TOPIC 2 - DESIGNING THE HIGHWAY

CONSISTENCY
Consistency is the most important single rule in highway design making every element of the roadway
conforms to the expectation of the driver. Drivers expect the highway agency to provide them with:
1. Clear information and guidance through a variety of road signs,
2. Avoiding abrupt changes in the traffic as well as the road standards.

THE DESIGN SPEED

Design speed is defined by AASHTO (American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials) as The speed determined for design and correlation of the physical feature of a
highway that influence vehicles operation. It is the maximum speed that can be
maintained over a specified section of the highway when weather and traffic conditions
are so favorable that the design features of the highway govern. For economic reasons, the
geometric Features of certain road sections are designed for a speed from 30 to 50 kilometers per
hour.

RECOMMENDED DESIGN SPEEDS (Introduction to Transportation Engineering by James Banks)

CONDITIONS, LIMITED ACCESS TYPES DESIGN SPEED, Kph
Rural freeways in mountainous terrain 80 – 100
Freeways in urban areas 100 – 110
Rural freeways, level terrain 110
CONDITIONS, UNLIMITED ACCESS TYPES DESIGN SPEED, Kph
Rural Arterials
Flat terrain 100 – 110
Rolling terrain 80 – 100
Mountainous terrain 60 – 80
Urban
Arterial streets 60 – 100
Arterial streets, central business districts 50 – 60

CROSS SECTION OF TYPICAL HIGHWAY

The cross section of a typical highway has latitude of variables consider such as:
1. The volume of traffic
2. Character of the traffic
3. Speed of the traffic
4. Characteristics of motor vehicles and of the driver
For a Two lane rural highways- A 7.20 meter wide surface is required for safe clearance between
commercial vehicles and is recommended for main highways.
For a Collector roadway- 6.00 meters wide surface is acceptable only for a low volume traffic
including few trucks traveling thereon.
For Local-Rural Roadway- The minimum surface width is 4.80 meters for a 30 km/hr. design speed.
For Urban Roadway- the minimum design width is 3.60 meters although 3.00 meters is allowed
where space is limited.

SPEED LIMIT refers to the legal speed a motorist is not allowed to exceed.
ROAD SHOULDERS

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Road shoulder or verge is defined
as that portion of roadway
between the edge of the traffic
lane and the edges of the ditch,
gutter, curb or side slope.

The importance of Road Shoulders

1. Road shoulder serves as a place for vehicles to stop when disabled, or for some other purposes.
2. The road capacity is decreased and accident opportunity increases if the shoulder is too narrow
or omitted in the design.
3. Shoulders should be continuous along the full length of the roadway.
4. Shoulder increases the horizontal sight distance on curves.
The Policy on Geometric Design Recommended that:
1. Outside shoulder should be paved for at least 3.00 or 3.60 meters wide if truck volume is more
than 250 in design hour (Average Annual Daily Traffic, ADT).
2. The recommended width for the left (median) shoulder is 1.20 to 2.40 meters with at least 1.20
meters paved.
3. If there are 6 or more lanes, the median shoulder should be 3.00 meters wide or 3.60 meters if
truck volume in the design hour exceeds 250.
4. For arterials with ADT less than 400, the usable shoulder width is fixed at 1.20 meters
minimum, although 2.40 meter wide is much preferred.
5. When the design hour volume ADT exceeds 400, the usable minimum shoulder width is 2.40
meters although 3.60 meters is recommended.
6. For Urban road, similar shoulder without curb is suggested unless needed for proposed
drainage.
7. The width of the median shoulders on four lanes divided arterials is fixed at 90 centimeters as
minimum.
8. For six or more lanes, a 2.40 to 3.00 meters shoulder width is recommended.
9. For Rural Collectors roadway, a graded shoulder of 60 centimeters wide is required for ADT’s
less than 400.
10. For ADT’s over 2000, a 2.40 meters wide shoulder is advisable.

THE CROSS SLOPE

The cross slope is provided in all tangent sections of the road-way. Slopes usually fall in both
directions from the center line of the two lane highway except where super elevation of curves directs
all water towards the inside. For a high type pavement, the crown or slope is often 1% to 2%.
However, steeper slopes are strongly recommended because rainwater flow away more rapidly and
thereby reducing the water thickness on the road pavement. A cross slope in one direction of a multi-
lane highways makes driving comfortable, but with heavy rainfall, the water depth increases on the
roadway.

For high type pavement the slope 1% to 2%. The paved shoulder cross slope ranges from 3% to 6%
although 4% is the most common. For a gravel shoulder, 4% to 6% slope is satisfactory and 8% slope
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is effective drainage for turf (grass) surfaces. This type of cross section allow the inner lane to
accommodate high speed traffic because it is flatter than the outer lanes. On a very wide street, the
parabolic crown surface makes the center lanes almost flat unless gutters are sufficiently deep enough
to convey water. A combination of uniform slope with parabolic curve is used instead of the parabolic
sections.

CUT OR FILL SLOPE

Earth fill of normal height is safe on a slope of 1:2 ratio. Meaning, the first number represents the
horizontal measurement while the second number is for vertical measurement.

Slope of cuts through an ordinary undisturbed earth fill remain in place with a ratio of 1:1 slope. On
the other hand, rock cuts could be as steep as 1:2 and sometimes 1:4 which are proven to be stable.
Recently, slopes had been generally lowered for safer operation and to facilitate plant growth. Plant
reduces erosion and decreases the maintenance costs.

The Advantages of a Flat Side or Back Slopes:

a. With a back slope of 3:1 or even flatter, cars could be directed to back into the road and will
come to stop or continue down the slope with no risk of over-turning.
b. Flat fill slopes are visible from the vehicles at full extent giving the road a safer appearance.
c. With visible slope for being low and flatter, vehicles two lane roadway facilities, parking
would be farther from the opposing traffic.

Recommended Policy on Geometric Design

1. A 6:1 slope ratio be adopted on embankment less than 1.20 meters height and a ratio of 4:1
on a higher fill.
2. A 2:1 slope is allowed to heights greater that 6.00 m.
3. Cut slope should not be steeper than 2:1 ratio except on solid rock or special kind of soil.

The AASHTO policy stipulated that where cut or fill slopes intersect the original ground surface, the
cross section has to be rounded to blend the slope in the natural ground surface. When the side slope
requires embankment with suitable retaining wall, any of the following materials could be used
depending upon the natural conditions: Hand place stones, Cement rubble masonry, Concrete blocks,
Conventional reinforced concrete, T or counterforted designs, Cribs assembled from timber, Precast
concrete, Metal elements, Tied back piling, and Earth reinforced with metal or plastic bands.

HIGHWAY MEDIAN
The median strip or central reservation is the reserved area that separates opposing lanes of traffic.
There are various forms that absolutely required in highways. It may accommodate decorative
landscaping, trees, a median barrier or railway, light rail or streetcar lines.
The following are advantages:
1. It is effective to reduce the headlight glares, between the opposing streams of traffic to avoid
accident.
2. The median offer refuge between opposing traffic streams of cross traffic, and in pedestrians
could traverse each stream at separate maneuvers.
3. Median provides space for left turn lanes.

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 4. Turning of vehicles makes a smooth and safe operation because it clears the lane and increase
in capacity of road.
5. Wide median is highly recommended. In Rural section, 18.00 meters to 27.00 meters is
adopted to widen the median.
6. In Geometric Design states, “that 3.00 to 9.00 meters median width is appropriate in suburban
or mountainous situations.”
7. In Rural and Urban arterials, the median should be 18.00 meters wide so that it minimizes the
cross-over accident and it allows using independent profile.
8. Median with 6 to 18 meters wide allows the drivers to cross roadways separately. A width of
4.20 to 6.60 meters in median provides protection for turning vehicles.
9. Curved median with 1.20 to 1.80 meters wide, it serves separation or partition of opposing
traffic. It protects pedestrians to serve the traffic control devices of the location.
10. The width of a traversable median should be wide enough to prevent vehicles running out of
control from reaching the opposing traffic.
11. The medians cross slope should not be greater than 6:1 but preferably 10:1
12. Dense planting of rose hedges will serve safety crash barriers.

For Narrow Medians, there are four means of reducing cross median accidents.
1. Provide Deterring Devices
2. Provide Non-traversable energy absorbing barriers
3. Provide Non-traversable rigid barriers
4. Provide G.M. barriers

Deterring devices –set of double strip painted on the existing pavement, raised diagonal bars, low
curbing and shallow ditches.
Non-traversable energy absorbing devices – these are the line chain link fence 1 meter high
supported by steel post augmented by cables at the bottom and midpoint
Non-traversable rigid barriers –those are the metals that guards in railway
G.M. Barriers –it is cast or extruded in place or pre cast in section and set in position with crane.

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GRADE LINE

Grade line is a series of straight line connected by parabolic vertical curves to which straight
grades are tangent. In laying the grade line, the designer has to consider the following:

1. If earthwork is minimal and consistent of meeting the sight distance is relation to grade line,
one of it is consider in the economy.
2. In mountainous area, grade line should balance in excavation against embankment, to get
estimated over-all cost.
3. If in flat area, grade line must be parallel in ground surface but sufficiently above the ground
for the drainage.
4. Must have enough cover for undesirable native soil.
5. Along the river or stream, grade line elevation should be assume by the expected level of flood
water.

WIDENING OF CURVES
A provision for a wider roadway is necessary on sharp curve for two lane pavement under the
following reasons:

1. To force the drivers to stay away from the pavement edge.

2. To increase the effective transverse vehicle width for non-tracking of front and rear wheels.
3. To give additional width due to the slanted position of the front wheel to the roadway
center line.
4. For 7.20 meters wide roadway, an additional width of 0.30 meter is necessary on an open
curve highway.
Super elevation is the vertical distance between the heights of inner and outer
edges of highway pavement or railroad rails.

RIGHT OF WAY

A right-of-way is a right to make a way over a piece of land, usually to and from another piece of
land. A right of way is a type of easement granted or reserved over the land
for transportation purposes, this can be for a highway, public footpath, and rail transport.

Rail right – of - way

In the United States, railroad rights-of-way (ROW or R/O/W) are generally considered private property
by the respective railroad owners and by applicable state laws. Most U.S. railroads employ their own
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police forces, who can arrest and prosecute trespassers found on their rights-of-way. In the United
Kingdom, railway companies received the right to resume land for a right-of-way by a private Act of
Parliament.

Acquisition of land for the right of way is very costly. Highway agency now consider it a good practice
to acquire right of way wide enough to sufficiently provide for the ultimate expected development. A
successful freeway and expressway operations, closes the roadway from direct access to adjoining
property and some local roads and streets.

ISLANDS

An Island is a defined area between traffic lanes for control of vehicle movement and for
pedestrian refuge. Within an intersection, a median or outer separation is considered an island. This
definition makes evident that an islands is no single physical type. It may range from an area
delineated by barrier curbs to a pavement area marked by paint. On at-grade intersection in which
traffic is directed into definite paths by islands is termed as Channelized Intersection.

Islands are included in the design of intersections for the following purposes:

1. Separation of vehicular flows

2. Separation of conflicts
3. Reduction in excessive pavement areas
4. Regulation of traffic and indications of proper use of intersections
5. Arrangements to favor a prominent turning movement
6. Location of traffic control device.
To confine vehicles in a definite location without proper route for vehicles and pedestrian,
everyone’s action could not be predicted by others and these are usually the main cause of confusion
which lead to accidents.

By Channelization, the angle or route between intersecting steams of traffic can be smooth and
favorable. Drivers are commanded to merge into moving traffic steams at flat angle and right speed
being controlled over vehicles approaching an intersection.

A well-studied super elevation is an important adjunct to channelization that regulates the

vehicle speed and:

a.) Prohibited turns are prevented

b.) Refuge may be provide for turning or crossing vehicles and pedestrians.
c.) By channelization, refuge may be provided for turning or crossing vehicles and pedestrians.
d.) The drivers has to face only one decisions at a time, hence, conflicts can be avoided.
e.) It provide location for the traffic control devices such as signs, signals and refuge for
pedestrians.

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TYPES OF INTERCHANGE
The types and form of interchanges requires proper selection of the conformation that is best
suited for a particular situation and demand. The functions of interchanges are:
1. To provide separation between two or more traffic arteries.
2. To facilitate easy transfer of vehicles from entry tote other or between local roadway and
the freeway.
The simplest form of interchange is the diamond and the most common for freeway arterial
intersection is the cloverleaf style.

Objection to the cloverleaf design of interchange

1. It requires large area of land.
2. At higher design speed, more time s consumed just to traverse the longer loops.
3. Vehicle making left turn has to execute a 270 ̊right turn and travel a great distance
becoming very unpleasant and hazardous due to sharp curves and steep grades.
4. Vehicles leaving the curve loop in one quadrant have to weave those entering the adjacent
loop from the through way.

When Freeway meets Freeway where traffic movement is heavy, the interchange is provided
with directional left turn in all four quadrants.

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 TYPES OF FREEWAY INTERCHANGES
CHANNELIZED INTERCHANGES
FULLY

DIRECTIONAL INTERCHANGES

Figure (a) Roadway at four level is appropriate where land is very expensive. b& c is more open
design common in 3 level of roadways required control or grades and slight distance.

HIGHWAY INTERSECTION AT GRADE

All Highways, except freeways have intersections at grade. Intersection area is considered as
part of every connecting road. In this area all crossing and turning movement occur.
1. For right angle intersections with little traffic, the use of street signs is more than sufficient.
2. For Y intersections or rather related conformations where vehicles meet at unfavourable
angles may require channelization.
3. The flared design may involve the following:
a) Widening the entering traffic lane to allow deceleration of the car and clear through
traffic.
b) Widening the leaving lanes to provide acceleration and merging from traffic streams.
4. Intersections must accommodate large trucks, and the radius of all curves must be
sufficient enough to accommodate them.

A careful traffic and projected future improvement must precede the design of all critical sections based
on the data gathered on the traffic count, the lane capacity could be determined including the number of lanes to
be constructed.

INTERCHANGE AT GRADE

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 INTERSECTIONS AT GRADE

THE FREEWAY ENTRANCE AND EXIT

The overall effectiveness of the individual freeway system is governed by the flow characteristics of
vehicles, plus the drivers behavior near, on and off the channel ramps.

A single lane on ramp is either vehicle flows into the outer continuing freeway lane. The design is
either a taper blending into the through lane. In either case, sufficient length is required to allow the
vehicles to accelerate and merge into the ongoing vehicle stream at a speed near that of the freeway.

Vehicles leaving the freeway needs a distance to decelerate and clear of the flow of ongoing traffic. In
a situation where one lane could not meet the traffic demand, two lane exit is necessary. In such a
situation, an auxiliary lane must before the point exit. Even with one lane exit, an auxiliary lane is
necessary for it reduces confusion and congestions.

The geometric design of roads is the branch of highway engineering concerned with the positioning
of the physical elements of the roadway according to standards and constraints. The basic objectives
in geometric design are to optimize efficiency and safety while minimizing cost and environmental
damage. Geometric design also affects an emerging fifth objective called "livability," which is defined
as designing roads to foster broader community goals, including providing access to employment,

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schools, businesses and residences, accommodate a range of travel modes such as walking, bicycling,
transit, and automobiles, and minimizing fuel use, emissions and environmental damage.

Geometric roadway design can be broken into three main parts: alignment, profile, and cross-section.
Combined, they provide a three-dimensional layout for a roadway.

The alignment is the route of the road, defined as a series of horizontal tangents and curves.

The profile is the vertical aspect of the road, including crest and sag curves, and the straight grade
lines connecting them.

The cross section shows the position and number of vehicle and bicycle lanes and sidewalks, along
with their cross slope or  banking. Cross sections also show drainage features, pavement structure and
other items outside the category of geometric design.

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