operating an air compressor.
Check the unit: the unit should be checked before operation. The tank and hose need to be
inspected to ensure they are firmly secured as this will ensure proper pressure-buildup and
increased efficiency. The machine should be on an even surface as it can vibrate during operation
and move or fall over. Also, the power switch should be OFF before plugging or starting it.
Power up the unit: The next step is to power the air compressor. If the unit needs oil to operate,
the oil level need to be checked and top-up if required. Gas-powered units must have the
specified fuel-oil mix to work properly if activated by a 2-stroke engine. For electric units, have
to ensure that the ON button is not activated before plugging the machine into a power outlet.
Pressure adjustments: Once an air compressor is operating, its pressure gauge should be adjusted
to the pressure needs of specific tools; need only to adjust the pressure in the hose, not the
compressor tank. Need to make sure the pressure in the tank and the hose that will power the tool
is correct. Otherwise, it could damage the tool and the compressing unit.
 Attaching tool to the hose: on attaining pressure level, need to close the gauges and connect hose
to the tool with the correct attachment; be fasten the tightly to the hose to prevent pressure loss.
Shut the air compressor and pressure valve: Once the work is over, need to be shut down and
unplug from the power outlet or switch off the engine. If the unit has a pressure relief valve, it
should be used to release unused air from the tank; let the machine to cool, clean and store away.
Maintenance: In order to ensure that a compressor run efficiently with no leaks, it is imperative
to perform routine maintenance, such as monitoring and replacing air compressor fittings. It is
suggested to perform daily inspections of their equipment, such as: (1) Checking for oil and air
leaks, (2) Checking the differential pressure in the compressed air filter, (3) Determining
whether or not the oil in the compressor should be changed, (4) Verifying safe operating
temperature, (5) Draining condensation from air receiver tanks etc.
Positive displacement compressors tend to produce variable head at a relatively constant flow, as
the system resistance increases the pressure will raise. While dynamic compressors tend to
produce variable flow at a relatively constant head, when the system resistance increases the
flow will decrease.
Comparison between Reciprocating and Centrifugal Compressors
Parameter Centrifugal Reciprocating
3
Maximum Sizes up to 680,000 m /h available; Flow limited by size, driver speed, no of throw
flow flow limited by choke point (Mach 1) etc.
Limited by cylinder size, stroke and speed; few
Minimum flow 300 m3/h
m3/h available
Max discharge Up to 100 barg for horizontally split 800 barg is common; 3500 barg in hyper-
(outlet) type can be 1000 barg for radially compressor (low density polythene
pressure split type manufacturing)
Compression Depends on mechanical and rotor 1.2 to 4 is common in a single stage; limited by
ratio dynamic limitation as well as gas discharge temperature and piston rod load
intercooling
Efficiency 70 – 85% typical; affected by internal More than 90% for compression ratio greater than
leakage and mechanical loss 2.2; affected by piston speed and ratio of valve
flow area to cylinder bore diameter
Multiservice Not designed to handle a multitude of Easily adaptable to a multitude of gases and can
capability gases handle different gases at same/ different stages
Cost – Capital Capital cost higher, but less wear and Lower capital cost but a higher operating cost;
and Operating repair but less power per unit volume flow
Reliabilty 98 – 99% typical 95 – 98% typical
Maintenance Less; limited to replacing bearing pad Valve and seals may require regular replacement
and wearing seals; can last 10 years – can last from few months to 2/ 3 years
The advantages of a reciprocating compressor over a centrifugal machine are:
 Greater flexibility in capacity and pressure range,
 Higher compressor efficiency and lower power cost,
 Capability of delivering higher pressures,
 Capability of handling smaller volumes,
 Less sensitive to changes in gas composition and density.
The advantages of a centrifugal compressor over a reciprocating machine are:
 Lower installed first cost where pressure and volume conditions are favorable,
 Lower maintenance expense,
 Greater continuity of service and dependability,
 Less operating attention,
 Greater volume capacity per unit of plot area,
 Adaptability to high-speed low-maintenance-cost drivers.
Some differences between centrifugal and reciprocating compressors:
 Centrifugal compressors are used where larger quantity and lower pressure is required.
 Reciprocating compressors are used where a less quantity and higher pr. is required.
 Centrifugal compressors are less expensive than the reciprocating compressors.
 Centrifugal compr. uses impeller, blades whereas reciprocating compr. uses piston,
diaphragm.
 * The compression ratio of a reciprocating compr. is higher than a centrifugal compr.
 * Centrifugal compr. have continuous flow and reciprocating compr. have pulsating flow.
 * Centrifugal compr. have better mechanical efficiency due to absence of sliding parts.
 * Centrifugal compressors operates at high speed than reciprocating compressors.

Estimated efficiency of a centrifugal compressor as a function of volume flow

Estimated efficiency of a reciprocating compressor as a function of compression

ratio
Besides centrifugal, axial flow and mixed flow (axial and radial) are also in use.
Axial compressor: can handle large volume flow and are more efficient than centrifugal
compressors. However, centrifugal compressors less vulnerable and, hence, more reliable, have
wider operating ranges, and are less susceptible to fouling.

Axial compressors should be considered only for air, sweet natural gas, or noncorrosive gases.
Axial compressors are basically high-flow, low-pressure machines, in contrast to the lower flow,
high-pressure centrifugal compressors (the axial compressors used in gas turbines as in jet
engine, ship engine or small power plant, are often designed for higher pr. and compression
ratios). Multistage (10 -15), high speed (10,000 – 30,000 rpm), alternate stator and rotors. Rotors
increase the kinetic energy of the gas and stators convert kinetic energy into pressure.
Mixed flow compressor: combines axial and radial components to produce a diagonal airflow
compressor stage. These are the modified version of centrifugal compressors and combine the
advantages of axial and centrifugal flow compressors. The exit mean radius is greater than at the
inlet, like a centrifugal design, but the flow tends to exit in an axial rather than radial direction.
This eliminates the need for a relatively large diameter exit diffuser associated with centrifugal
compressors. Axial compressors can produce higher order efficiencies for gas engines, but they
have relatively low-pressure ratios unless compounded into several stages.  Centrifugal
compressors can produce high-pressure ratios in a single stage, but they suffer from a drop in
efficiency. The mixed flow compressors are also used in gas turbines (jet engines, automotives).