Simon O'Sullivan

PARRHESIA
WWW.PARRHESIAJOURNAL.ORG
*SSUE 10 2010
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THE METAPHORMATTED HUMAN:

BIO-ARTISTIC PRACTICES OF THE HUMAN NEXUS
Thierry Bardini & Marie-Pier Boucher
A man’s reach must exceed his grasp, or what’s a meta for?

Gregory Bateson
INTRODUCTION
The most spectacular hold of the mechanistic over the subjective looks promising in genetic
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manipulation. To this is attached the more or less fantastic idea that we could, in the short term,
‘make whole men.’ In such fantasies, the primitive biologisms compete with humanisms and with
helpless theologisms, and not an ounce of understanding of the conditions of anthropogenesis in
evolution is discernable among those who hold such opinions.
Peter Sloterdijk
Here, we examine a variety of constituent pseudo-evidences in contemporary artistic discourses and practices
about/on the destiny of the human species, at the dawn of wide scale technical and cultural transformations
made possible by the current cybernetic convergence of informatics and molecular biology. These pseudo-
evidences have been appearing for a while now, in cyborg fantasies and delusions stemming from NASA circa
1960 and updated by the post-constructivist discourse of Donna J. Haraway’s disciples: “Cyborgs do not stay
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order entities like genomic and electronic databases and the other denizens of the zone called cyberspace.”1
The cyborg is. Or as Katherine Hayles says, “We became post-human.” As though saying it were enough to
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If we can indeed hypothesize about the human future in this day and age, it is thanks to the existence of a milieu
of exchange, of an interface for all the categories and actions that have been imagined up until now through
a series of inevitable dichotomies framing the human experience. Such an interface allows us to imagine
equivalences, translations, or trans-formations between the worlds, repertoires, and practices, which concretize
the human experience. These transformations can be understood as “identity manipulation” or, alternately, as
an evolutionary discontinuity for the human species. So, if the cyborg can (or will soon be able to) be “in fact as
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are passages between these worlds, repertoires, and practices, between various modalities that attempt to a give
a meaning to the human experience.
To us, all these passages lead to what we call the “metaphormatted human.” By this all too serious play-on-
words, we mean at least three different things: (1) that today’s human beings are meta-formatted by a set of
philosophical postulates, moral values, and inscription practices that frame the human evolution (both biological
and cultural) with respect to technology; (2) that today’s human beings are potentially metamorphosed by a set
of technological concepts, processes and incorporating interventions amounting to the concrete bootstrapping
of the production of man by man (and the masculine is intentional here); and (3) that both these philosophical
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and metonymies that actually enable and constrain the passages between both realms and, thus, artistic
practices. One might actually claim that the production and the destruction of these tropes is what today’s art
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of performing a new evolutionary discontinuity, whose writers (especially SF writers) and bio-artists are the
midwives.
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contemporary artistic interventions on the living—but of course no one actually knows what the living actually
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heavily connoted “cyborg experience”, we will concentrate on the metaphormatting process, centered on a so-
called nexus, the Human Nexus. Today’s human nexus is an experience: the experience of the human becoming,
at the age of the bio-informatics convergence.
THE HUMAN NEXUS: CLOSE ENCOUNTERS OF THE FOURTH KIND
Are there people who are constituted in the overcoding empire, but constituted as necessarily excluded
and decoded? Tökei’s answer is the freed slaves. It is they who have no place.
Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus
For it seems that Global Capitalism has now entered its genetic phase, the phase of our encounters with
machines of the fourth type. After the simple machines of the old societies of sovereignty, the motorized
machines of the disciplinary societies, the information machines of the control societies, human beings now
13%,#)#'.#*!55#0''"#13%,#)#genetic machines.
In A Thousand Plateaus, Deleuze and Guattari (D+G hereafter) distinguished between machinic enslavement
and social subjection: while the former happens when “human being themselves are constituent pieces of the
machine that they compose among themselves and with other things (animal, tools), under the control and
direction of higher unity,” the second occurs when “the higher unity constitutes the human being as a subject
linked to an exterior object, which can be an animal, a tool, or even a machine.”2 The focus of this distinction
is on the regulatory unit and its feedback on the human constituent/subject, i.e. on the nature of the “link.”
The human being is an alienated slave to the machine when the regulatory unity of the machine maintains
him or her in the state of a component, an expandable part of a higher unity; he or she is socially subjected
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nation/state (second type). Cybernetic machines, as machines of the third type, construct a generalized regime
of subjection that aggregates machinic enslavement and social subjection as its extremes poles: they renegociate
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THE METAPHORMATTED HUMAN
The latest episode in the modern civilization described by D+G is the cybernetic decyphering and organizing
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their enumeration, be it “an animal, a tool, a machine... or a human being”. What about these machine then,
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to organize? D+G say that it is what cybernetic machines do, and they are right. But there are cybernetic
machines and there are genetic machines. When the former regulate components as such without being able
to actually build them, the later both regulate and build its components. The autopoïetic machine, or second-
order cybernetic machine is no mere motorized, regulated, or cybernetic machine. It is no mere computer. It is
tomorrow’s bio-computer; it’s an egg able to count.
In the same way that the prototype of the cybernetic machine of the third type (James Watts’ governor) was
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from computers as the governor differs from the steam engine: by one order of magnitude in a series of logical
types. It is once the World was enfolded in a global network of personal (albeit “pumped-up”) computers, that
the human being could be described as a genetic database. The decrypted genome is the equivalent of the
meter kept in the museum, an etalon; both metal and silicon, dollars and gold, it is a new universal equivalent.
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person, a new human being might emerge out of these biological and cultural transformations: homo geneticus is
the way out of today’s human nexus. Nexus is the order of the day, and junk is its symptom.
In the Merriam-Webster on-line dictionary3, “nexus” has three inter-related meanings that date back in English
to 1663: (1) connection, link; also: a causal link; (2) a connected group or series; and (3) center, focus. Its
etymology is reported to the past participle of the Latin nectere, “to bind.” The American Heritage® Dictionary
of the English Language, in its fourth edition (2000) gives the same three meanings4, but reports the Latin
origin to the Indo-European root ned- , to bind, tie.5 Another dictionary, the online Etymology Dictionary6 gives the
following etymology and history of the word junk: “worthless stuff,” 1338, junke “old cable or rope” (nautical),
of uncertain origin, perhaps from O.Fr. junc “rush,” from L. juncus “rush, reed.” Nautical use extended to
“old refuse from boats and ships” (1842), then to “old or discarded articles of any kind” (c.1880). The First
Hypertext Edition of The Dictionary of Phrase and Fable by E. Cobham Brewer7 (from the new and enlarged
edition of 1894) gives more details about the Latin root of the word: juncus, from jungo, to join: used for binding,
making baskets, mats. Further philological inquiry also tells that the Latin jungere is not the ultimate root for
junk; and that its etymology goes back even further to the proto-Indo-European root/stem: *yug-, meaning to
bind, to harness.8 The same reference adds that “junk” is “another term from the cattle breeding lexicon of
ancient Indo-Europeans. This word was used only for harnessing cattle into the yoke, so the very word ‘yoke’
is a clear derivative.
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knitter. Put together, these two archetypes organize the becoming of computing machines, through difference
engines and Jacquard looms (second kind). At the time of the machine of the third kind and its correlated
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fashion, the importance of the human nexus.
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incorporated the story into his novel The Voyage of the Space Beagle.10 The plot of the story, in its various versions,
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black, enigmatic catlike creature that consumes “id” and can teleport itself through space - was matched
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against the human crew of the spaceship. The only thing that did not make it an unequal battle was the crew’s
use of a new science, called “Nexialism”.
Van Vogt created a protagonist, Dr. Elliott Grosvenor (an implicit reference to the earliest cybernetic device,
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of trans-disciplinary science, Grosvenor was able to see the connection between many aspects of a problem
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provides techniques for speeding up the processes of absorbing knowledge and of using effectively what has
been learned.”11
There is not much doubt that van Vogt coined the word “nexialism” on the sense of “connection”, “link”, of
the word “nexus””, and its extensive treatment in Whitehead’s philosophy. In fact, “nexialism” is van Vogt’s
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process philosophy. The two were linked historically, and Korzybski acknowledged his debt to Whitehead on
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In Process and Reality, Whitehead makes of the nexus one of his central concepts, which, along with those of
“actual entities” and “prehensions” describe the “ultimate facts of actual experience.”13 When actual entities,
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relations among actual entities:
Actual entities involve each other by reason of their prehensions of each other. There are thus real
individual facts of the togetherness of actual entities, which are real, individual, and particular, in
the same sense in which actual entities and the prehensions are real, individual, and particular. Any
such particular fact of togetherness among actual entities is called a “nexus” (plural form is written
“nexûs”).15
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relations where relations (prehensions) are real entities, and no “mere” abstractions.16 In this sense, today’s Nexus
is the connected human, the link towards the post-human nexor, maker of links.
But there is yet another crucial characterization that stems directly from Ridley Scott’s Blade Runner (1982), and
one that was originally developed in Philip K. Dick’s novel, Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? (1968). From
the opening crawler of the movie, indeed, replicants (Scott’s word for androids, Dick still calls them “andys” or
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creature, the merging of cybernetic circuits and organic life in the still recognizable shape of a human being.
As such, they carried the representations ascribed to machines since the dawn of the mechanical age, and,
especially as “perfect” replacement of human labor. In fact, the name chosen by PKD to call the ultimate
generation of androids, the “more human than human” Nexus-6, happens to be highly evocative of their
function, but also, through its etymology, of yet another resonance.
Nexus, indeed, is not only a Whiteheadian concept borrowed by A. E. van Vogt. In Roman law before Justinian,
a person called nexus or addictus was a quasi-slave. Nexus and addictus were not slaves, but were treated as such:
they retained their personhood (when slaves are not persons: servus non habet persona). The Romans had no prisons
for debtors, and the creditor was the debtor’s jailer. A person was called nexus when he was bound to a creditor
and has given himself (his body) as security for his loan. In case he could not pay his debt in time, he became
addictus.17 Nexus and addictus&-$)$&1-2&($/"(&O");"1;2=%&2=&15$&%A$B;6B&*;=7&28 &%0C50#"=%&15"1&S2#"=%&B"(($7&
slaves. Under such condition free persons could enter the realm of Res Mancipi, things that could be owned (and
thus required mancipation): “land, houses, slaves and four-footed beasts of burden.” 18
There is not much doubt in our mind that the debt of today’s human nexus is still the good old debt of the
Fall, paid in both masculine and feminine biblical senses of sorrow (labor).19 But the question is raised: could this
debt be paid off with the postmodern death of the Creditor, or could His absence merely mean the rise, in an
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FUTURE EVES: CAPITALIST (RE)GENESIS?
The non-correspondence of the physical and the intellectual made itself felt constantly, and in
the proportions of a paradox. Her beauty, I assure you, was beyond reproach, defying the subtlest
analysis. From the outside, and from the brow to the feet, a sort of Venus Anadyomene ; within,
a personality absolutely foreign to this body. Imagine if you will, this abstraction brought to life : a
bourgeois Goddess.
Villiers de l’Isle-Adam, Future Eve (1886)
We extracted a half of our title and our epigraph for this section from one of the leading modernist tales of the
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been part of European literature since the classical age (…) Traditionally, manufactured humans are
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the creators of these androids as a rule are men, particularly artists, magicians or scientists, who, as
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de l’Isle Adam’s account is important because he anticipated a later trend of modernity. “Since our gods and
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Hadaly for “Ideal”—is the quintessential sexyborg, as seen from the masculine trenches of the sex wars. “Electric
Daughter” of the famous Edison, she is everything a man can desire, plus a female creature with no desire for
men. It is Edison here, who plays the part of the Master, artist, magician and scientists, maker of links.
A feminist critique has recently rediscovered this: “In the age of information and biotechnological producibility,
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“future Eve”—idealized ‘surrogate women’ who have what ‘real’ women do not have or promise to deliver,
what ‘real’ women in the meantime refuse to.” In this perspective, the trivial opposition between “real” and
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for a theory of the simulacrum. The future Eve is “nothing more than the copy of an image consisting of
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brought back to life.” Baudrillard’s false/truer quote of the Ecclesiastes not withstanding, we know now that
the simulacrum is just an illusion, and that “in this sense, “future Eve” reanimates nothing more than an old
image: Eva before or after the Fall of humanity. Although the biblical legend maintains that this Eve was the
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evasive form of the simulacrum, the nexus a relation between (false) copy and (true) original.
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It is, of course, this kind of false dualism that we would like to dodge here, and stress instead the performativity
of the simulacrum. Actually, it seems that Villiers de l’Isle Adam himself was aware of this… According to
Remy de Gourmont, an old draft of Future Eve included the following notions about “the Real”:
The Real has degrees of being. A thing is more or less real to us as it interests us more or less, since a
thing that would not interest us at all would be as it did not exist—that is much less, albeit physical,
than an unreal thing that would interest us. Thus the Real, for us, is only what touches us, senses or
mind; and according to the degree of intensity which this unique real, that we can appreciate and
name as such, impresses us, we classify in our mind the degree of being more less rich in contents that
it seems to reach, and, that, consequently, it is legitimate to say that it realizes. The only control that
we have over reality, it’s the idea.22
!"#$%&'($)'*#+($,- $(./'$*#&-,&0)(/1/(23$,- $(.#'#$4#5&##'$,- $6#/"53$/'$.,7$Future Eve informs recent artworks, and

/"$',$4,/"5$+,"(/"8#'$(,$*&,48+#$)"$9)&(/%+/):;$,--'*&/"5<$!"#$'8+.$7,&=$/'$>)1/#&$?,+)@'$RE-constructing EVE,
an Extended Virtual Environment (EVE) commissioned for SIGGRAPH 99 Art Gallery (August 8-13, 1999).
About his piece, Roca notes that
RE-constructing EVE begins as a concept: a futuristic re/presentation of an unchangeable bio-

logical structuring of the mechanical/digital body. It becomes a process: an internal deconstruction
,- $/4#):'$)"4$&#A4#%"/(/,"$,- $(.#$B4)0C0):#$)"4$D1#C-#0):#<$E($#"4'$)'$&#'8:(F$)$0#+.)"/+):$C$4/5/():$
painting where the brush strokes of the canvas have been substituted by pixels or polymorphous
“bytes” of information. “RE-constructing EVE”, a topographic evocation of genetic engineering is
ultimately a transitional work, an invitation to explore the “multiplicity” and the complex relation
6#(7##"$ ,&5)"/'0$ )"4$ 0)+./"#3$ )"4$ .,*#-8::23$ )'$ /"$ G/::/#&@'$ ")&&)(/1#$ (#H(3$ &#I#+('$ /"$ (./'$ +)'#$ )$
6&/45#$6#(7##"$(.#$(7#"(/#(.$+#"(8&2$)"4$(.#$(7#"(2A%&'($+#"(8&2<23
Re-Constructing EVE, however, still works on a representational mode: it is, according to Roca, “a “blue print,”
an “assemblage” of symbolic materials, interactions and historical anatomies of possible bodies.” Less symbolic
however, is the notion that there is already, one new Eve, and that, as Villiers de l’Isle Adam had prophesied, it
was provided by Science. Such is the premise of the Critical Art Ensemble’s Cult of the New Eve (CONE):
The Human Genome Project has one last Eve for science to offer us. She is the one who will help the
public understand the beginning of a second genesis-one that is not beholden to any reproductive
boundaries that once separated the species-and to understand it as a good thing. She is Eve without
the fall-an Eve of perpetual grace, but most amusingly, she is a random Eve. The mythology of this
Eve goes as follows, although the narrative tended to vary slightly with each scientist CAE interviewed:
When the Human Genome Project (HGP) began its mission of mapping and sequencing the
entire human genome, it needed DNA in order to start. Since HGP was an academic/government
initiative, ethics committees were established to make sure that this genetic investigation did not go
into territories best left unexplored. One of the concerns among all the participants was to insure
that those who donated blood to the project would do so anonymously, so their identities would be
protected from the media and various objecters to the project who might harass willing participants.
A review board with strict procedures was set up to insure the privacy of blood donors. However,
)-(#&$(.#$%&'($4,",&$7)'$)**&,1#43$",$,(.#&$4,",&'$7#&#$"##4#4<$J.#$KLB$,- $(.#$%&'($)**&,1#4$
volunteer was mass produced (copied) as needed. Why go to the trouble and expense of having any
0,&#M$B-(#&$)::3$,"#$4,",&$/'$'8-%+/#"($-,&$(.#$*&,N#+(@'$"##4'<$O.)($/'$=",7"$)6,8($(./'$4,",&$/'$(.)($
she is a woman from Buffalo, New York. She is the Eve of the second genesis. It will be a curious sight
to see if she, too, is labeled by science with the sign of origination.24
A rhetorical project that has given way to several performances in key nodes of the electronic art world (e.g.
Karlsruhe ZKM) or other venues (e.g. the streets of Brussels) since the year 2000, CONE is above all a discursive
construction: in the classic vein of one of the most outspoken artistic collective worried about the new wonders
of biotechnologies, CONE is a parody of a religious capitalist ritual enacted for various audiences. It translates
critically most of Villier’s insights and rephrase them in catchy aphorisms such “We can make Eden. Paradise
now!” or “the New Eve is our own. She is global”. CONE—as in Devo’s headish fetish?—remains, however,
a rhetorical project and should be stressed only as a backbone to CAE other interventions; as such it does not
include a bioartistic practice, only a clever discursive production (and CAE now knows, to its own demise, the
difference between discursive production and bioartistic practice: in America-under-the-Patriot-Act, the second
can lead you to jail. Shame!). Closer to our interest here, we shall now focus on two early bio-artistic projects
!"#$#%!#%&'()*%+,*%-"#%Future Eve genealogy present, albeit in a distorted way.
."#% +$/-% '0 % -"#/#% 1$'2#&-/3% 4'#% 5678/9/% Microvenus% :;<<=>3% 8/% 6$?(6@)A% ',#3% 80 % ,'-% -"#% +$/-3% @8'6$-8/-8&% 18#&#B%
Carried out with the technical help of molecular geneticist Dana Boyd at Jon Beckwith’s laboratory at Harvard
Medical School and at Hatch Echol’s laboratory at University of California, Berkeley, the piece consisted in
-"#%#,&'*8,?%'0 %6,%8&',%8,%-"#%5CD%E')#&()#%'0 %6%@6&-#$86B%."#%-8-)#%'0 %-"#%18#&#%&6E#%0$'E%-"#%/1#&8+&%8&',%
that Davis chose to encode in the DNA of the bacterium, an ancient Germanic rune shaped in the resemblance
of the female genitalia. Davis contends that “the graphic “Venus” icon drafted for the Microvenus project was
8,/18$#*%@A%/'E#%'0 %-"#%')*#/-%E#//6?#/%F'E'%/618#,/%"67#%)#0-%0'$%-"#E/#)7#/%:8B#B3%-#,G%-'%+0-AG-"'(/6,*GA#6$G
')*%HI#,(/%+?($8,#/J>%6,*%16$-)A%@A%#18/'*#/%'0 %&#,/'$/"81%-"6-%6$#%,'!%"8/-'$8&6))A%6//'&86-#*%!8-"%H/&8#,-8+&J%
attempts to create messages for extraterrestrial intelligence.”25
About this piece, Adam Zaretsky has recently noted that,
These sequences were chosen by Davis to exemplify a certain aesthetic and that his aesthetic is not
expressed visibly by the organisms in question. Instead, the message is genomically embedded poetic
license, without gene function and presumably without any organismic effect (…) These strains of
bacteria carry multi-generational molecular inscriptions somewhat permanently. In this incarnation,
the organisms are artistic vessels. At the molecular scale, structural change of DNA sequences have
real differences in shape but the difference can only be “seen” through processes of technological
sleuthing (I.e. DNA Isolation, PCR, Use of Restriction Enzymes and Gel Electrophoresis). Joe Davis’
designer bacteria look more or less morphologically “normal” through a microscope but they carry
a message, which has the potential to outlive the human race or live among us (even inside of us)
ubiquitously, without a trace.26
Of Villiers de l’Isle Adam’s original project remains the idea that the “copy”—here in the renewed meaning of
the palimpsest of Life—might outlive the human original, and that the new Eve (or one of his alter-egoes here,
i.e. Venus) is the meaningful message of an obsolete humanity.27 Quite paradoxically, Davis’s encoded icon is
actually invisible and even more importantly, without (direct) phenotypical effect on the bacteria that “carries’
it: it is in other words, junk DNA (more on that later). In some ways, the icon is an invisible message, the invisible
message of a New Genesis, and the link moves from the realm of the visible to the realm of the readable.
This idea of a new Genesis is also developed in the piece of another bioart pioneer—transgenic art in his
own words—, in Eduardo Kac’s piece aptly named… Genesis (1999). Commissioned by Ars Electronica and
presented online and at the O.K. Center for Contemporary Art, Linz, Austria, from September 4 to 19, 1999,
this transgenic artwork consists of yet another inscription in bacterial DNA, what Kac calls an “artist’s gene.”
Kac created this synthetic gene (in fact he commissioned it to scientists who actually created it) by “translating
a sentence from the biblical book of Genesis into Morse Code, and converting the Morse Code into DNA base
pairs according to a conversion principle specially developed by the artist for this work.”28 The sentence reads:
HK#-%E6,%"67#%*'E8,8',%'7#$%-"#%+/"%'0 %-"#%/#63%6,*%'7#$%-"#%0'!)%'0 %-"#%68$3%6,*%'7#$%#7#$A%)878,?%-"8,?%-"6-%
moves upon the earth” (Gen. 1:28). Again, we will come back later to the question of this dominion, or, better
said, of this burden.
!"#$%%&'()%*#+#')+*',)%#$-.#$%'(/01"$%' ! ! ! !
Kac designed the piece so that “participants on the Web could turn on an ultraviolet light in the gallery, causing
real, biological mutations in the bacteria. This changed the biblical sentence in the bacteria. The ability to
change the sentence is a symbolic gesture: it means that we do not accept its meaning in the form we inherited
it, and that new meanings emerge as we seek to change it.”29 He insisted that he had chosen Morse code
!"#$%&"'()$&(*+"(,-&*(".$/01"(23 (*+"(%&"(23 (-$452*"1"6-$0+7'(5*(-"0-"&"8*&(*+"(4$98(23 (*+"(5832-/$*528($6":*+"(
genesis of global communication.”30 He could also have added that he was true to one of the original insights at
*+"(2-5658&(23 (/21"#%1$-(!521267'(*+$*(23 (;-958(<#+-=4586"-(9+2(,-&*(58*%5*"4(*+$*()*+"(#+-2/2&2/"(#28*$58&(
in some kind of code-script the entire pattern of the individual’s future development and of its functioning in
the mature state.”31
So in this piece at least, it is obvious that the new or second Genesis is (also) the genesis of a new age, i.e. of the
new kind of capitalism that we have dubbed, after D+G, capitalism of the fourth kind. Under this renewed reign
of the Nexum, artists still have to demonstrate how they can escape the rigors of what the theoreticians of the
Frankfurt school had called “integration” and that we can now more aptly call recycling. From the days of the
latest short-lived revolution—the beautiful Spring of 1968, capitalism has shown without mercy that it can,
584""4'(-"#7#1"(5*&(,"-#"&*(#-5*5#&'(*2(*+"(0258*(*+$*(The Commentaries on The Society of the Spectacle now appears to
be the new bible of the communication VP and other advertising agencies executives.32
As D+G say, the link has become personal. To go one step further, will the human person become a link, essentially
junk? Will the evolutionary destiny of the human being boil down to the slave-subject-user-product sequence?
Recall Philip K. Dick’s premonition, relayed by William S. Burroughs and Ridley Scott in the composite work,
!22>?,1/(Blade Runner, an introduction to the capitalism of the fourth kind… Remember the character of the
geneticist, Isidore/Sebastien, whose motto is “I make friends”… Remember the response of his creature, the
android-replicant, Rach(a)el: “I am not in the business; I am the business…” If Deckard and Rachael are the
new Adam and Eve of the re-genesis of capitalism, could it be that only junk could slow their fall? Do Davis and
Kac’s artist genes qualify?
VIRAL ONTOLOGY: LOVE THY VIRUSES LIKE THYSELF

Postmodernity (human, all too human) spreads the virus of voluntary servitude, an “ecological
micro-servitude, which is everywhere the successor to totalitarian oppression” (and how
green were those nazi valleys). There is only contagion of technics and the freedom of
becoming imperceptible, invisible, and ignoble (learn to growl, burrow, and distort yourself).
Keith Ansell Pearson, Viroid Life
When Davis and Kac created so called “artist genes” and encoded them into the DNA of another life-form (be it
a bacteria, a plant or an animal), they apparently did very different things. Indeed, they used the same technique
(recombinant DNA). They both create an intermediary, a vector that molecular biologists call a “plasmid”:
a circular double-stranded DNA molecule (separate from the chromosomal DNA) capable of autonomous
replication.33 In both cases, these plasmids encoded a meaningful message for the human experimenter/artist:
a sentence of the Bible or a German rune. But their works seem to vary tremendously according to the point
of insertion of their vectors.
Davis chose to insert his vector to no phenotypical effect, and, in fact, introduced more junk into the host DNA.
By an ironic twist, the “meaningful message” that he wanted to introduce actually amounts to more junk for the
host. In other words, since this encoding does not alter the functioning of the coding DNA that it transforms,
the introduction does not result in a different protein synthesis but rather piles up with the non-coding DNA
of the host, i.e. its junk DNA. Materially speaking, the host is not altered, and this why Zaretsky speaks of an
“invisible” aesthetics. !"#$#%&"'(%)*(+,*(-./.%&"0(/.1+.23#+*(4)+5.
Kac, on the other hand, chose to insert his “artist gene” into the coding part of the DNA. In another of his
pieces, entitled Move 36, he coupled his artist gene (in this case the Cartesian cogito) with a functional gene, i.e.
a gene with a phenotypical effect:
“Move 36” makes reference to the dramatic move made by the computer called Deep Blue against
chess world champion Gary Kasparov in 1997. (…) The installation presents a chessboard made of
earth (dark squares) and white sand (light squares) in the middle of the room. There are no chess
pieces on the board. Positioned exactly where Deep Blue made its Move 36 is a plant whose genome
!"#$%&$%'()*+'+"),+-)")+(.'(+/+#%)'()0+*&)#!1#'223+4$%+(.!*+,$%56+7.)+-)")+8*)*+9:;//+<=>+($+(%'"*2'()+
Descartes’s statement: “Cogito ergo sum” (I think therefore I am) into the four bases of genetics.
7.%$8-.+-)")(!#+?$0!1#'(!$"@+(.)+2)'A)*+$4 +(.)+&2'"(*+#8%26+/"+(.)+,!20+(.)*)+2)'A)*+,$820+B)+C'(6+
The “Cartesian gene” was coupled with a gene that causes this sculptural mutation in the plant, so
that the public can see with the naked eye that the “Cartesian gene” is expressed precisely where the
curls develop and twist.34
In his piece entitled Genesis, he took yet another strategy: he enabled the on-line visitors to the installation to
voluntarily mutate the trans-coded bacteria with an interactive interface that activated an ultraviolet light. And
Adam Zaretsky seems to aptly conclude:
Instead of emphasizing a permanent, hereditary thumbprint, a sort of “artist was here” designer
organism, Genesis emphasized the continued evolution of transgenic living organisms beyond the
intentionality of the artist’s hands. Though the emphasis on codex and genetic code have their
similarities with previous transgenic works, Eduardo Kac inserts not a mythic signature of genetic
-%'41(!+ '2$")@+ B8(+ '+ 2!A!"-+ ()D(+ ,.!#.+ !*+ *8BE)#(+ ($+ )"A!%$"?)"('2+ 0)-%'0'(!$"@+ &$&82'%+ ?'"-2!"-@+
multiple re-readings and continued mutant alterity.35
Note however, that the only way for Kac to produce (i.e. to master) a visible effect is (1) in the case of Move 36,
by coupling his artist gene to a “ready-made gene”, one that is known to be functional, and (2) in the case of
Genesis, to use a mutagenic agent (i.e. UV light). Thus, in themselves, his “artist genes” do not differ essentially
from those crafted by Davis. They too are meaningful junk. Again, on an interesting new twist on the history of
art, the visible has given way to the readable, and in both cases, the aesthetic posture requires the explanatory
0!*#$8%*)+$4 +(.)+'%(!*(*6+7.)+%)'2+#3B$%-@+(.)+'%(!1#!'2+#%)'(8%)@+!*@+!"+B$(.+#'*)*+!"A!*!B2)+($+(.)+&!)#)F*+'80!)"#)G+
it is the plasmid, this virus-like entity, which is the true creation.
The status of the virus vis-à-vis the living is still problematic today. As one of us write these lines, the December
2004 edition of !"#$%&#'"()*$+#",%+*('"0*+$8(+'?!0*(+(.)+E8?B2)+!"+.!*+$41#)@+,!(.+(.!*+*!?&2)+H8)*(!$"+$"+!(*+#$A)%G+
“Are viruses alive?” On page 105, the monthly publication reproduces a 1962 statement by the French laureate
$4 +(.)+I$B)2+J%!K)+!"+?)0!#!")@+9"0%L+M,$44G+NO.)(.)%+A!%8*+$8-.(+($+B)+#$"*!0)%)0+'*+$%-'"!*?+$%+"$(+!*+'+
matter of taste.” So little has changed since the 1960s regarding this question; however, a profound change in
&)%*&)#(!A)+.'*+('5)"+&2'#)6+O.!2)+.8?'"5!"0+,'*+*('%(!"-+($+)D&)%!)"#)+!(*+1%*(+'22)-)0+%)(%$A!%'2+&'"0)?!#+
<9/P:>@+(.)+A!%8*+B)#'?)+(.)+*!()+$4 +'+48"0'?)"('2+*#!)"(!1#+#$"(%$A)%*3G+&'%'*!()+$%+*3?B!$"(+<$%@+'2()%"'(!A)23@+
both)?36
In fact, a recent Deleuzian bio-philosophical exegesis has led to the “depathologization of the virus” (Hansen)
$%@+)A)"+?$%)@+($+!(*+%)0)1"!(!$"+'*+'+driver of evolution, by genome or partial-genome fusion-acquisition (Ansell-
Pearson, Parisi, Thacker). Actually, scientists themselves have already made this point. During the unveiling of
(.)+1%*(+0%'4(+$4 +(.)+.8?'"+-)"$?)+!"+QRRS@+P'A!0+T'2(!?$%)@+4$%+!"*('"#)@+H8'2!1)0+(.)+-)"$?)+'*+N'+*)'+$4 +
reverse-transcribed DNA, with a small admixture of genes.”37 If Bruno Latour once described the biochemist
the “last of the rogue capitalists,”38 one must see in the virus, often the “object” or “tool” of the biochemist’s
*(80!)*@+(.)+1%*(+$4 +(.)+-)")(!#+#'&!('2!*(*@+'"0+!"+(.)+-)"$?!#+A!%'2+48*!$"U'#H8!*!(!$"@+(.)+)**)"(!'2+&%!"#!&2) of
genetic capitalism, this fourth phase of creative destruction (according to Schumpeter’s expression).
!"#$%%&'()%*#+#')+*',)%#$-.#$%'(/01"$%' ! ! ! !
Some of the most valuable insights of Deleuze’s biophilosophy need to be worked out against the state of
current advances in biology. Such is his notion of coding, and most importantly, of “surplus value of code.”39
!"#$%"$&'()%*$+&,-$)$."%/".0$."%$1"22"#/.3$%-*$"&%()%*($45"(*6.$%-*"67$"1 $5&%)%/".8$%-)%$96+%$+*6:*($;<=$
so well, nor only according to Margulis’s notion of endo-symbiosis (as Ansell Pearson and Parisi have done), but
also in the light of recent studies of transposons (i.e. “jumping genes, an essential part of so-called “junk DNA”)?
What if D+G’s notion of “code” encompassed more than the “mere” genetic code? How to make sure that in
our effort to question the paradigmatic notion of code still hegemonic in biological discourses, we do not bring
/.$"&6$,6/%/,)2$>)33)3*$%-*$&.?&*+%/".*($+,/*.%/9,$)++&5'%/".+$%-)%$5)@*$')6)(/35+$2)+%A40
ORGANS WITHOUT BODIES: SPARE PARTS FOR THE MACHINE OF THE

FOURTH KIND?
To deal with the possibility of cultures dying out, Hascombe started a central storehouse, where duplicates of
every strain were kept, and it was this repository of the national tissues, which had attracted my attention at
the back of the laboratory. No such collection had ever existed before, he assured me. Not a necropolis, but a
histopolis, if I may coin a word: not a cemetery, but a place of eternal growth.
Julian Huxley, The Tissue Culture King 41
So far, we have encountered one strategy to answer this question: focus on the smallest common denominator
to qualify the human nexus as a machinic becoming, i.e. the virus. Reduced to its smallest living/non-living
components, the virus, individuated code in swarms, multitude of them, in symbiotic, parasitic and/or genetic
associations. Life appears eventually as always-already-a-Nexus. And the question of the human becoming
becomes itself the site of recombinant practices which might of course displace a few frontiers (visible/
readable, for instance) but which also work according to the same logic that already was: the connective logic
of Life as a form of association. That, in the process, the symbolic turns to junk and junk to a site of potential
redemption (the fall eventually leads to the gutter, right?) should not come as a surprise… That, in the process,
the meaningful turns into the invisible (and vice versa), should not be either… Remember, Life from the start was
recast as Nexus, both relation and exploitation, as in a twisted master-and-slave dialectic: Carbon and Silicon,
Adam and Eve, Dekard and Rachel, Edison and Halaly. Who’s the slave, Where is the Master? WHO’S IN
CHARGE?
But before we come back to this most troubling question, let us see yet another strategy employed to come
to terms with it: instead of descending the phylogenic ladder (from Human to Eukaryotes and down to
Prokaryotes and else, bacteria and viruses), let us move backwards on the ontogenic staircase, from the body
to its organs, from the Body without Organs (BwO) to the Organs without Body (OwB), its obverse. These two
strategies somehow converge, or better said are two modalities of the same phenomenon, according to the old
(but basically wrong) law of biology that holds that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny (one climbs the ladder in order
to descend the stairway, or vice versaBC$D.$%-/+$'*6+'*,%/:*0$E2):"F$G/H*@$/+$6/3-%$%"$#6/%*$%-)%$%-*6*$/+$4)$%6*.(8$/.$
today’s science and technology that both makes emerge a “body in pieces” and culminates in the biogenetics
notion that “the true center of the living body is not his soul but its genetic algorithm.”42 Unsurprisingly, to shift
from one modality to the other is also a passage that current bio-artistic practices have taken.
!*6*0$#*$#/22$6*1*6$+'*,/9,)227$%"$%-*$#"6@$"1 $%-*$Tissue Culture and Art Project (TC&A hereafter), alone or in

association with Stelarc. Oron Catts and Ionat Zurr, the two artists members of TC&A consider that their work,
involving “the manipulation of living tissues outside and independent to the organism they were derived from”,
provides an alternative to the kind of manipulations practiced currently in molecular biology protocols. They
insist: “artists dealing with genetics consider the genetic code in a similar way to the digital code. As a result
the manipulation of life becomes ‘manipulation of a code’.” That is why, if their art belongs to contemporary
>/"I)6%$)+$#*$(*9.*($/%0$,).."%$>*$/.,2&(*($/.$%-*$2*++$3*.*6)2$,)%*3"67$"1 $4%6).+3*./,$)6%8$J)+$/.$%-*$#"6@$"1 $
Davis and Kac previously discussed). They add that the epistemological and ethical questions raised by their
artistic interventions are not addressed by existing discourse, because “the manipulation of tissues is visceral.”43
Indeed their work involves the production (culture) of tissues or neo-organs, and they agree that “it is about
producing body spare parts.” 44 Trained in both arts and sciences necessary to their practice, they do not ignore
the philosophical references that made us consider these spare parts as necessary components for the machine
of the fourth kind.45 And accordingly they wonder about the ethical and political consequences with these
spare parts, in which they see an instance of what they call “the Semi-Living” or “Partial Life”:
Working with the Semi-Living and Partial Life, we are confronted with the question; are we creating
!"#$%&'( )#'*( #) ( +,)&( )#'( &-.+#,$!$,#"/( 012( ,"( $%&( +#"3( $&'*4( $%&5( 6$%&( 7&*,8+,9,"3( !":( .!'$,!+( +,)&(
&"$,$,&7;(<#")'#"$($%&(9,&=&'(=,$%($%&('&!+,>!$,#"($%!$(+,)&(,7(!(<#"$,"??*(#) ($%&(:,))&'&"$(*&$!@#+,>,"3(
beings and in the transition from life to death, and from the living to the non-living. Their existence
contradicts the conventional dichotomies that govern traditional and current Western ethical
systems.46
Indeed, they come very close to an anthropomorphized version of the machine of the fourth kind, i.e. a
machine whose nexus would still be human. In order to that, they have to entertain the (paradoxical?) idea that
the body can be extended and eventually encompass the whole living world:
In the context of our work, once a fragment is taken from A BODY it becomes a part of THE BODY. The
living fragment becomes part of a higher order that engulf all living tissues, regardless of their current site.
We see it as a symbolic device that enhances the bond humans share with all living beings. The semi-living are
)'!3*&"$7(#) (A%&(BCDE("?'$?'&:(,"(7?''#3!$&(@#:5F!($&<%"#87<,&"$,G<(#"&H(A%&(+!@#'!$#'5(,7(.!'$(#) ($%&(
extended body, but the care can only be performed by a fellow living being—us, the artists.47
We shall get back to the full extent of the consequences of this posture when we shall return to the golem. But
in the meantime, let us remember that it is quite a contemporary posture, that of hylozoism:
Everything that exists, the whole of Nature is alive—it suffers and enjoys. There is no death in this
universe; what happens in the case of “death” is just that particular coordination of living elements
disintegrates, whereas Life goes on, both the Life of the Whole and the life of the elementary
<#"7$,$?&"$7(#) ('&!+,$5(012(I&(G":($%,7(.#7,$,#"()'#*(J',7$#$+&(0%,7("#$,#"(#) (7#?+(!7($%&(C"&8)#'*(#) (
the body) (…) up to the whole panoply of today’s theories, form the notion of Gaia (Earth as a living
organism) to Deleuze, the last great philosopher of the One, the “body without organs’ that thrives
in the multitude of its modalities.”48
“The bond that human share with all living beings” is TC&A’s version of the Nexus. It is both the axiom and
the result of their strategy involving “the phylogenic staircase,” our second characterization of contemporary
bio-artistic practices of the Human Nexus. But in their case, one more degree of complexity arises from the
fact that the Nexus is distributed across an interface that is also part of it: Nexus square, if you will. The nexus as
.'#<&77(,7(,":&&:(7K?!'&:(=%&"(,$(,7(@#$%($%&(*!$',-(0$%&(!'$,G<,!+(=#*@2(!":($%&()#'*(#) (+,)&($%!$(3'#=7(,"(,$H(
The embodiment of the human becoming by bio-artistic discourses and experimentations instigates a new
conception of the human body that participates in its dis/re-embodiment. This notion is central to our
?":&'7$!":,"3( #) ( @,#8!'$L( !+#"3( =,$%( :,7<#?'7&74( @,#8!'$,7$7( &"3!3&( ,"( !( 3+#@!+( '&M&<$,#"( $%!$( .!'$,<,.!$&7( ,"(
human culture which might also be anchored into the biological dogma. Simultaneously, artists experiment
with living systems, tissues or nucleic acids, and begin to challenge their given uses, purposes and meanings.
Bio-artists thus create pieces that link computational systems (hard and software) and organic matter (wetware),
sometimes creating hybrids or chimeras, monstrous or invisible (albeit readable) effects, all belonging to what
we shall call junkware.49 In so doing, they participate in the production of a body that is, both, in fact, a new
@#:5(!":(!('&<#"G3?'!$,#"(#) ($%&(#',3,"!+(0N"!$?'!+O2(@#:5H(A%?74(!'$,<?+!$,"3(0:,7<?'7,9&+5(!":(&-.&',*&"$!++52(
!"#$%%&'()%*#+#')+*',)%#$-.#$%'(/01"$%' ! ! ! !
!"#$ %&'($ )*$ )!+$ +)*,-./0$ /0!)12)/.$ &0,/*+$ 3$ /*'$ 4#$ /0#$ ,&)*,$ !&$ 2&*2#*!0/!#$ "#0#$ &*$ !"#$ /0!)12)/.$ 4&5%6$ )+$
+)5-.!/*#&-+.($7/0!)2)7/!)*,$)*$)!+$')+/0!)2-./!)&*$6&0$')+.&2/!)&*6$4)!"$!"#$*/!-0/.$%&'($/*'$)*)!)/!)*,$/$0#8#2!)&*$
&*$)!+$7&!#*!)/.$0#62&*1,-0/!)&*+9$
:&0$+&5#;$!"#$/0!)12)/.$4&5%$<=>$"#0#/?!#0@$5),"!$%#$/$5#0#$?/*!/+(;$/$'0#/5$&0$/$*),"!5/0#$+!0/),"!$?0&5$
!"#$+2)#*2#$12!)&*$)5/,)*/0(9$A&4#B#0;$4#$+"/..$0/!"#0$?&2-+$"#0#$&*$!"#$+2)#*!)12$#./%&0/!)&*$'#B#.&7#'$%($
the biologist and M. D. Henri Atlan in his book entitled !"#$%&#'()&$*+,*-.;$7-%.)+"#'$)*$C/02"$DEEF9$=+$!"#$10+!$
+2)#*!)12$%&&G$#B#0$40)!!#*$&*$!"#$/0!)12)/.$#H!#0*/.)I/!)&*$&? $!"#$0#70&'-2!)B#$&0,/*+;$=!./*$'0/4+$/$2&57.#H$
*#!4&0G$&? $0#./!)&*+$!&$J-/.)?($!")+$K5&*+!0&-+L$70&'-2!)&*;$#B#*$)? $"#$'/!#+$!"#$#5#0,#*2#$&? $!"#$/0!)12)/.$
womb with Adlous Huxley’s Brave New World9$M&*#!"#.#++;$=!./*N+$=>$')??#0+$?0&5$A-H.#(N+$12!)&*$)*$!"#$B#0($
fact that it avoids the despotic control and concentrates on the technical feasibility of the AW entangled with its
cultural trans-formations. Again, the issue at stake here is not control (and even less discipline).
According to Atlan, the feasibility of the AW requires the reproduction of the membranes and exchange
mechanisms -placenta, amniotic liquid, membranes and internal walls- that enable the natural growing
mechanisms of the embryo.50$ O-00#*!.(;$ )*$ B)!0&$ ?#0!).)I/!)&*$ /..&4+$ !"#$ /0!)12)/.$ #5%0(&N+$ ,0&4!"$ -*!).$ )!+$
%./+!&2(+!#$7"/+#3'-0)*,$)!+$10+!$1B#$'/(+$&? $.)?#9$P"#$20-2)/.$5&5#*!$/0)+#+$/!$!"#$+)H!"$'/($4"#*$!"#$#5%0(&$
starts to create its own life milieu by initiating its nidation and individuation processes. This stage has not yet
%##*$/22&57.)+"#'$/0!)12)/..($'-#$!&$!"#$#H!0#5#$')?12-.!($&? $0#70&'-2)*,$/$B)/%.#$7./2#*!/9$A&4#B#0;$/!$!"#$
24th week, the “body” in gestation becomes a viable fetus, and its development can again be ensured in an
“extra-corporeal” environment. The possibility of an in extenso extra-corporeal gestation would require the
development of a full AW allowing gestation during the missing part between today’s in vitro techniques and
incubators, between the six day and the twenty-fourth week of the intra-uterine life of the embryo. Atlan argues
that this will be a reality in about 50 to 100 years.51
Atlan describes the AW as an artifact: a manufactured object obtained by hijacking the laws of life.52 However,
?&0$ -+;$ !"#$ =>$ &B#08&4+$ !")+$ *&!)&*Q$ 4#$ 2&*2#)B#$ &? $ )!$ )*$ )!+$ ,#05)*/.$ &7#0/!)&*;$ )9#9$ +)5-.!/*#&-+.($ )*$ )!+$
discursive creation and technical extrapolation. Its actualisation does not alone emerge from the simple
production of technical artefacts. As a matter of fact, the experimental techniques involved in the emergence
&? $!"#$=>$)*?0/+!0-2!-0#$)*!#0/2!+$4)!"$2&*!#57&0/0($%)&#!")2+$')+2&-0+#+$/*'$#*,/,#$%&!"$!"#$2&*1,-0/!)&*$
/*'$0#62&*1,-0/!)&*$&? $!"#$,#*#0/!)B#$?&05/!$&? $!"#$/0!#?/2!9$A#*2#;$#H7#0)5#*!/!)&*$20#/!#+$!"#$?&05/!$%-!$)+$
also formatted in return by the tropes of these discourses in what we have called the metaphormatting process.
P")+$ ')+2&-0+#6#H7#0)5#*!/!)&*$ 20#/!#+$ /$ 2&*R-*2!)&*;$ /*$ )*!#0?/2#;$ /*'$ '0/4+$ /*$ /0!6)12)/.$ .)?#$ #J-/!)&*Q$ /$
2-.!-0#$!"/!$%#2&5#+$*/!-0/.$2&*8/!#'$4)!"$/$*/!-0#$!"/!$%#2&5#+$2-.!-0/.$/22&0')*,$!&$/*$/0!)12)/.$&7#0/!)&*9$
A#0#$/,/)*$%)&6/0!)+!+$70&B)'#$/$!#05$&? $7/++/,#9$P"#$P)++-#$S$O-.!-0#$=0!<)12)/.@$>&5%$70&R#2!;$?&0$)*+!/*2#;$
2&*2#*!0/!#$&*$!"#$-!).)+/!)&*$&? $%)&0#/2!&0+$/*'$&-,"!$!&$%#$7#02#)B#'$/+$/$2-00#*!$5&'#.$?&0$!"#$=0!)12)/.$
Womb, and the initiator of the deployment of its corporealization. In doing so, they give or/and create
meaning from which emerge a new contextualization of the ongoing science of the AW. Thus, for us, bio-artists
%#2&5#$'#+),*#0+$&? $!"#$/0!)12)/.$4&5%;$)*$!"#$?&05$&? $!"#$%)&0#/2!&0;$/*$#H7#0)5#*!/.$+(+!#5$#5-./!)*,$!"#$
conditions of the natural body (37°C, 5% CO2). As Catts and Zurr argue, the bioreactor is characterized by the
same functions as the uterus: “conceptually, a bioreactor (in conjunction with the semi-living sculptures growing
)*+)'#$)!@$0#70#+#*!+$/*$/0!)12)/.$T.)?#$,)B)*,N$/*'$5/)*!/)*)*,$?&02#9L$53
=+$ /$ 2&62&*+!0-2!#'$ /0!)?/2!$ <')+2-0+)B#;$ +2)#*!)12$ /*'$ /0!)+!)2@;$ !"#$ =>$ 2&5#$ /.&*,$ )*$ /$ !"0##?&.'$ 4/(Q$ <U@$
)*$!"#$/%+!0/2!$70&2#++$&? $!"#$/0!)12)/.$0#70&'-2!)&*$&? $/$*/!-0/.$5&'#.V$<D@$)*$!"#$2&*20#!#$/.%#)!$')+2-0+)B#$
process of the actualization of its alleged ethical consequences, and (3) in the concrete process of the bio-
artistic experimentation on the bioreactor which actually bridges the two previous processes. The bioreactor
architecture initiates a corporeal disruption between the inside and the outside, and reveals a higher power of
!"#$M#H-+;$&*$%&!"$+)'#+$&? $!"#$)*!#0?/2#$!"/!$)!$/0!)12)/..($20#/!#+Q$&0,/*$/*'$5/!0)H;$4&0.'$/*'$"-5/*;$5&!"#0$
and son, Father and son, one Nexus (talk about panpsychism!).
BRAVE NEW GOLEM: OVERMAN, REDUX
!"#$%$"&%'(%)(*+,-%."#$%$"&%'(%/0,/123(3-%+4%"#%"4%.5"##(,%674+1&%89:;<=;%#$02%$+4#%>05&(3%&(%
before and behind.
Midrash Abkir
!(%$+?(%1(>#%.+"#",*%#$(%@*25(%0> %#$(%4(5?+,#-%#$"4%4(/0,3%"&+*(%0> %#$(%+,350"3A%B#%"4%,0.%#"&(%>05%$"&%#0%/0&(%

back (with a vengeance). But behind the servant android lures the Golem of legend, and that, we feel, is dead
end, because, again, IT IS NOT ABOUT CONTROL, today’s Nexus is beyond control. Or more exactly, one
has to realize that the servant Golem is but one side of the Golem, its emanation on only one plane of his two
constitutive planes:
The Golem has always existed on two quite separate planes. The one was the plane of ecstatic
(CD(5"(,/(%.$(5(%#$(%@*25(%0> %/1+E-%",>24(3%."#$%+11%#$04(%5+3"+#"0,4%0> %#$(%$2&+,%&",3-%.$"/$%+5(%
#$(%/0&)",+#"0,4%0> %#$(%+1D$+)(#-%)(/+&(%+1"?(%>05%#$(%F((#",*%&0&(,#%0> %(/4#+4E-%)2#%,0#%)(E0,3%
it. The other was the legendary plane where Jewish folk tradition, having heard of the Kabbalistic
speculations on the spiritual plane, translated them into down-to-earth tales and traditions (...) The
Golem, instead of being a spiritual experience of man, became a technical servant of man’s needs,
controlled by him in an uneasy and precarious equilibrium.54
It is to this second plane of the ecstatic experience that we would like to draw your attention now. Sonya
Rapoport, in her redemption of Eduardo Kac’s Genesis gene, has caught a glimpse of this plane. Her web
work entitled “Redeeming the Gene, Molding the Golem, Folding the Protein,”55 is a mythic parody that
challenges Kac’s work with the creation of a golem, brought to life according to the Jewish esoteric practices
of Kabbalah. According to Rapoport, Kac’s artist gene needs redemption because of the way it was produced,
or more accurately because of the languages (codes) of his making: Kac is guilty of having used the King
James translation of the Bible (rather than the Hebrew text of the Torah) and Morse’s code (and Morse was
pro-slavery). At the opposite, her golem is a positive force, brought to life by two women (Eve, of course, and
her Gnostic alter-ego, Lilith, “who irritated the Lord of Creation by demanding equal rights” (Scholem)). In
the end, Kac is redeemed, and in one of the last screens, his face replaced with that of Adam Kadmon, the
75"&053"+1%G+,%0> %H25"+,"/%I+))+1+$A%J05-%E02%4((-%>05%H25"+-%K3+&%.+4%#."/(%+%*01(&;%'(%.+4%@54#%+%*"*+,#"/%
golem (Adam Kadmon) and second an ordinary golem (Adam Rishon):
Man, as he was before his fall, is conceived as a cosmic being which contains the whole world in
"#4(1> %+,3%.$04(%4#+#"0,%"4%42D(5"05%(?(,%#0%#$+#%0> %G(#+#50,-%#$(%@54#%0> %#$(%+,*(14A%Adam Ha-Rishon,
the Adam of the Bible, corresponds on the anthropological plane to Adam Kadmon, the ontological
primary man. Evidently the human and the mystical man are closely related to each other; their
structure is the same, and to use Vital’s own word, the one is the clothing and the veil of the other.
Here we have also the explanation of the connection between man’s fall and the cosmic process,
between morality and physics. Since Adam was truly, and not metaphorically, all-embracing, his fall
was bound likewise to drag down and affect everything, not merely metaphorically but really. The
drama of Adam Kadmon on the theosophical plan is repeated, and paralleled by that of Adam Rishon.56
By her use of the Lurianic Kabbalah (for some other choices were indeed possible), Rapoport reinforces the
Gnostic emphasis of her piece, but she also gives us a very contemporary key to unlock the Nexus. Today’s Human
Nexus, and his associated Second Genesis, is the Eternal Return of the Primordial ManA%K4%",%#$(%@54#%#"&(%+502,3-%#$(%
question raised is that of his freedom.
J05% #.(,#E% E(+54% +#% 1(+4#-% .(% $+?(% $(+53% +)02#% ,+,0&+/$",(4-% +5#"@/"+1% ",#(11"*(,/(4-% +5#"@/"+1% >05&4% 0> % 1">(A%
J05%0?(5%#.(,#E%E(+54%,0.%40&(%$2&+,%)(",*4%$+?(%)((,%)24E%)2"13",*%#$(&A%B,%#$(%D+4#%@>#E%E(+54%.(%$+?(%
3(4/5")(3%#$(%4#52/#25(%0> %LMK-%+,3%3(/03(3%#$(%*(,0&(%)+4(%)E%)+4(A%'2&+,%)(",*4-%F"(4-%&"/(%+,3%40&(%
!"#$%%&'()%*#+#')+*',)%#$-.#$%'(/01"$%' ! ! ! !
!"#$%&'#(&)"!&"*+,-'../&0'1'23'%(0457
5(#(&-%&"6#&76(%1-")8&9:'1&3(,"$(%&"* &(1:-,%&;&-*<&'%&="6,'6.1&:'0&-1<&(1:-,%&-%&1:(&#(>(,1(0&?#',1-,(&"* &*#((0"$&

;&!:()&!(&:'@(&'.#('0/&.(*1&3(:-)0&1:(&(#'&"* &$'%%2?#"06,1-")&"* &,'0'@(#%&0(,.'#(0&3/&5(-0(AA(#<&')0&()1(#(0&
the era of mass-production of genetic goylemesB&=-#%1&%1(?%<&3'3/2%1(?%&-)&1:(&%."!&?#",(%%&"* &,"$$"0-+,'1-")&
of Man™...
The process of genetically modifying an human being and growing it out of “enriched” stem cells will, in
'..& .-C(.-:""0<& 3(& 0(@(."?(0& 1"& %,-()1-+,& %6,,(%%& -)& 1:(& )(D1& 1!()1/2+@(& /('#%& "#& %"<& !:'1& !(& 6%(0& 1"& ,'..& '&
generation. Some groups, sects or laboratories have already started talking about their attempts to clone a
whole human being. A guy alone in his silicone garage has effectively done some species changing genetic
manipulations (on Mandeville’s bees). The French parliament has already invented the legal notion of a crime
against the species, super-seeding the crime against humanity, and therefore acknowledging that the crime has
already began. By the time that my son (or your daugther or their sons and daughters it doesn’t matter) will take
to reach their reproductive potential, there might be machines to produce super babies (and, no doubt, under-
babies). In the meantime, our kids will play with their brand-new DNA sequencers for children under 10 years
old. So, what do you think about freedom now?
9-1:&E.'@"F&G-H(C, we agree only on this, no hyphen-ethics, just ethics. There is no biogenetic ethical question
per se8&1:(&(1:-,'.&76(%1-")&#($'-)%&1:(&%'$(&'.3(-1&-)&)(!&;&')0&?"1()1-'../&(D1#($(./&,#6,-'.&;&$"0'.-1-(%4&E"&
today’s question is still what do you do with your freedom?&I)0&G-H(C&-%&#-A:1&-)0((0&-)&#'-%-)A&1:(&76(%1-")&"* &-1%&
modality: how do these new conditions compel us to transform and reinvent the very notions of freedom, autonomy, and ethical
responsibility?58&J:(&#(%1&"* &G-H(CK%&0(@(."?$()1<&?"%16#-)A&%"2,'..(0&L'1:".-,&,"6)1(#'#A6$()1%&1"&3(11(#&0-%?(.&
them, we are sorry to say, however, is just good for scrap: it leads unfortunately, through psycho-analysis, to the
#(@(.'1-")&1:'1&!(&!(#(&)(@(#&*#((&-)&1:(&+#%1&?.',(4&M-1:(#&G-H(C&:'%&)"1&:('#0&"* &1:(&*'..&"#&:(&-%&76-1(&:'??/&
1"&$'C(&-1&.'%14&N)0((0&:(&$6%1&3(&!:()&:(&?#"?"%(%&1"&+)-%:&1:(&M).-A:1$()1&?#"F(,1&O:-%&,'?-1'.%P&')0&Q*".."!&
1:(&."A-,&"* &%,-(),(&1"&1:(&()0<R&Q!'A-)A&1:'1&'&)(!&+A6#(&"* &*#((0"$&!-..&($(#A(4R59
Reading these lines, I was reminded of the end of the Appendix to Foucault, where Deleuze too makes the wager
of “the advent of a new form,” in relation to the same new modalities: the overman, neither human nor God,
“which it is hoped, will not prove worse than its previous two forms.”60 There is hope in the overhuman, this
form that stems from a new play of forces located outside of the human, in the revenge of silicon over carbon,
"* &1:(&A()(1-,&,"$?")()1%&"@(#&1:(&"#A')-%$<&"* &1:(&'A#'$$'1-,'.-1-(%&"@(#&1:(&%-A)-+(#&O-3-04P4&S61%-0(&"* &
the human?
In which ways did silicon supersede carbon? How did the genetic components supersede the organism? On
their own? Did the sands suddenly express a new life-force? No no no: man is still in charge, and overman is
the compound form of forces in man with these new forces. Overman is the man taking charge of the animals,
of the rocks (the inorganic life of silicon), of the being of language. Deleuze wrote, following Rimbaud, “man
!:"&-%&(@()&-)&,:'#A(&"* &1:(&')-$'.%&O'&,"0(&1:'1&,')&,'?16#(&&*#'A$()1%&*#"$&"1:(#&,"0(%4&TUVP.&Tl’homme chargé
des animaux même (un code qui peut capturer d’autres codes.VW61
X(-1:&I)%(..&Y('#%")&-%&#-A:1&1"&?"-)1&3',C&1"&1:(&$'A)-+,()1&*"#$6.'&"* &Anti-Oedipus, “man as the being who

is in intimate contact with the profound life of all forms and all types of beings, who is responsible for even the
stars and animal life (...) the eternal custodian of the machines of the universe.”62 But he follows the original
English translation of “chargé” by “responsible.” In Anti-Oedipus too, however, Deleuze and Guattari wrote
“chargé” as if something or somebody (God, this previous form?) had loaded the human being with the stars
and the animals63, had put man in charge of the machines of the universe as a “custodian” (un préposé). Man is
held responsible for the earth, like a pré-posé, with the machines of the universe in his custody, a kind of super-
Z"':&O"#&'&*#((2>"'1-)A&'%%P4&
All here is in the passive form, cryptic allusion to the rainbow of the covenant: “this is the token of the covenant
which I make between Me and you and every living creature that is with you for perpetual generations: I have
set my Bow in the cloud, and it shall be a token of a covenant between me and the earth” (Gen. 9: 12-13). Note
this: the covenant is with the earth, and all that is made of it, the living creatures, and man is its custodian, not
for all eternity (as Deleuze and Guattari have it), but for perpetuity.64
Note also that in this version of the story, man was never in charge of the rocks and stars, but only of what he
gave name to (Gen. 2: 19), of what was “delivered into his hands,” more bluntly, of what he can eat (Gen. 9:
2-3). Deleuze and Guattari thus extrapolated the original story, giving charge to man of all the rocks and stars,
whose sole custody was that of the angels, so far. No more need for Angels, man has become a star-eater, “has
plugged an organ-machine into an energy machine, a tree into his body, a breast into his mouth, the sun into
his asshole.”65
In other words: when did man develop an appetite for the inorganic? When did man start consuming matter
as such, not only living matter (albeit deprived of its running blood)? When did man start to watch over the
celestial spheres? Forget about the “start”, the origin, and let me rephrase the question in a better Deleuzian
fashion: what about the starworm-becoming of man? Do you need to be schizophrenic to know the starworm
in you? Do you feel the sunshine in your ass-hole?66
What do you!"#$%&!"#'"!()*!'+,!-'.,!)/0!'%(1'(23!4'",+0!,'+"#0!1$%.!'%.!5+,3!6"*// !.+,'-2!'+,!-'.,!)/ 3!

Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, salts and metals? Star dust? From the biotic soup of a preindividual
magma, indifferentiated and monophased? The genes of your ancestors plus chance? Hasard et nécéssité? Many
voices talking in your head?
Are these mutually exclusive options? May we risk a synthesis?
78,+-'%!9"+'%2#*-'%0!,:"+);$'%0!<(=)+>0!+$=);*%&0!%'-,!()*+!=+'%.?@!<*2").$'%!)/ !"#,!-'<#$%,2!)/ !"#,!

/)*+!&$%.20!#(=+$.!<'+=)%A2$B$<)%!/)+-!)/ !B$/,!)/ !"#,!/*"*+,0!)+>'%$C$%>!D'1B,22B(!"#,!conjunktions of decoded
singularities (Deleuze and Guattari), group individual twice dephased and open to the multitudes of his milieux
(Simondon). Overman, master of DNA, breeder of men (Sloterdijk, after Nietzsche and Heidegger). Overman,
the next phase of the becoming-starworm of man. Overman, the next proper name of the autogeddon,
equipped with the best logic science can provide. To the end! Let’s get into abstract sex,67 let’s go capture other
codes... Let there be monsters and chimeras, parthenogenetic babies and clones... Let the better over(wo)man
win!
CONCLUSION: HARDWARE, SOFTWARE, WETWARE AND JUNKWARE
Again, if we had to pick a model for the human becoming, we would pick the eternal return. Today’s Eve looks
and feel like our ancestor, after all, and the new Adam is but another All-embracing Golem of this day and age.
We are allegedly now on the threshold of the time of shape-shifters, when the human species is supposed to
enter the phase of the production of its own metamorphosis. Our cultural background is littered with promises
and prophecies, and the stakes are high for whom to speak the louder, for whom to capture the best the gloom
and doom, or alternatively, the hopes and dreams, of a humanity left shaking by the twentieth century. Those,
who, today, try to make us believe that they will soon be able to synthesize a whole human being from a bunch
of chemicals plus information, agree in principle with those who ban reproductive cloning and make it “a
crime against the species.” !"#$%&"'()%)*$%+,-$#)-.,%/0$1-+$+%"2 %)*$%3*"4$%-++'$. All feel that preventing or aiming at the
cloning of an individual considered genetically identical to another human being will not hinder, but rather will
facilitate the cloning of parts, sequences, cells or organs of human beings. On one side, the ban of reproductive
cloning provides the moral grounds that reassure the masses about the seriousness and integrity of those in
!"#$%%&'()%*#+#')+*',)%#$-.#$%'(/01"$%' ! ! ! !
charge, while on the other hand, the cultural folklore about human clones reinforces the feeling that we are—or
soon will be—able to do it.68!!"#!$%&'!()*+*,!&'+!)-+#.)!/%0!&'+!10%-0+**23+!(%44%.25()&2%#!%/ !'64)#!*7#&'+&2(!
matter is further advanced and the reign of the living money made nearer.
"#!&'+!8+*&,!9+!)0+!*%:.!+3+07.)7!&'+!10%42*+*!%/ !)!$+&&+0!'+):&'!&')#;*!&%!$2%&+('#%:%-2():!5<+*,!)&!&'+!+<)(&!
same time that we witness the slow crumbling of the Welfare State, and most of all of its promises for universal
health care. In fact we slowly enter the era of the mass production of undead beings, partial life, zombies and
other goleymes. The mass production of cadavers, to quote Heidegger, an expert in this notion, is slowly but
surely being replaced by the mass production of undead beings. By this we mean more than a horror/science
5(&2%#!&0%1+!%/ !0'+&%02():!1%9+0!%3+0!&'+!24)-2#)&2%#,!$6&!=62&+!:2&+0)::7!&'+!10%.6(&2%#!%/ !:232#-!+#&2&2+*!/0%4!
human origins, but with the legal and cultural status of dead matter. Sequence, genes, cells, and organs are the
new commodities, the bright future for the extension of the Market. If today’s global economy is under the spell
of “One Market Under God” (Thomas Frank), genes sequences and other living codes will be its junk bonds,
objects of the new risky and high reward market of a new form of capitalism, that we dubbed capitalism of
the fourth kind.
For this bright future of a capitalism of the fourth kind to live up to its alleged potential, it is necessary that
the standard model of molecular biology, centered on Crick’s central dogma and the ubiquitous cybernetic
metaphor of a world made of information, holds. One MUST BELIEVE that DNA’s only use or purpose is to
encode the synthesis of protein, that it is dead memory (ROM-DNA). One MUST ALLOW that 98.5% of its
bases, with no recognized value for the protein synthesis, are good for evolution’s trashcan. Junk DNA MUST
$+!6#.+0*&%%.!)*!*+:5*'!1)0)*2&+,!>&'+!?:&24)&+!1)0)*2&+@A
Richard Dawkins and the late Francis Crick, the heroes of the neo-Darwinian synthesis, incarnate more than
anybody else the decision that it MUST be so. They took this decision at the end of the 1970s: junk DNA, this
already inappropriate name that often tells more about ignorance rather than knowledge, was then equated to
*+:5*'!BCD@
Since then, for a quarter of a century, the Empire of Living Money has progressed everywhere. Dolly had the
time to be born and die (of premature senescence). ONE can now sell you your eternal cat, at the “reasonable”
price tag of US$ 50,000 per copy.69
MAN IS DEAD, LONG LIVES THE NEXUS!
THIERRY BARDINI!2*!)!/6::!10%/+**%0!2#!&'+!B+1)0&4+#&!%/ !E%446#2()&2%#!)&!&'+!?#23+0*2&F!.+!

G%#&0F):,!E)#).),!9'+0+!'+!(%H.20+(&*!&'+!8%0;*'%1!2#!I).2():!J41202(2*4!92&'!K02)#!G)**642@!
His new book Junkware is forthcoming with the University of Minnesota Press.
MARIE-PIER BOUCHER is a PhD student in the department of Art, Art History and Visual Studies
at Duke University. Her work focuses on the concretization/ individuation process of (bio)technical
objects. She is currently investigating the potential for the integration of biological materials and
processes into architecture to facilitate the emergence of living techniques (techniques du faire vivant). In
2006, she was a researcher in residence at SymbioticA: The Art and Science Collaborative Research Laboratory
based at the University of Western Australia. She has presented her work in multiple venues across
Canada, Australia, England, Spain and the Netherlands.
NOTES
1. Donna Haraway, Cyborgs and Symbionts. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1993, xviii.
2.!"#$$%&!'%$%()%!*+,!-.$#/!"(*00*1#2!A Thousand Plateaus. Trans. Brian Massumi. London: Athlone Press, 1987, 456-457.
3. http://www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/dictionary?book=Dictionary&va=nexus
4. http://www.bartleby.com/61/7/N0090700.html
5. http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/IE338.html
6. http://www.etymonline.com/j1etym.htm
7. http://www.bootlegbooks.com/Reference/PhraseAndFable/data/693.html
8. http://www.geocities.com/indoeurop/project/ phonetics/word58.html
9.!"#$$%&!'%$%()%2!345&06&71#80(9!&(1!$%&!&57#.0.&!,%!75+01:$%;<!Pourparlers;!4*1#&=!>#+(#02!?@@ABCAAD!E?@FAG2!CHA6CHI;!
10. This story provided the inspiration for Riddley Scott’s 1979 movie Alien;! -#1&0! (+*7J+5K$%,L%,2! 0M%! #+N(%+7%! L50!
1%75L+#)%,!*O0%1!P*+!Q5L0!R$%,!*!$*K&(#0!7$*#9#+L!8$*L#*1#&9;!SM%!$*K&(#0!K*&!&%00$%,!5(0!5O !75(102!*+,!P*+!Q5L0!L50!T50M!*+!
undisclosed sum of money and a presence in the credits of the movie.
11. A. E. van Vogt, The Voyage of the Space Beagle. New York: McMillan, 1992, 60.
12. Alfred Korzybski, Science and Sanity: An Introduction to Non-Aristotelian Systems and General Semantics. International Non-
U1#&050%$#*+!V#T1*1W!4(T$#&M#+L!X598*+W=!V*J%P#$$%2!XS2!?@YF!E?@DDG2!i.
13. Alfred North Whitehead, Process and Reality: An Essay in Cosmology. Z%K![51J=!SM%!-1%%!41%&&2!?@IF!E?@C@G2!CA;
14. Whitehead, Process and Reality, 18.
15. Whitehead, Process and Reality, 20.
16. This seems very close to William James’ program for “radical empiricism”, which states that “relations that connect experiences
must themselves be experienced relations, and any kind of relation experienced must be accounted as “real” as anything else in the system” (William
James, Essays in Radical Empiricism;!'5P%12!Z%K![51J2!CAAD!E?@?CG2!CD2!%98M*&#&!#+!0M%!51#L#+*$\;
17. “NEXUM - Rom. civ. law. Viewed as to its object and legal effect, nexum was either the transfer of the ownership of a thing
or the transfer of a thing to a creditor as a security (...) The person who became nexus by the effect of a nexum placed himself
in a servile condition, not becoming a slave, his ingenuitas being only in suspense, and was said nexum inire.” Entry “Nexum,” by
George Long, M.A., Fellow of Trinity College, pp. 795-798 of William Smith, D.C.L., LL.D.: A Dictionary of Greek and Roman
Antiquities. John Murray: London, 1875.
http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Nexum.html
18. ““Mancipium” or mancipation was a formal public ceremony required for recognition of conveyance in “title” of legal
ownership to a thing (mancipatio — taking in hand). The ceremony included striking a scale with a copper ingot as a token of
sale. Without this ancient ritual, no exchange had the sanction or protection of the law.” Entry mancipium, by George Long,
M.A., Fellow of Trinity College, pp. 727-728 of William Smith, D.C.L., LL.D.: A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. John
Murray, London, 1875.
http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Mancipium.html
19. “Unto the woman he said, I will greatly multiply thy sorrow and thy conception; in sorrow thou shalt bring forth children;
*+,!0MW!,%&#1%!E&M*$$!T%G!05!0MW!M(&T*+,2!*+,!M%!&M*$$!1($%!5P%1!0M%%;!U+,!(+05!U,*9!M%!&*#,2!]%7*(&%!0M5(!M*&0!M%*1J%+%,!
(+05!0M%!P5#7%!5O !0MW!K#O%2!*+,!M*&0!%*0%+!5O !0M%!01%%2!5O !KM#7M!^!7599*+,%,!0M%%2!&*W#+L2!SM5(!&M*$0!+50!%*0!5O !#0=!7(1&%,!E#&G!
0M%!L15(+,!O51!0MW!&*J%_!#+!&5115K!&M*$0!0M5(!%*0!E5OG!#0!*$$!0M%!,*W&!5O !0MW!$#O%_!SM51+&!*$&5!*+,!0M#&0$%&!&M*$$!#0!T1#+L!O510M!05!
0M%%_!*+,!0M5(!&M*$0!%*0!0M%!M%1T!5O !0M%!R%$,_!^+!0M%!&K%*0!5O !0MW!O*7%!&M*$0!0M5(!%*0!T1%*,2!0#$$!0M5(!1%0(1+!(+05!0M%!L15(+,_!
O51!5(0!5O !#0!K*&0!0M5(!0*J%+=!O51!,(&0!0M5(!E*10G2!*+,!(+05!,(&0!&M*$0!0M5(!1%0(1+;<!Genesis, 3: 17-19.
20. Michael Andermatt, “U10#R7#*$!V#O%!*+,!`59*+0#7!]1#,%&<2!#+!Romantic Prose Fiction, a volume in the ICLA (International
Comparative Literature Association) Comparative Literary History Series. Editors: Gerald Gillespie (Stanford), Manfred
Engel (Hagen), Bernard Dieterle (TU Berlin). http://homepage.sunrise.ch/mysunrise/mandermatt/publikation6.html. The
5P%1*$$!"+5&0#7!N*P51!5O !0M%!*+,15#,2!0M#&!,%9#(1L#7!815a%702!#&!7$%*1!O159!0M%!&0*10;!-512!*&!0M%!"+5&0#7!"5&8%$!5O !SM59*&!
had it, “(15) Yeshua said, When you see one not born of woman, fall on your faces and worship. That is your Father.” In The
Gnostic Bible. Ed. Willis Barnstone & Marvin Meyer. Boston, Shambhala, 2003, 49.
21.!U$$!0M%&%!b(50%&!759%!O159!Q%1%+*!c(+#d&!3XWT51L!75+RL(1*0#5+&!*&!O519*0#5+&!5O !e&%$O\71%*0#5+!#+!0M%!O*+0*&W!&8*7%!5O !
0%7M+5$5L#7*$!71%*0#5+!e^\=!f$,!*+,!+%K!9W0M5$5L#%&!5O !*10#R7#*$!M(9*+&<!EK%T!&#0%!1%01#%P%,!-%T1(*1W!CA2!CCAgG!*P*#$*T$%!5+!
line at http://www.medienkunstnetz.de/themes/cyborg_bodies/mythical_bodies_I/1/
22. Remy de Gourmont, Le livre des masques. Portraits symbolistes, gloses et documents sur les écrivains d’hier et d’aujourd’hui. Tome 1. Paris:
!"#$%%&'()%*#+#')+*',)%#$-.#$%'(/01"$%' ! ! ! !
!"#$%&%'()'*+,-#)-,'(,'.-/0#,12'34562'478569
23. http://www.artroca.com/art_folder/eve2.html
24. Critical Art Ensemble, Cult of the New Eve position paper2':;,<'=$&,>'-,&-,$?,('.,<-)/-@'AB2'ABB62'"0C$0,'/&'http://www.
critical-art.net/biotech/cone/
25. “Microvenus - art form using genetic sequences and binary code” Art Journal, 55:1, Spring,1996, 70-75, http://www.
D0(/-&$#C,=9#"EFGF/-&$#C,=FE$HEBIAJF$=H03H?JJF/$H34A55J56
26. “The Mutagenic Arts”, CIAC’s Electronic Magazine, 23, Fall 2005 http://www.ciac.ca/magazine/archives/no_23/en/
index.html
27. Villiers wrote: ”Far from suppressing the love towards these spouses,--so necessary (until further notice, that is) to the
G,-G,&)$&@'"K '")-'-/#,288'L'G-"G"=,'$0=&,/(2'&"'/==)-,2'-,/KD-E'/0('M)/-/0&,,'$&='()-/&$"02'$0&,M-$&@'/0('E/&,-$/C'$0&,-,=&=2'
with the innocent help of thousands and thousands of marvelous simulacra—where beautiful mistresses deceiving, but now
harmless, will become a nature made more perfect by Science, and whose healthy adjunction will attenuate, at least, the
prejudices that carry with them always, after all, your hypocritical conjugal weaknesses. So, I, ‘the Sorcerer of Menlo Park’,
as I am called here, I come to offer to human beings of this evolved and new times,--to my fellows in Actualism, at last!—to
prefer henceforth to the lying, mediocre and always changing Reality a positive, prestigious and always faithful Illusion.”
28. http://www.ekac.org/transgenicindex.html
29. http://www.ekac.org/transgenicindex.html
30. “Eduardo Kac’s Genesis: Biotechnology Between the Verbal, the Visual, the Auditory, and the Tactile” Installation at
the Julia Friedman Gallery, Chicago, U.S.A, Reviewed by Simone Osthoff, Assistant Professor Art Criticism, School of
Visual Arts, Penn State University, U.S.A.
Originally published in Leonardo Digital Reviews, October 2001. http://mitpress2.mit.edu/e-journals/Leonardo/reviews/
oct2001/ex_GENESIS_osthoff.html. Retrieved February 20, 2006, available at N&&GOFF;;;9,P/#9"-MF"=&N"KQ(-9N&EC
31. Erwin Schrödinger, What Is Life?'R/E<-$(M,O'R/E<-$(M,'S0$?,-=$&@'T-,==2'355A':35II>2'A39
32. About this tragic phenomenon, one will consult with great advantage Thomas Frank’s The Conquest of Cool (University of
Chicago Press, 1997), and/or Joseph Heath and Andrew Potter’s The Rebel Sell (Toronto, HarperCollins, 2004).
33. “Once the DNA representing the Microvenus was chemically synthesized and converted into a form that can be inserted
into a cell, the next step was to introduce this DNA into a kind of biological “shipping carton” that scientists usually refer
to as a “vector.”(4) A vector in this sense is typically a viruslike entity that is not able to “live” autonomously but that can be
absorbed through cell membranes and thus enter and reproduce inside living cells.” (Davis, “Microvenus,” n. 15).
34. http://www.ekac.org/move36.html
35. “The mutagenic arts,” n. 16.
36. See Thierry Bardini, “Hypervirus: A Clinical Report”, at http://www.ctheory.net, for further elaboration of the
apparition of the trope of the virus in so-called “post-modern” culture.
37. Renato Dulbecco, Howard Martin Temin and David Baltimore won the Nobel Prize in medicine in 1975 for “their
discovery concerning the interactions between the viruses of cancerous tumours and the genetic material of the cells.”
U/C&$E"-,V=';"-P'#,0&,-,('"0'&N,'#N/-/#&,-$W/&$"0'"K '&N,'-,?,-=,8&-/0=#-$G&/=,2'/0',0W@E,'=G,#$D#'&"'?$-/C'XYZ'&N/&'/CC";='
it to integrate their genes into the cell’s DNA. See http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1975/baltimore-
interview.html
38. Bruno Latour, We Have Never Been Modern. London: Harvester Wheatsheef, 1993, 100-129.
39. “A code is inseparable from a process of decoding that is inherent to it.... There is no genetics without “genetic drift.” The
modern theory of mutations has clearly demonstrated that a code, which necessarily relates to a population, has an essential
margin of decoding: not only does every code have supplements capable of free variation, but a single segment may be copied
twice, the second copy left free for variation. In addition, fragments of code may be transferred from the cells of one species
to those of another, Man and Mouse, Monkey and Cat, by viruses or through other procedures. This involves not translation
between codes (viruses are not translators) but a singular phenomenon we call surplus value of code, or side-communication.
“ (Deleuze and Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus, 53)
40. Keith Ansell Pearson suggests that D+G hold a kind of “molecular Darwinism: “the suggestion is that one can only
understand a molar population such as a species, in terms of a different kind of population, a molecular one, which is the
subject of the effects of, and changes in, coding.” Germinal Life: The Difference and Repetition of Deleuze (Routledge: London, 1999,
159.) This, however, sounds too close to Richard Dawkins’s version of neo-Darwinism not to raise my suspicion. For it was
E"=&C@'[/;P$0=V='$(,/\&N,'=,CD=N'M,0,\&N/&'R-$#P'/0('N$='#"CC,/M),=')=,('&"'#C"=,'&N,'E,&/GN"-$#'G,-K"-E/&$?$&@'"K '&N,'
initial cybernetic metaphor of molecular biology: by referring to parts of DNA whose only function was its “replication” (i.e.
!"#$%"&'(")*+,+-$./(0&#1(-20)-$$1(3#2$-*#3(0&-0(4)56(789(:-"("#$%"&/(-53(0&#*#;<*#(0&-0(5<()"#(:-"(0<(=#("#-*2&#3(,5(0&#*#(>"##(
Bardini, forthcoming for this line of argument).
41. The last sentence of this quote is used by Oron Catts and Ionat Zurr in their text entitled “The Art of the Semi-Living and
Partial Life: Extra Ear—1/4 Scale” available on their website at http://www.tca.uwa.edu.au/publication/TheArtoftheSemi-
LivingandPartialLife.pdf
The whole story is available on-line at the Revolution Science-Fiction website, at the following URL: http://revolutionsf.
com/article.html?id=2273
42.(?$-+<4(@,A#6/(Organs without Bodies: On Deleuze and Consequences. New York: Routledge, 2004, 121.
43. Ionat Zurr & Oron Catts, “Artistic life forms that would never survive Darwinian Evolution: Growing Semi-Living
Entities”, http://www.tca.uwa.edu.au/atGlance/pubMainFrames.html
44. http://www.tca.uwa.edu.au/ars/text.html
45. For instance, about their collaboration with Stelarc, they note that their work involves “the actual and suggestive
3,"%B)*#C#50(<; (0&#(&)C-5(=<31D(0&#(3#0-2&#3(<*B-5(:&,2&(,"(#-",$1(*#2<B5,E-=$#(-"(&)C-5(D(-("<C#:&-0(F$-1;)$(*#+#*"#(
reference to Artaud’s body without organs was in our case an organ with no body; or rather an organ with a technological
body.” Oron Catts and Ionat Zurr, “The Art of the Semi-Living and Partial Life:
46. Ibid.
47. Ibid.
48.(@,A#6/(Organs without Bodies, 120-121.
49. See Thierry Bardini, Junkware, forthcoming in the Posthumanities book series at the University of Minnesota Press, late
2010 or early 2011.
50. Henri Atlan, !"#$%&#'()&$*+,*-.. Paris, Seuil, 2005, 28.
51. Atlan, !"#$%&#'()&$*+,*-./ 42.
52. !"#$%&#'()&$*+,*-./ 47-48.
53. http://www.symbiotica.uwa.edu.au/research/bioreactor.html
54. Gershom Scholem, “The Golem of Prague and the Golem of Rehovot,” The Messianic Idea in Judaism and Other Essays in
Jewish Spirituality. New York: Schocken, 1971, 338.
55. On-line at the following url : http://users.lmi.net/sonyarap/redeeming/index.html
56. Gershom Scholem, “Isaac Luria and his School,” in Major Trends in Jewish MysticismG(8#:(H<*6I(?2&<26#5/(JKKL(MJKNOP/(
281.
57. Eugene Thacker, The Global Genome: Biotechnology, Politics and Culture. Minneapolis: MIT Press, 2005.
58.(@,A#6/(Organs without bodies, 126.
59.(@,A#6/(Organs without bodies, 133.
60. Gilles Deleuze, FoucaultG(Q*-5"G(?R-5(S-53G(T,55#-F<$,"I(TUQ(V*#""/(JKWW/(JXYG
61. Deleuze does not say where in Rimbaud: it is in his letters, the so-called “Lettres dites du voyant”: “Donc le poète est
+*-,C#50(+<$#)*(3#(;#)G(U$(#"0(2&-*BR(3#($Z&)C-5,0R/(3#"(animaux(C[C#G'(\+#*C-5(,"(0&)"(%*"0(-(F<#0/(-(F*<C#0&#-5(F<#0(
ready for a season in hell.
62. Keith Ansell-Pearson, Germinal Life: The Difference and Repetition of Deleuze. London: Routledge, 1999, 222.
63. The Ass Festival. Loaded as in “intoxicated”, drunk. In Difference and Repetition, Deleuze notes: “Thus Zarathustra’s Ass says
1#"](=)0(0<(&,C/(0<(-;%*C(C#-5"(0<(=#-*/(0<(-"")C#(<*(0<("&<)$3#*(-(=)*3#5(<5#"#$;G(S#(=#-*"(#+#*10&,5BI(0&#(=)*3#5"(:,0&(
which he is laden (divine values), those which he assumes himself (human values), and the weight of his tired muscles when
he no longer has anything to bear (the absence of values). This Ass and the dialectical ox leave a moral after-taste. They
have a terrifying taste for responsibility, as though it were necessary to pass through the misfortunes of rifts and division
in order to be able to say yes.” (Trans. Paul Patton. New York: Columbia University Press, 1994, 53). Nietzsche provides
one of the metaphorical clues of the Ass character: “I am l’anti-âne par excellence, what makes of me a monster unique in
&,"0<*1G(U(-C(,5(^*##6(_(-53(5<0(<5$1(,5(^*##6(_(0&#(anti-Christian” (‘Why I Write Such Good Books,’ §2. Ecce Homo, in Basic
WritingsG(Q*-5"G(`-$0#*(a-);C-5G(b<53<5I(c-53<C(S<)"#/(YddX/(eJK.G((V,#**#(a$<""<:"6,(C,B&0(B,+#(0&#(%5-$(2$)#(,5(&,"(
wonderful “Nietzsche, polytheism and parody” (in Un si funeste désir, Gallimard, 1963, revised translation from http://lists.
village.virginia.edu/cgi-bin/spoons/archive1.pl?list=deleuzeguattari.archive/papers/kloss.polytheism):
“Zarathustra, once he has willed the eternal return of all things, has in advance chosen to see his own doctrine ridiculed,
as if laughter, this infallible murderer, was not also the best inspiration, as well as the best despiser of this same doctrine; thus the
!"#$%%&'()%*#+#')+*',)%#$-.#$%'(/01"$%' ! ! ! !
eternal return of all things wills also the return of the gods. What other sense, if not this one, can we attribute to the extraordinary
!"#$%&'$( ')*+',"-)'./!!+#'0*+#+'1$%2-'3/#%+#+#'4-'"5-$')*+'$6+'0*$'$((+#-')*+'7*"547+')$')*+'%$68+&'9'-"7#45+:4$/-';:/#+'$( '
)*+'<*#4-)4"6'1$%'(#$3')*+')43+'$( ')*+'!":"6'#+"7)4$6='>/)'3$#+'-!+74;7"55&')*+'-"7#+%'"643"5'$( ')*+'"674+6)'3&-)+#4+-=')*+'
golden'%$68+&'$( ')*+'?-4"7'464)4")4$6='"6'"643"5'%4:64;+%'>&'*4-'46%+(")4:">5+'Ia'@ita est!A'9'4)-'46%+(")4:">5+'yes given to the return
of all things - worthy of representing divine forbearance, worthy also thus of incarnating an ancient divinity, Dionysus, the
god of the vine, resuscitated in the general drunkenness. And, effectively, as the Traveller declares to Zarathustra: death, with
the gods, is never anything but a prejudice.” Ia!
64. Or more appropriately for the aevum, the times of the angels: Tempus enim et aevum simul inceperunt cum creatura aeviterna et
temporali (St. Albert).
65.'1455+-'B+5+/C+'"6%'DE54F'1/"))"#4='Anti-Oedipus. Trans. Mark Seem et al. London: Athlone Press, 1983, 4).
66.''G43>"/%'":"46='46'H.$5+45'+)'7*"4#I'J./6'"6%'K+-*L='$#4:46"55&'+6)4)5+%'HCredo in unam,” in Arthur Rimbaud, Collected
poems. Trans. Olivier Bernard. London: Premiere Books, 1962:
If only the times which have come and gone might come again!
9'D$#'M"6'4-';64-*+%N'M"6'*"-'!5"&+%'"55')*+'!"#)-N
In the broad daylight, wearied with breaking idols
He will revive, free of all his gods,
And, since he is of heaven, he will scan the heavens!
67. After all, even bacteria do it (horizontal transfer of DNA), right? Some even use another life-form (a bacteriophage) as a
sexual medium, it which case it is called transduction. I borrow the expression “abstract sex” from Luciana Parisi’s eponymous
book.
68. This is exactly the opinion held by Ian Wilmut, Dolly’s father, in a paper published in April 2005 in The Scientist and
entitled “The Case for Cloning Humans.” The trailer of this article read: “Controversial? Yes. But this approach might just be the best
way to understand and treat otherwise intractable diseases.” The Scientist, 19(8): 16, April 25, 2005, available on-line at http://www.
the-scientist.com/2005/4/25/16/1
69.' ?O"6' P#"6-8&=' H<5$646:' ($#' Q#$;)=I The Scientist=' RSJTLU' VR=' W"6/"#&' XR=' TYYZ' @http://www.the-scientist.
com/2005/1/31/41/1A
!"##$%&'"( ( ( ( ( ( ((((()*+,%#(-.(/(0.-.(/(0-102
THE ETERNAL RETURN AND

THE PHANTOM OF DIFFERENCE1
Catherine Malabou
Translated by Arne De Boever2
Under the title “The Eternal Return and the Phantom of Difference,” I want to cast light on what I will present
as the interpretative coup that, from Deleuze to Derrida, and via Klossowski and Blanchot, has oriented and
governed understandings of Nietzsche’s philosophy during the second half of the twentieth century. This coup
!"#$%$&$'%#'&()#%#*'+%,&-$!.,'%#&"'/'&.%#0,)11&.,'2)$&'/#3'4"),5"$&'&.%#0,)6',7,#11"4 '83%44,),#!,9:'
This is not a particularly “French” move. It was actually Heidegger who started it: he set out to read Nietzsche
using ontological difference as his guiding thread. And indeed, the authors that I just evoked have all been
;)"4"(#3<='%#>(,#!,36',/!.'%#'.%$';/)&%!(</)'?/=6'@='&.%$'),/3%#*9'A.,'8B),#!.:'!"5;"#,#&6'%4 'C'!/#'!/<<'%&'
that, of their interpretative decision is that whereas Heidegger sees in Nietzsche’s thought at the same time
/#'(#7,%<%#*'/#3'/'!"7,)%#*'"7,)'"4 '3%44,),#!,6'&.,='"#'&.,'"&.,)'./#3'2#3'%#'&.%$'$/5,'&."(*.&'&.,'@%)&.'"4 '/'
straightforward difference, without ambivalence, unequivocal.
+%,&-$!.,/#'3%44,),#!,'?"(<3'@,'/#'")%*%#/)=6'4"(#3/&%"#/<'3%44,),#!,6'/';)%#!%;<,'"4 '$(42!%,#&'),/$"#6'/$'D,<,(-,'
says, an irreducible, undeconstructible difference. It would appear as an instrument of the deconstruction of
ontological difference itself, which is still considered too heavy, too encompassing, too attached to the sense of
being. Nietzschean difference would thus be more radical than ontological difference.
The purest, most probing expression of this radicality is, in the eyes of the French thinkers, the doctrine of the
eternal return. This is the particularly “French” orientation of the reading of Nietzsche during the second half
of the twentieth century: putting forward the doctrine of the eternal return to announce a thought of difference. “Return,”
Deleuze declares in Nietzsche and Philosophy, is the “being of difference as such or the eternal return.”3
!"#$#!#%&'($%#!)%&$'&*$!"#$+"'&!,-$,.$*/..#%#&0#$ $ $
But why speak of a “coup” to refer to such an interpretation, given that this term implies violence, or even
deceit? First of all, because one cannot but notice that difference, “Unterschied” or “Differenz,” is not a
Nietzschean concept. It does not at all take up a privileged place in the philosopher’s lexicon and it does not
receive any special discussion. Secondly, because considering the eternal return of the same as a radical thought
of difference is paradoxical for more than one reason. Indeed, such an interpretation presupposes that the
eternal return, contrary to what its name indicates, is a principle of selection that, one could say, automatically
sorts between that which returns—or deserves to return—and that which does not. A principle that differentiates
[fait la différence] between the ontological candidates for return. A principle that announces, therefore, contrary
to what its name indicates, neither the return of the identical, nor the return of all things.
Identity, Deleuze declares, must precisely be understood starting from difference. For Nietzsche, identity does
not preexist the return, it is produced by it. Identity is therefore the result of difference. Is one still dealing with
an “identity,” in this sense? Deleuze replies: “Eternal return cannot mean the return of the Identical because it
presupposes a world […] in which all previous identities have been abolished and dissolved. […] Returning is
thus the only identity, but identity as a secondary power; the identity of difference, the identical which belongs
to the different, or turns around the different.”4 As for the return of “all things,” it is a repetition that selects
and makes the division between that which can and that which cannot bear the test of the return. “If eternal
return is a wheel, then it must be endowed with a violent centrifugal movement which expels […] everything
which cannot pass the test.”5
In another way, but with a different conclusion, Derrida insists in his short little text titled “Otobiographies”
on the link between that which unites the circle of the eternal return and the movement of differance. It is as
differance!"#$%&"'()*+"*,+-./.0'()*!'1"'+'1.+.'.%*"/+%.'2%*+&2-'+3.+2*,.%-')),4+
Rereading all the instances of the doctrine of the eternal return in Nietzsche’s texts, in Thus Spoke Zarathustra, The
Gay Science5+"*,+*)'"3/6+(*+'1.+7)-'12&)2-+'.8'-5+)*.+0"**)'+$*,+"*6'1(*9+'1"'+:2-'($.-+-201+"*+2*,.%-'"*,(*9+
of the doctrine, however dominant and widespread it might be. The “Different” does not exist. Whence, then,
such insistence?
I would like to develop a partial answer to this question here. Seen from the standpoint of difference, the eternal
return is understood by the authors that I have just referred to as a process of the discussion of duality, of the
dyad, of ontological couples, that opposes itself on all counts to the Hegelian dialectic. Anti-Hegelianism thus
constitutes another dominant feature of the French understanding of Nietzsche5+"*,+)*.+'1"'+(-+(*-.7"%"3/.+#%)&+'1.+$%-'4+
It is in the name of anti-Hegelianism that difference is promoted to the rank of a guiding concept. Indeed,
difference is not opposition; as such, it is not looking for its resolution. This remark enables me to cast light on the
meaning of the word “phantom” in my title: “The eternal return and the phantom of difference.” According to
the authors that I have evoked, Nietzsche replaces the dialectical process of the resolution of opposites, which
reduces difference and subordinates it to the work of the negative, with a principle of spectralizing selection.
;1.+<1../+)# +'1.+%.'2%*+<)2/,+&"=.+'1.+,(##.%.*0.+3.'<..*+/(#.!>('"/('6+)# +"#$%&"'()*5+)# +"//+'1"'+,.-.%>.-+
')+%.'2%*!"*,+,."'1!(*$%&('65+*(1(/(-&5+<."=*.--+'1"'+0"**)'+3."%+'1.+'.-'+)# +'1.+%.'2%*4+?(##.%.*0.+<)2/,+
thus produce phantoms, it would be the principle of the distinction between living beings and their specters.
The principle of automatic selection between creative vitality and reactive phantoms. Without contradiction,
without negation. Everything that returns would thus return simultaneously accompanied by its phantom and
liberated from it. The production of the spectral double would be the Nietzschean reply—a non-dialectical
one—to the dialectical resolution.
We will see that in both Deleuze and Derrida, the most phantomatic of phantoms—the one that does not
,.-.%>.+ ')+ %.'2%*+ (*+ "*6+ )'1.%+ #)%&+ '1"*+ '1"'+ )# + "+ -1",)<!(-+ @.9./4+ ?./.2A.+ "#$%&-B+ C'1.+ D.9"'(>.+ ,).-+
*)'+%.'2%*4+;1.+E,.*'(0"/+,).-+*)'+%.'2%*+FGH+I*/6+"#$%&"'()*+%.'2%*-+J+(*+)'1.%+<)%,-5+'1.+?(##.%.*'5+'1.+
Dissimilar.”6 The doctrine of the eternal return of the same would thus mean: only difference returns. Or also:
C'<)+*.9"'()*-K+)*/6+.>.%+&"=.+"+C71"*')&+)# +"#$%&"'()*4K7 The Hegelian point of view is “the point of view
CATHERINE MALABOU
!" #$%&#'()*&#+%!#,-)+'#"-!.#$%&#/0!1#)#2%)3$!.#!" #)3#)"4-.)$5!3678
Now, in the same way that Nietzsche is perhaps no thinker of difference, he might not be obsessed with the
phantom of Hegel. This will be my question today: isn’t it difference itself that has become phantomatic? Isn’t
it difference itself that is no more than a specter, and that, as such, is no longer operative, just like the critique
of dialectics that it seeks to orient?
One will object, of course, and I must confront this from the get-go, that the concept of difference appeared, if
not as the best solution for, then at least as the least faulty way of discussing the problem posed by the doctrine
of eternal return. This problem has to do with the fact that there is indeed precisely always a “two,” a dyad, in
the formulation of the eternal return. The return always announces itself in Nietzsche as a between-two, whether
this takes the form of a gateway where two paths cross in Thus Spoke Zarathustra, or whether one is dealing with
an “or (oder)” that structures the announcement of the “heaviest weight” in The Gay Science. In “On the Vision
and the Riddle” (Vom Gesicht und Räthsel), in the third part of Thus Spoke Zarathustra, Nietzsche declares: “See this
gateway, dwarf ! … It has two faces (zwei Gesichter). Two paths (zwei Wege) come together here; no one has yet
walked them to the end. This long lane back: it lasts an eternity (eine Ewigkeit). And that long lane outward: that
is another eternity (eine andre Ewigkeit). They contradict each other, these paths; they blatantly offend each other
(sie widersprechen sich, diese Wege, sie stossen sich gerade vor den Kopf)—and here at this gateway is where they come
together. The name of the gateway is inscribed at the top: ‘Moment (Augenblick)’.”9
In paragraph 341 from The Gay Science, titled “The Heaviest Weight,” one reads: “What if some day or night
a demon were to steal into your loneliest loneliness and say to you: ‘This life as you now live it and have lived
it you will have to live once again and innumerable times again; and there will be nothing new in it, but every
pain and every joy and every thought and every sigh and everything unspeakably small or great in your life must
return to you, all in the same succession and sequence—even this spider and this moonlight between the trees,
and even this moment and I myself. The eternal hourglass of existence is turned over again and again, and you
with it, speck of dust!’ Would you not throw yourself down and gnash your teeth and curse the demon who
spoke thus? Or have you once experienced a tremendous moment when you would have answered him: ‘You
are a god, and never have I heard anything more divine’.”10
There is this “two” of eternity, of ways, of paths; there is this “or.” What else can they express, other than a
difference? Doesn’t the return, in its very movement, operate a selection, a hierarchization, without dialectical
'!(8$5!39# :&$+&&3# $+!# '5;354<)$5!3'# !" # 5$'&(" =# ># 4-'$# '5;354<)$5!39# <)((&,# ?35%5(5'$97# )<<!-,53;# $!# +%5<%#
everything returns to the same, and a second, resolutely “creative,” which draws from repetition the possibility
of a transvaluation and an overcoming of nihilism? Aren’t there from now on two returns in the return, indeed
a difference of the return to itself, which marks the separation between the dwarf and the overman, the “yes”
!" #$%&#,!3@&A#)3,#$%&#?A&'7#!" #$%&#<-&)$!-9#$%&#)"4-.)$5!3#)3,#5$'#2%)3$!.=
B&(&8C&#$%&.)$5C&'#$%5'#,5"4<8($AD#%!+#$!#&E2()539#%&#)'@'9#$%)$#?F)-)$%8'$-)#G:&<!.&'H#)3;-A#)3,#'8""&-'#'8<%#
a terrible nightmare when the dwarf says: ‘All truth is crooked, time itself is a circle’? As he explains later in
interpreting his nightmare: he fears that eternal return means the return of Everything, of the Same and the
Similar, including the dwarf and including the smallest of men.”11 However, he quickly puts this hesitation to an
&3,#)3,#-&'2!3,'#4-.(AD#53#-&)(5$A9#$%&-&#5'#3&5$%&-#)3#?)$#$%&#').&#$5.&7#3!-#)3#?!'<5(()$5!367#B5""&-&3<&#+!-@'#
here to create a hierarchy between the perspectives that appeared to be the same. There is a difference of intensity
in being that separates the consistency of active instances from the phantoms of passivity.
I!3"-!3$&,#+5$%#$%5'#,5"4<8($A#!" #$%&#?!-7#Joder), how to understand the eternal return in any other way than
as the blade of a difference that separates and prevents it from being a simple song that we have heard millions
of times before? What would be its meaning without this difference? Without its difference? Would it not be,
in fact, pure absurdity, pure repetition, nihilism all over again? The return does not return without difference.
That’s how things have been understood.
!"#$#!#%&'($%#!)%&$'&*$!"#$+"'&!,-$,.$*/..#%#&0#$ $ $
!"#$"%%"&'()*'+,"'-&*+'+.'#/*#*+'./'+,"'0)12"'.3 '+,"'4.4"/+'#/'56/'+,"'7#*#./')/$'+,"'8#$$1"9:';,"'4.4"/+<'
which corresponds to the bite that severs the head of the black snake, is the decisive moment that interrupts the
uniform course of the return and thus allows those who have the vision to overcome nihilism.
Now, the “French” insistence on difference as the motor of eternal return is at the same time a radicalization
and a displacement of the Heideggerian insistence. Radicalisation, because the moment is understood as the
decisive moment in which specters are produced. Displacement, because the weight of the analysis clearly bears
./'+,"'=&#+#>2"'.3 '$#)1"=+#=*9'?'(#11'*,.('-&*+'+,)+'#/'@"1"2A"<'+,"'4.4"/+'#*'2/$"&*+..$')*'+,#*'$#33"&"/+#)/+'
[différenciant] of the difference that operates an energetic but not a logical division between that which returns
)/$'+,)+'(,#=,'3)#1*'+.'&"+2&/9'B'C&#/=#C1"'.3 '*"1"=+#./'+,)+'*"C)&)+"*'+,"')3-&4)+#./'3&.4'(,)+'#+'#*'/.+')/$'
distinguishes it from what Deleuze calls precisely its phantom.
After that I will focus on the understanding of the moment developed by Derrida. This understanding is
subordinated to the logic of the autobiography. The eternal return is a doctrine that can only be taught by an
#/$#0#$2)1'+,)+'=)&&#"*')'/)4"<'+,)+'.3 'D)&)+,2*+&)<'.&'+,)+'.3 'E#"+A*=,"9'E.'"+"&/)1'&"+2&/'(#+,.2+')'C&.C"&'
name. The doctrine only escapes the cliché because of the singularity of the name of whoever announces it.
Seen in this way, the eternal return is not only the hourglass turned over and over again of all things in their
neutrality, their banality, or their anonymity, but a life that sees itself return. In the indifference of the stream,
there is the I that ties itself to itself in the irreducible unity of its life and experiences the difference between life and
death. This difference, which also produces the phantom of the writer, enables one to introduce some depth and
hierarchy into the eternal return.
After having examined the essential traits of these two positions which, even though they cannot be reduced to
each other, incontestably have points of commonality, I will formulate my question in the following terms: and
what if difference were not the right word to do justice to the two paths of the gateway or of the “or” itself ? And what if overcoming
nihilism did not amount to “making difference”?
There is nothing outrageous about saying that Deleuze’s two works Nietzsche and Philosophy and Difference
and Repetition present the doctrine of eternal return as a strategy for breaking down the Hegelian dialectic.
The concept of “difference” expresses for Deleuze before anything else an irreducibility to opposition, to
contradiction, in a word: to negation. Against the process of Aufhebung that regulates in advance the cuts, the
&2C+2&"*<'#/'+,"'*"&0#="'.3 ')'C&"$"+"&4#/"$'#$"/+#+G<'E#"+A*=,"'$"-/"*')/'"/"&%"+#=*<')'3.&="'-"1$')+'+,"',")&+'.3 '
which no force exists before its being put in relation with the force or the forces from which it differs. There is
therefore no identity that precedes the relation, all presence results from an originary “diapherein.” Accordingly,
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is neither self-contradictory nor self-overcoming. Its constancy is assured through repetition, which is not a
reduction to the identical. The eternal return, Deleuze declares in Nietzsche and Philosophy, is the “principle of the
reproduction of diversity as such, of the repetition of difference; the opposite of ‘adiaphoria’.”12
The difference of forces is at the same time quantitative and qualitative. According to their difference in
quantity, Deleuze declares, forces are said to be dominant or dominated. According to their difference in quality,
they are said to be active or reactive.13 The forces are therefore originarily divided, without process, according
to this double differentiation. The return is precisely what enables this differentiation to be constantly operative.
Indeed, if everything must return, what serves as the selective principle and prevents reactive or dominated
3.&="*'3&.4'&"+2&/#/%<'#/'+,"'*)4"'()G'+,)+')=+#0"')/$'$.4#/)/+'3.&="*'$.J'!"&"'("'-/$'+,"'+,&")+'.3 '/#,#1#*49'
?/$""$<'@"1"2A"'&"4#/$*'2*'+,)+'5D)&)+,2*+&)'/.+'./1G'C&"*"/+*'+,"'+,.2%,+'.3 '+,"'"+"&/)1'&"+2&/')*'4G*+"&#.2*'
)/$' *"=&"+' I2+' )*' /)2*")+#/%' )/$' $#3-=21+' +.' I")&9:' K.4"+,#/%' *""4*' +.' 5=./+)4#/)+"' L+,"' "+"&/)1' &"+2&/M'
so gravely that it becomes an object of anguish, repulsion and disgust.”14 This threat of contamination is
nothing other than the circle of dialectics, which makes being turn in circles and guarantees the triumph of
CATHERINE MALABOU
!"#$%&'"()*!$"+,(-."/"01+($&!$0"(&+(2*%(%3"("%"!2#0(!"%4!25(*206(%3"(&272&%"($&!$40#%&*2(*) (%3"(&8"2%&$#0(96(:"#2+(
of negativity […] difference remains subordinated to identity, reduced to the negative, incarcerated within
similitude and analogy.”15
The eternal return, through its force of selection, is precisely what breaks the circle. That which returns, returns
differently, “repetition is the differentiant of difference.” The will to power is the test of this differentiation,
;3&$3(9!&2/+(#9*4%(%3"(&2'"!+&*2(*) (%3"(:"#2&2/(*) (!"#$%&*2(*!(!"#$%&'&%6(%3!*4/3(%3"(862#:&$(*) (#)7!:#%&*2(
alone: “whatever you will, will it in such a way that you also will its eternal return.”16 Deleuze adds: “Laziness,
stupidity [bêtise], baseness, cowardice or spitefulness that would will its own eternal return would no longer be
the same laziness, stupidity, etc. How does the eternal return perform the selection here? It is the thought of the
eternal return that selects. It makes willing something whole. The thought of the eternal return eliminates from
willing everything which falls outside the eternal return, it makes willing a creation, it brings about the equation
‘willing=creating’.”17
And it is at this point that selection creates phantoms. The forces that are cast aside by the wheel become indeed
phantoms of force; what falls outside of the return is spectralized. And the most phantomatic of phantoms,
as we have said, is the dialectical process. “Those who bear the negative know not what they do: they take the
shadow for reality, they encourage phantoms […].”18 This is why “the negative, the similar and the analogous
are repetitions, but they do not return, forever driven away by the wheel of the eternal return.”19 Becoming
thus appears like a process of hierarchization of being—whose constancy is assured by repetition—over the
phantom, simulacrum or ersatz of presence.
I could cite even more passages concerning the critique of dialectics, the assimilation of dialectics to nihilism,
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:6(":9#!!#++:"2%(3"!"(&2(%3"()#$"(*) (%3"+"(#2#06+"+=(?28""85(#28(7!+%(*) (#005(;3"!"($#2(*2"(728(&2(@&"%A+$3"(
the idea that the negative, dialectics, Hegelian thought itself do not return? This question leads to a second:
;3"!"($#2(*2"(7285(&2(@&"%A+$3"5(%3"(&8"#(%3#%(%3"("%"!2#0(!"%4!2(&+(#2(#4%*:#%&$(<!&2$&<0"(*) (+"0"$%&*2B(C"0"4A"(
presents the eternal return as a wheel, which appears in its turn as a machine to make difference, an automatic
differentiation. Now where can this motif be found in the texts? Finally, and thirdly, and this is the most serious
question, isn’t the Deleuzian understanding of the eternal return, which starts from difference, extremely
violent in its anti-Hegelianism? Isn’t the eternal return transformed by the prejudice of such a reading into
an elimination machine? “Selection occurs between two repetitions: those who repeat negatively and those who
repeat identically will be eliminated.”20
The verb “to eliminate” returns over and over again in Deleuze’s writing. An elimination that corresponds to
a destruction, even an auto-destruction: “By and in the eternal return nihilism no longer expresses itself as the
conservation and victory of the weak but as their destruction, their self-destruction.”21 Where can one read, in
Nietzsche, that the weak auto-destruct? And a machine to destroy weakness, to make a difference between two
repetitions--is such a machine ultimately not more totalitarian, more threatening, more reactive than dialectics?
The idea that the eternal return chases away the specters is a seductive but dangerous vision. On top of that, it
appears that Nietzsche is absent from such a vision. Difference is something that is imposed upon him.
In the two books Nietzsche and Philosophy and Difference and Repetition5( *2"( 8*"+( 2*%( 728( #( +&2/0"( $&%#%&*2( *) (
Nietzsche that literally mobilizes the concept of difference. It is not that Nietzsche never uses the word, or that
Deleuze’s reading is rendered invalid by the absence of the fundamental textual occurrence of the concept.
One can simply ask oneself whether such a reading, in spite of its grandeur and its importance, does not settle
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phantom of the dialectic, transformed into a bad subject—whether such a reading does not already by itself
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knotted together.”22
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"#$%&'#$'()*#+$#*,$&,-.(/)$#*-#$0,&&(.-$1&212','$23 $4(,#5'6*,$-11,-&'$#2$(/'('#$72&,$2/$#*('$8(/9+$#*('$9/2#$#*-#$#(,'$
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discover very quickly that the motifs of differance and of spectrality govern, even here still, the interpretation.
One should of course take time to indicate everything that separates Deleuze’s difference from Derrida’s
differance, everything that also separates their concepts of spectrality, but let us focus here on our problem.
In “Otobiographies,” a work that contains many essential elements of deconstructive thought, Derrida shows
that the originality of the thought of the eternal return depends on the signature that it leaves in itself of the
one who thinks it. The eternal return is a thought that is not separable from the proper name of the one who
thinks it. There is therefore an alliance between the circle of the eternal return and of the singular life of the
one who has a revelation about it. Two rings within the ring.
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can be called ontological, the second autobiographical. There is at the same time similitude and difference between
the ring of the return of all things and the ring that unites this ring to the life of the thinker. The point of
encounter between the two rings is the anniversary, a motif that is so important for Nietzsche—whether we are
talking about high noon or the anniversary of the middle of life evoked in Ecce Homo.
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articulating this double logic of the anniversary that Derrida reads the declaration of Nietzsche in Ecce Homo:
“I looked backwards, I looked out, I have never seen so many things that were so good, all at the same time.”23
Derrida declares: “The anniversary is the moment when the year turns back on itself, forms a ring or annulus
with itself, annuls itself and begins anew.”24 The two returns included in the eternal return are marked by the
coincidence of the anonymous return of time and date, the signature that is proper to such an anniversary: “To
date,” Derrida writes, “is to sign.”25 The signature of the moment is a date: today is my anniversary.
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of autobiography. Nietzsche’s own contribution to this is the revelation of the necessarily autobiographical
dimension of philosophy. In the co-incidence of the ring and the instant, life opens up a credit to itself, it sees
itself pass, it recites itself, narrates itself. The philosopher from then on no longer speaks of life in general,
but always of his life, in its name: “The name of Nietzsche is perhaps today, for us in the West, the name of
someone who […] was alone in treating both philosophy and life, the science and the philosophy of life with his
name and in his name. He has perhaps been alone in putting his name—his names—and his biographies on the
line.”26
Now it is there that Nietzsche is separated from Hegel forever, because the latter never spoke in his name, because
he on the other hand always thought the effacement of the proper name in the logic of absolute knowledge.
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in Nietzsche. There also, it does not give birth to a single dialectical process. “The shadow of all negativity has
disappeared.”27 High noon is “delivered from the negative and from dialectic.”28
The production of the specter takes place here precisely at the point of encounter between the two rings: at the
point, the moment, the date of the anniversary. At the moment when Nietzsche signs in his name the story of
his life, he is no longer living, but surviving, he has become his own name, a living-dead. A phantom. There is
thus always “a differance of autobiography.”29 The name, Derrida writes, “is always and a priori a dead man’s
name, a name of death. What returns to the name never returns to the living. Nothing ever comes back to the
living.”30 Derrida puts his analyses in relation to two passages from Ecce Homo in which Nietzsche says “I am
[…] already dead as my father (als mein Vater bereits gestorben), while as my mother, I am still living and becoming
old (als meine Mutter lebe ich noch und werde alt)”31 and “In order to understand anything at all of my Zarathustra, one
must perhaps be similarly conditioned as I am—with one foot beyond life.”32 This beyond is therefore no longer a
CATHERINE MALABOU
dialectical solution either, it is “beyond the opposition of life and death,” it marks their between-two, the difference
between the two. As in Hegel, the subject is not absolutely present to itself.
The fact that the subject of autobiography never coincides with itself, is always different from itself—one part of
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that nothing returns to the living#!0#"+#.58,9#+&3*#9+,*#")."#&+"#*%*,:")!&'#,*"2,&0#!&#")*#*"*,&.$#,*"2,&6#;+#$+&'*,#!&#
")*#0*&0*#")."(#.0#<*$*2=*#2&3+%*,*-(#3*,".!&#")!&'0#,*"2,&#.&-#+")*,0#-+#&+">#.58,9."!+&#.&-#&+"#&*'."!+&(#5+,#
example. But in the sense of the dative: not that which returns but the one to whom this returns, the addressee
of that which returns, as if there were a selection, with her or him, between the living and the dead. Between
the addressee’s name, the name of death, the name of the father, which conserves, safeguards the geneaologies,
.&-#")*#$!%!&'(#")*#9+")*,(#3,*."!+&(#.58,9."!+&6#?2"+@!+',.4)!3.$#-!55*,.&3*#,*5*,0#"+#*"*,&!":#")*#5,.3"2,*#+5 #
")*#).2&"!&'#+5 #8&!"2-*(#+5 #$!5*#.&-#-*.")6#
As we have seen, in Deleuze the phantom corresponds to this pitiful and weak being, evicted by the wheel of
the eternal return. In Derrida, on the other hand, the phantom is not in the being of things, or of forces, but in
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The two positions are therefore very different, sometimes even opposed to each other; nevertheless, I have
allowed myself here to bring them together at the site of an identical conclusion. The two encounter each other
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Nietzsche have signed the following sentence: “nothing living returns to the living”? With what right does one
read the doctrine of eternal return as a thanatography?
Once again, it seems to me that these readings perhaps do not entirely respect the eternal return to the extent
that they see in it a principle of cutting, a critical instance that is doubtlessly not there.
D&#")*#8,0"#%+$29*#+5 #)!0#Nietzsche, Heidegger declares: “The thought of eternal return of the same is only as
this conquering thought. The overcoming must grant us passage across a gap that seems to be quite narrow.
The gap opens between two things that in one way are alike, so that they appear to be the same. On the one
side stands the following: ‘Everything is nought, indifferent, so that nothing is worthwhile—it is all alike (alles ist
gleich).’ And on the other side: ‘Everything recurs, it depends on each moment, everything matters—it is all alike
(alles ist gleich).”33
“The smallest gap, the rainbow bridge of the phrase it is all alike, conceals two things that are quite distinct
(verbirgt das schlechthin Verschiedene): ‘everything is indifferent’ (alles ist gleichgültig) and ‘nothing is indifferent’ (nichts
ist gleichgültig).”34
Undoubtedly, there is a “simple difference” that is hiding between the two versions of the thought of the eternal
return; however, it is not certain that this “simple difference” is an origin and not rather a result. It may be that
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if the eternal return becomes an automatic machine of selection, a process that guarantees its differance, then
nothing remains of the essential ambivalence of the word “gleich”—alles ist gleich no longer means anything.
“The ring of being remains loyal to itself eternally.”35 When we read this sentence, is it the urgency of
difference that catches the eye? Isn’t it rather the necessity of co-implication? Who says that to overcome means
to differentiate rather than to carry together, to hold the one and the other, to think complicity from two sides,
between the two together?
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“Everything breaks, everything is joined anew; the same house of being builds itself eternally. Everything
parts, everything greets itself again.”36 Don’t Nietzsche’s texts make us think putting in relation and inevitable
reduplication rather than dissociation? After all, isn’t there also a nihilist side to the thought of difference?
Doesn’t it also return as ressentiment, anti-Hegelian reaction, weakness? Doesn’t it become its own phantom? An
empty cask that has had its time?
But then what would a reading of Nietzsche give that would refuse to turn difference into its guiding thread? It
is with this question that I will end this text, leaving open the possibility of a new understanding of the eternal
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of the clone for that of the phantom. I thus state very simply, in the form of an announcement, the possibility of
reading the doctrine of the eternal return as a thought of ontological cloning. And what if, in the end, everything were
to redouble, if all the ontological knots were to reduplicate, without being different but without returning to the
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to think without identity and without difference?
CATHERINE MALABOU teaches philosophy at the University of Paris X-Nanterre and is

Visiting Professor of Comparative Literature at the State University of New York, Buffalo. Her work
articulates the notion of plasticity at the crossroads of philosophy and neuroscience. Her publications
in English include The Future of Hegel, Counterpath (with Jacques Derrida), What Should We Do With Our
Brain?, and Plasticity at the Dusk of Writing.
CATHERINE MALABOU
NOTES
1. This essay was originally published as “L’éternel retour et le fantôme de la différence” in Pornschlegel, Clemens and
Martin Stingelin, eds. Nietzsche und Frankreich. New York/Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2009, 391-404. Parrhesia would like to
thank Catherine Malabou for granting us permission to publish the essay’s English translation.
2. [T.N.: I would like to thank Jon Roffe and Ashley Woodward for their last-minute assistance with the translation.]
3. Gilles Deleuze, Nietzsche and Philosophy, trans. Hugh Tomlinson. London: Athlone Press, 1983, 189.
4. Gilles Deleuze, Difference and Repetition, trans. Paul Patton. New York: Columbia University Press, 1994, 41.
5. Ibid., 55.
6. Ibid., 299.
7. Ibid., 53.
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THE BIRTH OF IMMUNOPOLITICS1

Frédéric Neyrat
Translated by Arne De Boever
There is a threat hanging over forms of life today. They groan under the oppression of an entire global apparatus
of political decisions, economic practices, and techno-industrial constructions. And this disconcerting weight
is properly speaking not even “hanging over” us, given that today, we have become the technical masters of a
sky that we were unable to leave to the “angels and the sparrows.” No, it resides at the heart of a world that
has turned the human being into a geological force that is entangled with the biosphere. Something like a
climate turn2!"##$"%&!'(!)*+$,'!,-'')*./$0.$!,(*'$1#(%"%2!'3(-.3'!'(4"%0&!"!,(*&)0$%"')(*!(5 !'3$!-*%$,(.*)6$0!
foundations of our historical situation.3 To the point that we would declare non-contemporary, that is to say:
&'$%)7$!"*0!&'$%)7)6)*.8!"*2!'3(-.3'!'3"'!'3$(%$'),"772!%$)*5(%,$&!'3$!,"-&$&!(5 !'3$!0)&"&'$%!92!,(*')*-)*.!'3$!&"1$!
motives of emancipation, the same political categories, the same philosophical concepts as those that will have
lead us to the perhaps irreversible deterioration of forms of life.
Roberto Esposito’s philosophy is contemporary. It developed at the same time as what was happening; as what was
happening to us; and as what was not happening to us. These are the three slopes of a philosophy that tries to
think the presence of a being-in-common that is always still lacking something [démuni].4 That wants itself to be an
“ontology of the present [actualité]” (to recall Michel Foucault’s formula): Bios, published in 2004, begins with a
description of the salient traits of our belated modernity (the Perruche affair, the humanitarian bombardments
in Afghanistan, the massacre at the Dubrovka theatre)5; at the same time, Esposito’s philosophy wants to be
the present of ontology, the necessity and self-defense of metaphysics, this “possibility to think beyond itself, in the
Open,” this “form of consciousness in which one seeks to perceive more than that which happens, or that does
not content itself with that which happens” (Theodor W. Adorno)6. To be contemporary doesn’t at all mean to
stick to the present; it means, rather, to take up the distance of an interface between that which happens and
that which doesn’t happen. Between that which saturates the present, and that which the present is lacking.
Communauté, immunité, biopolitique [Community, immunity, biopolitics], which was published in 2008 in Italian as
Termini della politica, gives an almost chronological account of the constitution of this interface, of the process
through which in Esposito’s work the present and ontology have become engaged in a fruitful association. The
!"#$%&'!"$()$&**+,(-(.&!&/0$ $ $ $ $
book is put together of articles or texts written between 1996 and 2008, and they mark out the publication of
the key books that motivated the French translation of Termini: Communitas (1998), Immunitas (2002), Bios (2004),
to which one should add Terza persona (2007). But these “roadmarks” aren’t just “marking” Esposito’s path: a
careful reading of Communauté, immunité, biopolitique reveals a very singular movement of thought that one would
!"#$%!&'()*(&+,-%./0'%++#,.(+"'+1'"2"#0'+$,)3"#4'5$"0'1(+/,)"'%)'organic development, in the sense that each new
article, and each new book, appear to produce a conceptual fruit that the plant coming before it was preparing.
In other words, Communauté, immunité, biopolitique gives the impression of profound continuity. And the latter is
certainly not without relation to the ethico-political demand that emerges from Esposito’s works: to choose life.
Of course! But which life? It is perhaps around these questions that our future is being decided, on which the
very possibility of a future depends. Such a future will not happen without a fundamental rethinking of the terms
of the political—of its words, ends, of the fruit as well as the compost that it produces. Esposito’s book takes up
this task: it aspires to a terminological reform dedicated to life.
OF LIFE TURNED INTO DEATH

Yes, Esposito’s philosophy cannot be thought without a “philosophy of life”; that is also the title of the last
chapter of Bios. However, formulated in this way, it says nothing—or even worse: Esposito argues, in fact, that
67%8,&9:&'+#%)&;")<")+%/',&'/,="'#%+$"#'+$%)'<"%+$>?7 and he opposes himself to naturalist philosophies that turn
&19"'.,1/1@,;%/';1<"',)+1'+$"'.%&,&'1= '%//'2%/("&'%)<'%//'!1/,+,;%/'%;+,1)4'A099"+#,;%//0>'$"';#,+,;,8"&'+$1&"'.1<,"&'
of thought that deny the order of the living in the name of a Humanism or of the human Person. The position
that is taken up here is complex. Because life, as one could say parodying Aristotle, negates itself in a variety of
ways: liberal, totalitarian, humanist, and so on.
Each time, however, the same problem returns, like a criterium of political philosophy as well as practical
government: whenever there is a bad relation to life, death is produced. How many murders, genocides, camps have
been committed in the name of life? That is the fundamental question, “the enigma of biopolitics”8: how can
a politics for life become a politics of death? In other words, “why does biopolitics run the perpetual risk of turning
into thanatopolitics?”9 The contemporaneity of thought, as we described it above, is conjugated here in two
ways: 1/ on the one hand, any philosophy that does not take biopolitics into consideration as a domain of
study will be worthless; 2/ on the other hand, the study of biopolitics’ transformation into its opposite is the
necessary path towards the institution of a non-thanatological politics. Foucault skipped this stage, just like
+$1&"'B$1>'8,@8%@@,)@',)'$,&'+#%;3&>'$%2"'&+,//')1+';1##";+/0'+$1(@$+'+$"'#"/%+,1)'."+B"")'/,="'%)<'!1/,+,;&4'C)'
this point, Esposito pulls off a conceptual masterstroke: in bio-politics, the hyphen is immunological. Every philosophy
that studies the mirroring relation between politics and life will lack this third term, which is the mirror itself.
Because politics plays a dirty trick on life: while wanting to protect it, it can end up destroying it. This strange
reversal, this inversion or perversion, is at the heart of Esposito’s questions and of our societies, in which we
undergo the effects of highly dubious protections. However, we need protections, and every society, just like every
individual, has always wondered how it can avoid danger. But it is in the modern age that this question has
become politically crucial. It is because he did not uncover the immunological determination of modernity
that Foucault remained unable to articulate historically the relation between sovereign societies and forms of
governmental biopolitics. But sovereignty is the means by which modern politics deals with the question of life; and its dealings
are, fundamentally, immunological.
Of course, life protects itself, “by nature”; but modern sovereignty must be thought of as a second, “meta-
immunitary” “dispositif ”10 that, coming from life itself, separates itself from it, and forms a transcendent
instance that bears down on life to the extent that it destroys it. That is the logic of Thomas Hobbes’ Leviathan.
If this inaugural modernity preserves, between life and sovereignty, the existence of an Order—juridical, social,
cultural—that disjoins one from the other, the second modernity, which begins at the end of the eighteenth
century with the governmental technologies that target the health of the demography and are pursued through
nationalisms, makes this mediation disappear: life becomes an immediate political object, and the completed
FREDERIC NEYRAT
political development of this immediation will produce the concept of race. From this point of view, Nazism is the
exacerbation of biopolitics under immunological conditions!"#$%&$'(&"$)&*$")&*"+,-'"%&.'('/$"01$("23"14536$(&&5",$",4"
7,/(1,.'-35"2'&.&89:11 that is based on the medical body and therapeutic practices that are free from metaphors,
but bent on protecting the purity of the Aryan race by eliminating everything that might work against it. It is
an absolute perversion of the terms of politics.
;("*&4<("$1=>/3"(&"63?36$3"()'$"%6&/3$$"'4"&6536"(&"5&"@1$('/3"(&".'=3A"'("'$"&4.9"29"0&5'=9'48".'=3<$"5'63/('&4B03,4'48"
that one will be able to change biopolitics. And this change implies knowing what to do with negativity. It is this
knowledge that Esposito’s book can constitute for the reader.
IMMUNITY VERSUS COMMUNITY

A question remains: why is political modernity of the immunological type? If we started with the end—which
is life—to explain the modern political condition—immunityC(),("3D36/'$3$"'($"'4E134/3"&?36"'(F"*3"4&*"),?3"(&"
return to the primal scene of this book, that of community. It is in the relation between these last two concepts—
immunity and community—that one can discover one of the singularities of Esposito’s thought.
G)3"7'0014'(,69"%,6,5'80:"),$"/'6/1.,(35",0&48$("()3"$),6%3$("()'4H36$"&= "()3">4,."I1,6(36"&= "()3"(*34('3()"

century.12"#$%&$'(&<$"$%3/'>/"()3$'$"'$"(),("'0014'(9"'$","63,/('&4"(&"/&0014'(9J"K3"535'/,(3$"()3"34('63">6$("%,6("
of Communauté, immunité, biopolitique to clarifying what he means by this last term. Etymologically and conceptually,
community associates the word cum (Latin for “with”) with munus, another Latin word that means “task,” “duty,”
“law,” but also “gift,” a work to be done rather than to receive, in other words: an “obligation.” Based on his
analyses of Rousseau, Kant, Bataille, and Heidegger, Esposito defends a major hypothesis: community is the
giving up [défection] of the proper. “Giving up” in the sense of “ex-ist”, of movement outside of oneself, exodus,
ecstasy, and therefore of communication (via Bataille). It is, in the end, a logical argument: in order for there to be
something common, there must be something else, something more, something that is different from the proper,
the private, or the individual. As the giving up of all identity closed onto itself, community is thus forcibly taken
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#D'$('48"&4.9"&1($'53"&= "'($3.=F"/&0014'(9"'$">6$(",45"=&630&$(",".,/H"&= "O3.=F"&= "14'(9F"&= ","P43J";("'$F".'(36,..9"
speaking, commu-nothing [commune-ôtée], founded around a “hole,” a “nothing,” a “lack,” around a “suffering,” a
“fault,” “death.”13 Let’s be clear: for Esposito, the Self of community never took place and will never take place;
all political options that state the contrary will be in denial of this truth.
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ultimate consequences will be. Esposito knows the point at which this conception of community is dangerous,
and doubly so. First of all, it is conceptually dangerous: don’t we have here a purely negative conception of
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not a res, and even less the Res. It is not the Thing, but the lack thereof.”14 He speaks of the melancholy character
of community. This is why the text titled “Community and Nihilism” is so important: contrary to the majority
&= "3D'$('48"5'$/&16$3$"&4"4')'.'$0F"#$%&$'(&"630'45$"1$"(),("()3".,((36"'$"4&(",4",=>60,('&4"&= "+&()'4843$$F"21("
'($"=&63/.&$163F"()3".,/H"&= "()3".,/HC()363"*)363"/&0014'(9"'$"53>435"29","$'48.3"'0%36,('?3A"5&"4&("8'?3"*,9"
on your lack [ne pas céder sur le manque]. Which means that one should know that this lack is irremediable, that
community will never be full, self-present, absolute, divine, pure, natural. These theses, which have already
been broadly used on several occasions by the deconstructivists (Derrida, Nancy, Lacoue-Labarthe) have to be
insisted on again and again: one can of course create links or relations, for example on Facebook or through the
intermediary of Twitter, but these relations will not in the end belong to their members, they will not give anything
back to them—and this enables, as the entire economic present illustrates, their capitalist exploitation. Facebook,
like any other social networking formation, presupposes an ontological expropriation (being put outside of
oneself); and, we want to add, it thus enables the self ’s economic capture. In Esposito’s lexicon: community is
“necessary and impossible.”
!"#$%&'!"$()$&**+,(-(.&!&/0$ $ $ $ $
But then, the second danger, which is no longer conceptual but practical and political, reveals itself: by
demanding that one insist on Nothingness, and by prohibiting the possibility of a stable and closed identity,
the community produces fear. And it provokes the immunitary reaction—recall, on this count, that in juridical
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under which all of us fall. Here we arrive at a key point that Esposito’s reader should keep in mind: modernity
(%&'.-#'8%3-%(!-&'!1"'1(%!-#(4/0'$-$"*!'-. '3-0(!(4/0'($$)*(9/!(-*:';%'<-!1'4-*4"3!'/*7'#"/0(!+&'the individual is the
result of this process of immunization. An individual constructed by philosophy and liberal practice, armed to the
teeth with subjective rights instituted to protect it against the attack of the Other and of others. This argument
is, of course, extremely treacherous, and the reader will undoubtedly return to it over the course of her or his
#"="4!(-*%:'>"4/)%"'61/!'7(%!(*5)(%1"%&'/.!"#'/00&'!1"'($$)*-0-5(4/0'6(00'-.&'%/+&'?/#4)%';)#"0()%&'61"*'1"'6/*!%'
to fortify his soul to the point of wanting to turn it into a “fortress,” from that of the modern individual trying
to constitute itself as a subjective “bubble,” to take up one of Peter Sloterdijk’s concepts? The difference is this:
61"#"/%'!1"',#%!'1/%'!-'#"0+'-*0+'-*'1($%"0.&'!1"'%"4-*7'(%'!1"'".."4!'-. '/'3-0(!(4/0'4-*%!#)4!(-*:'@1"'A!-(4'1/7'
of course placed his bets on the cosmos rather than on the polis.
DESTRUCTION, OVEREXPOSURE, AND AUTO-IMMUNITY

There is no question that Esposito’s conceptual system enables us to understand how our societies function.
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reform—they are typically immunological. Because people experience the State as an intrusive element, it
is unconditionally rejected in the name of so-called individual liberty—a rejection that leads, however, to a
situation in which millions of people, and in the end anyone who lives in the margins of existence (margins that
are programmed, one should note, by our fatal, neoliberal “risk societies”), are without medical protection. And
one could multiply the examples. Immunisation does not only affect individuals; it also concerns collectives.
Historically, this has been the case since the birth of nationalisms.15 And today, we see how so-called “national”
“identities,” even though they have had their day and are no longer capable of “imagining”16 themselves, replace
the impossible imaginary institution of society by the reality of walls, camps, of fortress Europe, of control
/*7'%3/!(-D!"$3-#/0'%)#E"(00/*4":'>)!'%1-)07'%-4("!("%'%!-3&'!1"*&'!-'($$)*(9"'!1"$%"0E"%'/5/(*%!'!1"$%"0E"%F'
@1#-)51'/'%-#!'-. '($$)*(9/!(-*'-. '4-$$)*(!+'!1/!'6-)07'$/#B'!1"'<(-3-0(!(4/0'7"%!(*+'-. '$-7"#*(!+F'
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($$)*(9/!(-*'!1/!'-44)#%'61"*'7"."*%"%'<"5(*'!-'/!!/4B'!1"'<-7+'(!%"0.:'@1(%'3-(*!'(%'7"4(%(E"&'/*7'(!'(%'1"#"'
!1/!'!1"'#"/0'G)"%!(-*%'/#(%":'H"!I%'*-!"&',#%!'-. '/00&'!1/!'8%3-%(!-')%"%'!1"'4-*4"3!'-. '/)!-D($$)*(!+'!-'"230/(*'
the way in which “Islamic fundamentalism, bent on protecting, unto death, its supposed religious, ethnic, and
cultural purity,” has entered in a collision with a “Western world that wants to exclude the rest of the planet
from its cornucopia of riches”: global auto-immunisation, whose torments we are undergoing, marks the end of
a “double immunitary system that, until then, had held the world in its grip.”17 The problem is that in order to
capture the logic of auto-immunity, Esposito brings in an entire series of new parameters: religion, capitalism,
“biological terrorism,” “technologies,” “psycho-pharmacology,”18' /*7&' ,*/00+&' !1"' J/*!1#-3-!"41*(4/0&' -#'
anthropopoetic, vector that is more and more active in the contemporary world”—“more and more”? Meaning
what? We agree with the fact that one must introduce these data—but why do they follow, both conceptually and
historically, the question of modern political community? Let’s not dance around the issue: aren’t capitalism, religion, and
technoscience the originary parameters that constitute the goals of immuno-politics? This doesn’t take anything
away from the analyses that Esposito dedicates to the singularity of the modern political moment, from his
insightful reading of the immunitarian function of sovereignty—but it does perhaps force us to rethink the
logic of immunity within a history that is multiple. Such a history would combine three different strands, and
three chronologies that are partly different: religions’ long immunological formation of spaces of indemnity,
-. '%/4#"7&'1-0+&'!#/*%4"*7"*!'%3/4"%K'!1"'7#"/7.)0'7"%!/<(0(9/!(-*'!1/!'4/3(!/0(%$'.-#4"7'-*!-'%-4("!("%&'/*7'!1"'
#"%3-*%"%'!1/!'!1"'0/!!"#'1/E"'1/7'!-'(*E"*!'6(!1(*'!1(%'"$"#5"*4+'%(!)/!(-*K'/*7'!1"'!"41*-%4("*!(,4'3#-7)4!(-*'
-. '/*'(*7"$*(!+'-. '($$/*"*!'%)<%!(!)!(-*'L!1"'$/!1"$/!(9/!(-*'-. '*/!)#"M'/%'!1"'3#"0($(*/#+'4-*7(!(-*'.-#'
its appropriation by capitalism. A focused analysis of such a heterogeneous history would enable us to know
FREDERIC NEYRAT
whether the current protections, however outrageous they might be, work against the common or against the absence of the
common. Were they created against the lack of a lack of a lack (the ultimate insight, even if it sounds confusing)?
If the Nothingness of community must serve to break down the always resurging and disturbing forms of
identitarian saturations, we can very well feel the politico-philosophical urgency that consists in proposing
new individual and collective assemblages that would enable one to offer to our ontological exile Existential
Territories (Guattari) that would bring a new lust for life. Because how to confront the dangers that threaten us
without the promise of a life that would be worth living?
The modern status of immuno-politics is inseparable from the—modern—forms of capitalist destruction

(negativity revving out of control) and tele-technical overexposure to others, a phenomenon that one would
!"#$%&'%()*&)+,-)*!%./'0%&!$%*)012$%'/),)+"/3%$4)*&$+&)"2%$41'*-/$%&!"&%"55'/()+,%&'%6*1'*)&'%($7+$*%5'00-+)&38%
The question that is withheld here would then be the following: how to regulate politically the problem of
capitalist expropriation on the basis of the ontological communitarian expropriation without falling into the
phantasm of identitarian appropriation? …
IMPERSONAL LIFE
To answer this question, let’s return to our point of departure: life, yes, but which life? There is one evident
answer: common life. But what’s common is the improper, that which is not one’s own. Therefore, common life
will be impersonal life. Let’s explain this formula.
9$%0-*&%"#')(%"%('-:2$%("+,$/;%'+%&!$%'+$%!"+(<%"*%=$%!"#$%*$$+<%&!$%+"&-/"2)>"&)'+%'. %1'2)&)5*?%'+%&!$%'&!$/<%
"+(%*300$&/)5"2%&'%)&<%&!$%!-0"+)*&%($+"&-/"2)>"&)'+%'. %!-0"+%2).$8%@!"&%)*%&'%*"3<%+'&%naturalist immanentism, but
the transcendent exception of that which, in the human being, would escape the living—that which is called reason,
soul, or spirit. In every case, the aim will be to “subtract,” to “remove” [excentrer] the human being from the
:)'2',)5"2%*1!$/$%A'+$%5'-2(%5"22%&!)*%&!$%!-0"+)*&%.'/0%'. %&!$%)+($0+)75"&)'+%'. %&!$%:$)+,B8%@!)*%)*%=!"&%&!$%
5'+5$1&%'. %&!$%C1$/*'+D%)*%*&)22%+$=23%1/'(-5)+,%&'("3;%)&%=)22%"2="3*%!"#$%&!$%/$#$/*$%$..$5&%'. %($1$/*'+"2)>"&)'+8%
But then how to formulate the “humanity of the human being” without subtracting it from the “concept” and
the “natural reality” of biosE%9)&!'-&%C'..$+()+,%&!$%!-0"+%F)+(D%A62)>":$&!%($%G'+&$+"3BE%H'=%&'%('%I-*&)5$%
to the living in the human being? First of all, by extending community to non-human beings, by taking into
consideration other living species, such as animals, plants, and non-organic materials, even technics itself.19 We
for one would love to hear more from Esposito on this point—think, for example, of what Donna Haraway,
Bruno Latour, or the deep ecologists have been able to achieve in their different ways by opening up the collective
in this way.
But who is to say that such an extension will guard us against immunopolitics? Who can guarantee that an
increase of candidates for the Collective will prevent the formation of political auto-immune diseases? This will
only be possible, Esposito tells us, if—and only if—we consider the living’s characteristic of “impersonality.”
That which cannot be reduced to the “I,” nor to the identitarian “You,” but that is the “It” [Il], rather: something
undividable, from which nothing can be separated—perhaps because lack and negativity are already implied by
&!$%1/$74%imJ8%G'/%*-5!%"%5'+5$1&%'. %&!$%2)#)+,<%6*1'*)&'%=)22%:"*$%!)0*$2. %'+%K1)+'>"<%L"+,-)2!$0<%K)0'+('+<%
"+(%M$2$->$8%H)*%0)**)'+%)*%$4&/$0$23%($2)5"&$;%it consists of nothing less than achieving a synthesis between the negativity
of the impersonal and the positivity of life! Because “the living is that which always exceeds the objective parameters
of life,”20 it is its own proper norm, its proper capacity of problem resolution in the form of new individuations.
It is this process that is impersonal, in the sense that it cannot single out any assignable person, but instead
5'+5$/+*%"22%.'/0*%'. %2).$8%@!"&%)*%K1)+'>"N*%2$**'+?%.'/%!)0<%C$"5!%.'/0%'. %$4)*&$+5$%OPQ%!"*%"+%$R-"2%/),!&%&'%
live according to its proper possibilities”, in function of the “relations into which it is inserted.”21
@!-*<%&!$%/$"($/%=)22%!"#$%1"**$(%./'0%H$)($,,$/%"+(%S"&")22$%&'%K1)+'>"%"+(%M$2$->$8%G/'0%2"5F%&'%$45$**8%
It would be a mistake to see a contradiction here: rather, as we have already said, this passage is the necessary
path towards the emergence of a political philosophy capable of confronting immunopolitical disasters. That
!"#$%&'!"$()$&**+,(-(.&!&/0$ $ $ $ $
!"#$%&"'%(#)&%'*)'%'*#%+)$$),#%-."(%)&%)-/.()'0"&%"- %/&0'#%'.)&$1#&!#&1#%'"%'*#%)-/.()'0"&%"- %0(()&#&1#%

is completely evident. For the last sentence of Communauté, immunité et biopolitique still describes a way of being
a human being that would “eventually coincide only with its proper self.”22 When all of the words here are
taken one by one—eventually, coincide, only, proper, self—aren’t they precisely opposed to everything that
community stands for? A community that implies the eventual non-coincidence of the self with the proper?
2"3% '"% )-/.(% '*)'% 40-#% 0$% )&% 56&!070!)84#% +4)1#9% 30'*"6'% .#0&'."!610&,% '*#% 1"&1#+'% "- % '*#% 0&!070!6)4:)%
concept that Esposito at the same time wants to abandon in favor of the concept of individuation? Of course,
the question of immanence comes into play here, and Esposito seeks to think an immanence that would escape
'"')4%0((6&0;)'0"&%<'"%#$1)+#%immunentization=>%?6'%'*#%/#4!%"- %@#4#6;0)&%0(()&#&1#A%B$+"$0'"%3.0'#$A%5.#-#.$%
to nothing but itself.”23%C$&D'%'*0$%#E)1'4F%3*F%B$+"$0'"%1.0'010;#$%'*#".0#$%"- %)6'"G".,)&0;)'0"&A%"- %autopoiesis and
auto-regulation, namely because they end up “questioning the idea of exteriority itself ”24? To refer only to
"&#$#4-A%'"%/&)44F%1"0&10!#A%3"64!%'*0$%&"'%8#%'*#%)+#E%"- %0((6&0;)'0"&A%'*#%#&!%"- %)44%1"&')1'%30'*%'*)'%3*01*%
is other, even if this auto-reference is moving and changing?
Perhaps one should reverse the procedure on the basis of the analyses presented here, and use the operator
0(()&#&1#% )$% )% '#1*&0H6#% "- % #H6)40;)'0"&% '*)'% (6$'% .#'6.&% '"% '*#% ("!)40'0#$% "- % /&0'#% '.)&$1#&!#&1#% '*#%
irremediable status of “deprived” [démuni] being—“deprived,” “démuni,” in the etymological sense: without
-".'0/1)'0"&A%30'*"6'%+."'#1'0"&A%30'*"6'%,6).)&'##>%
TO LIFE
How can we evaluate, in conclusion, the political consequences of such a conception of the living? By taking
note of the change of pre-position that it demands—indeed, it is precisely this transformation that needs to take
place: to pass from a politics “on” life towards a politics “of ” life.25%I*0$%3"64!%(#)&A%/.$'%)&!%-".#("$'A%'"%()J#%
impossible any transcendent normativity, which will always have as its effect to prescribe a dreadful distinction
between a good life on the one hand, and on the other hand a life that deserves only death or abandonment.
But a politics “of ” life would also mean: doing full justice to the origin, the birth, the “continuous production
of difference.”26 What would be this justice that is still lacking? Let’s try to imagine it.
“If rights belong to the person, justice is of the order of the impersonal,”27 Esposito writes. He is commenting
on Simone Weil, who claims the following: “That which is sacred in the human being is not at all the person,
but the impersonal.” The impersonal would be the sacred—the Sacred? From our perspective, there is nothing
wrong with declaring sacred everything that is, the way Allen Ginsberg did for example.28 But if I say that
only that which is impersonal in the human being is sacred, am I not still in the process of reproducing a
separation against which one would need to guard [prémunir] oneself ? Wouldn’t my immanence dissimulate a
Transcendence? And if this is the case, how to avoid the obvious conclusion that pure immanence, which is
always pure Transcendence, inevitably ends up destroying itself… One can thus understand Esposito’s critique
of Rights [Droit], when these are reduced to the rights of certain determinate subjects, and when the other
side of this determination implies the production of those without rights [sans-droits]. Whence the necessity of
positing that there exists a justice that is always to-come, not as a waiting for what’s better (the kantian Idea in
its rather patient social democratic variation), but as the refusal of the existing order. It is without a doubt of
this justice that Esposito speaks to us: a justice that is only impersonal in order to refuse unjust divisions that
are all too personal.
It’s a justice that the concept of democracy appears unable to accept. But this concept is already invalid: as
Esposito shows,29 one can reasonably no longer speak of democracy (or perhaps of a republic) from the moment
3*#&%+"40'01$%&"%4"&,#.%$"4010'$%#H6)4%!#408#.)'07#%1)+)10'0#$%86'%8"!0#$A%3*01*%).#%)43)F$%!0--#.#&'%8F%!#/&0'0"&>%
What would be a better name for it? Biocracy? Would we have passed from parliamentary bureaucracy to
medicinal biocracy? Or should we speak of immunocracy? During the winter of 2009-2010, the French appear
'"%*)7#%#E+#.0#&1#!%'*#0.%/.$'%0((6&"1.)'01%6+*#)7)4%8F%.#-6$0&,%'"%4#'%'*#($#47#$%8#%7)110&)'#!%),)0&$'%)%K6%
30'*%)&%#+0!#(01%0(),0&).F>%I*#%0&-".(#!%.#$0$')&1#%"- %'*#%+"+64)'0"&$%!#K)'#!%'*0$%0(),0&).FA%)&!%0&%'*#%#&!A%
FREDERIC NEYRAT
it only uncovered the real of the pharmaceutical industries, namely their lack of money.30
!"#$#% &'(% #)*+,% -.$/+% .- % 0#(#1&*'2% 3$.,#&,*.(4% 5"#(% ,"#6% '$#% (.,% '332*#7% .33$#++*8#26% 09,% *(+,#'7% 7#1(#% '%
politics whose motto would be: to life. Without confusing themselves with life, and without imposing a single
norm onto it. A reading of Communauté, immunité et biopolitique leads towards this point, this other proposition
,"',% 3$#+933.+#+% -.$/+% .- % '9,.:.$;'(*<',*.(% ,"',4% 5"*2#% $#-9+*(;% ,.% 7#2#;',#% 3.5#$4% '&&#3,% ,"#% 2.++% .- % ,"#*$%
sovereignty. If the names demos and kratos no longer apply, perhaps one should, by reconsidering the terms
community and immunity from their common root (munus), invent a new form of municipality that would do
justice to the !"#$%&'#&' of forms of life. This would require the local suspension of immunitarian procedures, a
suspension that biology calls “tolerance.” A tolerance that would end the power over life or death that politics
has always claimed as its privilege.
FREDERIC NEYRAT is a French philosopher who is associated with the journals Multitudes, Rue
Descartes, and Ctheory. In French, he has published seven books ranging from philosophical study of
Heidegger to a book on biopolitics and catastrophe. The author of numerous articles on issues in
continental philosophy and contemporary culture, in he was recently a fellow of the Society for the
Humanities at Cornell University.
!"#$%&'!"$()$&**+,(-(.&!&/0$ $ $ $ $
NOTES
!"#$%&'#%()*#+**,-#.,*#/0*1#2345)*(+6#,*#1(+#)71086391)87#18#1(+#:0+79(#10,7*5,1)87#8; #<84+018#=*28*)18>*#Termini della politica,
titled Communauté, immunité, biopolitique: Repenser les termes de la politique (trans. Bernard Chamayou [Paris: Les Prairies Ordinaires,
2010]). The translator would like to thank Frédéric Neyrat for his helpful comments and suggestions. Parrhesia would like to
thank Les Prairies Ordinaires, and Rémy Toulouse in particular, for generously granting us the right to publish the essay’s
translation into English.]
2. [TN: In English in the original.]
3. This climate turn [TN: In English in the original] is very clear in an article by Dipesh Chakrabarty (“Le climat de l’histoire:
quatre thèses,” Revue Internationale des Livres et des Idées web, http://revuedeslivres.net/articles.php?idArt=485). Cf. my reading
of this essay: “Climate Turn. L’anthropo-scène, Chakrabarty et l’espèce humaine,” La Revue Internationale des Livres et des Idées
web, http://revuedeslivres.net/articles.php?idArt=547&page=actu&PHPSESSID=7f9865d4b912511c7c20b6df5e8a2322.
4. [TN: The French word “démuni” contains the root “munus,” which is central to Esposito’s philosophy of community and
immunity. Later on in the text, in a different context, I have also translated “démuni” as “deprived”; there also, I added the
word “démuni” in square brackets so as to preserve the reference to the word “munus.”]
5. Roberto Esposito, Bios: Biopolitics and Philosophy, trans. Timothy Campbell (Minneapolis: U of Minnesota P, 2008).
6. Theodor W. Adorno, Métaphysique. Concept et Problèmes, trans. Christophe David (Paris: Payot, 2006). 122, 217. [TN: Since the
French translation with which the author is working was unavailable while I was preparing this translation, I am translating
here directly from the French.]
7. Communauté, immunité, biopolitique, 160-161.
8. Bios, 13-44.
9. Bios, 39.
10. Bios, 59.
11. Communauté, immunité, biopolitique, 153.
12. Niklas Luhman, Soziale Systeme: Grundriss einer allgemeinen Theorie (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1984); Donna J. Haraway,
Simians, Cyborgs, and Women: The Reinvention of Nature (New York: Routledge, 1991); Jean Baudrillard, La transparence du mal: Essai
sur les phénomènes extrèmes (Paris: Galilée, 1990); Jacques Derrida, “Foi et Savoir,” in La Religion, edited by Jacques Derrida and
Gianni Vattimo (Paris : Éditions du Seuil, 1996); Peter Sloterdijk, Sphären I (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1998); to which
one must add: Alain Brossat, La Démocratie immunitaire#?@,0)*'#A,#B)*231+C#DEEFG"#H76#/7,55-#830#8.7#I86+*1#98710)431)87#18#
1(+*+#95,0)/9,1)87*#8; #1(+#J58K)9#8; #1(+#)II37+L'#Biopolitique des catastrophes (Paris: Éditions MF, 2008).
13. Roberto Esposito, Communitas. Origine et destin de la communautéC#10,7*"#&,6)7+#5+#A)0M)7#?@,0)*'#@N:C#DEEEG"#DDC#DO"#$%&'#P)79+#
the French translation with which the author is working was unavailable to me while I was preparing this translation, I was
unable to locate these quotations in the English translation of Esposito’s text. I am translating here directly from the French.]
16. To recall Benedict Anderson’s hypotheses in!"#$%&'()!*+##,'&-&(./!0(1(2-&+'.!+'!-3(!45&%&'.!$')!675($)!+8 !9$-&+'$:&.# (New
York: Verso, 2006).
20. Bios, 189.
21. Bios, 186.
23. Bios, 192.
28. “The world is holy! The soul is holy! The skin is holy! The nose is holy! The tongue and cock and hand and asshole is
holy! Everything is holy! everybody’s holy! everywhere is holy!”, and so on. In: Howl, and other poems (San Francisco: City Lights
Pocket Poets Series, 1956).
30. Industries for whom the only munus is money…
!"##$%&'"( ( ( ( ( ( ((((()*+,%#(-.(/(0.-.(/(12342
PHILOSOPHICAL ARCHAEOLOGY IN KANT, FOUCAULT,

AND AGAMBEN
Colin McQuillan
1. MISSING REFERENCES
A review of Michel Foucault’s The Order of Things appeared in the New York Times Book Review on February
28, 1971. The reviewer claimed that Foucault had called the work an “archaeology of the human sciences”
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Freud.”1 Foucault forcefully denied this charge, claiming in his response to have derived his conception of
archaeology from Immanuel Kant. “The reviewer does not know,” Foucault said, “that Kant used this word
in order to designate the history of that which renders necessary a certain form of thought.”2 Foucault then
advises the reviewer “to leaf through Kant,” even though Kant is “not as fashionable as Freud.”3
While he seems to take a great deal of pleasure in this display of erudition, Foucault does not tell his readers
where Kant addresses“the history of that which renders necessary a certain form of thought” or why he had
#$//"-' 7(' .$,#)$"+/+01;2' <+%#$%/(' 9","/1' 0"&(%,"&' (+*$,-' $3' %3&6"#7:"-' 6$&&$0"' 73' $3' %3&6"#7:"-' *+,=8' 73'
which he claims to have “pointed to this use” of archaeology in Kant.4 Yet the discussion in question does
not appear in any of the texts that Foucault published during that time. The editors of his Dits et Écrits have
appended a footnote to Foucault’s response to the New York Times review, referring readers to Part IV of The
Archaeology of Knowledge; however, Kant’s conception of archaeology is not discussed in the pages to which the
footnote refers. Nor is it discussed anywhere else in that work.5
In what follows, I will attempt to supply the discussion that is missing from Foucault’s response to the New York
Times review and The Archaeology of Knowledge. By exploring the concept of philosophical archaeology that Kant
develops in his late essay on the progress of metaphysics and relating it to Foucault’s archaeology of the human
sciences, I hope to shed some light on the critical exchange with Kant that is to be found in Foucault’s early
writings.6 I also hope to refute a claim recently advanced by Giorgio Agamben, who has taken up the question
of philosophical archaeology in an essay included in his book The Signature of All Things.7 In his essay, Agamben
suggests that Foucault’s archaeology is intended to reveal the arbitrariness of the distinction between the past
and the present and undermine any claim to an “essential” history. I will show, however, that both Kant and
<+%#$%/('$5:,9'()"'">7&("3#"'$3-'()"'6,7+,7(1'+5 '"67&("9+/+07#$/'#+3-7(7+3&'-"(",973730'*)$('#$3'!"'()+%0)('
!"#$%&%!"#'($)(*'"+%$%,-)#.)/(.01)2%3'(3$0)(.4)(,(56+.) ) )
within a certain historical period, conditions which are by no means arbitrary.
Even if the connection between Kant’s conception of philosophical archaeology and Foucault’s archaeology
of the human sciences is more tenuous than Foucault’s response to the New York Times review would suggest,
I will argue that it still provides a better model for understanding Foucault’s archaeology than the alternative
proposed by Agamben. Foucault’s reference to Kant helps to illuminate the role played by the historical a
priori in his archaeology, while Agamben’s essay obscures the epistemological priority Foucault ascribes to the
experience of order.
2. A PHILOSOPHICAL HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY

When Foucault said that Kant used the word archaeology “to designate the history of that which renders
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progress of metaphysics.8 It is here that Kant introduces the concept of “philosophical archaeology” (philosophische
Archäologie) and uses it to describe the conditions of a “philosophical” history of philosophy.9
Kant’s notes and the transcripts of his lectures show that he had an abiding interest in the history of philosophy
and its relation to the practice of “philosophizing.”10 While Kant acknowledges that there is something to be
gained by studying the history of philosophy and the works of other philosophers, he is primarily concerned
with the use one makes of one’s own reason when one is philosophizing. Kant denies that the Critique of Pure
Reason is “a critique of books and systems,” for example, precisely because it seeks to advance the cause of
philosophical knowledge. Kant is not concerned with what other philosophers have thought or written in his
Critique, because he thinks one must already possess philosophical knowledge, in order to judge the merits
of their work. Without a properly philosophical understanding of the history of philosophy, Kant says, “the
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groundless.”11 This, more than anything else, is what one must avoid, if one wishes to think philosophically
about philosophy.
The Prussian Royal Academy of the Sciences gave Kant the opportunity to explore the idea of a philosophical
history of philosophy more systematically when it posed the question “what real progress has metaphysics
made in Germany since the time of Leibniz and Wolff ?” for its prize-essay competition in 1790.12 Although
)."(<#%9"-'("=)"!9"9()."(9"%9;*!"(+,&($/>-*$$*,!$(+&,-(?@AB(/!)*;(?@AC1(6%!)(3%$(/!%>;"(),(8!*$.(.*$("$$%'(
%!9( !"D"&( $/>-*))"9( .*$( 3,&E( ),( )."( <#%9"-'F( G."&"( %&"1( ,+ ( #,/&$"1( -%!'( &"%$,!$( 6%!)( 9*9( !,)( 8!*$.( .*$(
essay, many of them having to do with his old age, his ill-health, and the controversies surrounding his critical
philosophy; however, one should not discount the possibility that there was a more philosophical reason for
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would face in presenting a “philosophical” account of the progress metaphysics had made in Germany since the
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6%!)("=H;%*!$( )."( 9*+8#/;)*"$(*!D,;D"9(*!( H&"$"!)*!0(%(H.*;,$,H.*#%;( %##,/!)(,+ ()."(H&,0&"$$( ,+ (-")%H.'$*#$(

when he explains his understanding of the question his essay was to answer. According to Kant, “the Royal
Academy of Sciences calls for a survey of the advances in one part of philosophy, in one part of academic
Europe, and also during one part of the present century.”14 Such a survey should be “a readily performable
task,” Kant says, “for it only has to do with history.”15 By listing the discoveries philosophers have made in
metaphysics in Germany in the period following Leibniz and Wolff, contestants would be able to produce a
history of philosophy comparable to the history of any other science. Because metaphysics is not a science like
astronomy or chemistry, mathematics or mechanics, however, Kant does not think it admits of the same kind
of historical explanation as do those sciences.
Metaphysics does not admit of the same kind of historical explanation as the other sciences because it is, in
Kant’s words, “a shoreless sea, in which progress leaves no trace behind, and whose horizon contains no visible
COLIN MCQUILLAN
goal by which one might perceive how nearly it has been approached.”16 An answer of the kind the Academy
expects is, for that reason, something “almost despaired of.”17 Even if a suitable answer could be found, Kant
fears that “the condition laid down, of presenting in brief compass the advances it has achieved, makes the
!"#$%&'()* +,-.(-,* /("''0118 Metaphysics is “by nature and intention a completed whole” for Kant, something
which is either “nothing or everything.”19 As such, the work of philosophy cannot be described in terms of the
“constant and unending” progress of the other sciences.20 Nor is any survey of the progress of metaphysics
possible, unless one is also willing to systematically reconstruct the whole science of metaphysics.
2-/3"(-*(4-*!"#$%&'("-/*4-*-5&6-,.(-/*,-+.,!"5+*(4-*5.(&,-*.5!*/%73-*7# *(4-*8%.!-6)9/*:&-/("75;*<.5(*/.)/*
4-*="''*.((-63(*(4-*(./>*/-(*?-#7,-*4"6;*.5!*-@3'."5*47=*6-(.34)/"%/*$5.'')*?-%.6-*.*/%"-5%-*"5*(4-*3-,"7!*
following Leibniz and Wolf. Kant credits Wolff with making valuable contributions to ontology, but in general
he denies that metaphysics had made any real progress since Aristotle.21 The halting steps made by dogmatists
and skeptics—ancient and modern—cannot be considered real progress, in Kant’s view, because metaphysics
is a science which is either “nothing or everything.”22 For that reason, metaphysics only achieves its “ultimate
purpose” (Endzweck) with the Critique of Pure Reason.23 It is the Critique of Pure Reason (4.(*$5.'')*6.>-/*6-(.34)/"%/*
“the science of progressing by reason from knowledge of the sensible to that of the super-sensible.”24 “If it has
done this in Germany, and done it since the days of Leibniz and Wolff,” Kant says, “then the problem of the
Royal Academy of Sciences will have been resolved.”25 In other words, because the Critique of Pure Reason was
3&?'"/4-!*"5*A-,6.5);*"5*(4-*3-,"7!*#7''7="5+*B-"?5"C*.5!*D7'##;*<.5(*?-'"-E-!*"(*=./*$5.'')*37//"?'-*(7*.!!,-//*
the “progress” (Fortschritt) of metaphysics.
Kant’s references to the historical and geographic conditions under which metaphysics had become a science
are clearly ironic, but it would be wrong to conclude that Kant thinks history and geography were entirely
incidental to the history of philosophy. The “temporal sequence” (Zeitordnung) through which metaphysics
becomes a science is “founded in the nature of man’s cognitive capacity” according to Kant.26 He thought that
human beings had a natural predisposition (Naturanlage) to metaphysics, in other words, because the idea of
6-(.34)/"%/*F'"-/*=47'')*3,-$+&,-!*"5*(4-*/7&'0127 It is for this reason that “the idea of a metaphysics inevitably
presents itself to human reason, and the latter feels a need to develop it.”28 What is crucial for the history
of philosophy, however, is that human reason develops the idea of metaphysics according to a determinate
temporal sequence, through which the history of philosophy achieves its ultimate purpose. This development
"/*57(*/4.3-!*?)*(4-*"5G&-5%-*7# *4"/(7,"%.'*%75("5+-5%"-/*7,*-63","%.'*#.%(/*7,*.5)*7(4-,*%75!"("75/*-@(-,5.'*(7*
philosophy. The historical development of philosophy is, on the contrary, determined by reason itself.
Kant explores the conditions under which one might be able to reconstruct the “temporal sequence” according
to which metaphysics develops in a “jotting” bearing the title ‘On a Philosophical History of Philosophy.’
While it seems that Kant never incorporated the contents of this “jotting” into the text of his essay on the
3,7+,-//*7# *6-(.34)/"%/;*"(*"/*/"+5"$%.5(*#7,*7&,*3&,37/-/;*?-%.&/-*"(*"/*4-,-*(4.(*<.5(*!-/%,"?-/*4"/*%75%-3("75*
of philosophical archaeology. According to Kant “a philosophical history of philosophy is itself possible, not
historically or empirically, but rationally, i.e. a priori. For although it establishes facts of reason, it does not
borrow them from historical narrative but draws them from the nature of human reason, as philosophical
archaeology.”29 Foucault surely had this passage in mind when he said that Kant called archaeology “the history
of that which renders necessary a certain form of thought.”30 Kant’s remarks make it clear that it is the nature of
human reason itself which “renders necessary a certain form of thought.” Philosophy articulates the principles
of human reason in history and according to a certain “temporal sequence,” to be sure, but the history of
philosophy is determined by reason rather than history, if history is considered to be a kind of empirical
knowledge of “things as they are.”31 To know the history of philosophy philosophically, that is, to know how
philosophy would be articulated by reason itself, as a science, and to know the history of philosophy in a way
that follows from the necessity of a priori principles—this is what Kant calls “philosophical archaeology.”
!"#$%&%!"#'($)(*'"+%$%,-)#.)/(.01)2%3'(3$0)(.4)(,(56+.) ) )
3. THE HISTORY OF THE THING WHICH HAS NOT HAPPENED

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Giorgio Agamben begins his recent essay on philosophical archaeology suggests that he was aware of Foucault’s
reference to Kant in his response to the New York Times review. Yet Agamben makes no mention or Foucault’s
reference to Kant or “the history of that which renders necessary a certain form of thought” as he passes
from his consideration of Kant to discussions of Nietzsche and Overbeck, Heidegger and Benjamin, Mauss,
Dumézil, and Freud. This oversight may be surprising, given Agamben’s preoccupation with philology and
the evident pleasure he takes in making curious and unlikely connections. His silence becomes less surprising,
however, when one considers the paradoxes Agamben attributes to Kant’s philosophical archaeology.
According to Agamben, the conception of a philosophical archaeology that Kant develops in the “jottings” for
his essay on the progress of metaphysics “runs the risk of lacking a beginning” and recounting “the history of
the thing which has not happened.”32 This introduces an “essential dishomogeneity” into Kant’s conception
of a philosophical history of philosophy, which Agamben traces back to the difference between the “factical
beginning” of the history of philosophy and the principles which determine the course of the development of
metaphysics a priori.33 Because Kant does not refer the beginning of philosophy to any “chronological datum,”
Agamben does not think the philosophical history of philosophy Kant describes can mark its beginning in time.34
The beginnings of the history of philosophy are philosophical, for Kant, so they must be sought in principles
which determine what “ought to happen” and “what could happen” in the history of philosophy, according to
the nature of human reason. Agamben takes this to mean that Kant’s conception of a philosophical history of
philosophy is only an idea, something which “can never truly be given as an empirically present whole.”35 While
Agamben does not explain why this should be the case, we may suppose that it is because “what should happen”
and “what could happen” are possibilities, whose potential “not to be” cannot be excluded. The realization
of the philosophical history of philosophy is, for that reason, always deferred, and the gap between the real
history of philosophy and the ideal history of what Kant thinks philosophy could be or should happen becomes
“essential,” because the real history of philosophy and the ideal of a philosophical history of philosophy never
coincide.36
Although Agamben insists that Kant’s philosophical archaeology becomes “the history of the thing which
has not happened,” Agamben also regards the “essential dishomogeneity” of Kant’s philosophical history of
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is because Kant excludes what could happen and what should happen in the history of philosophy from its real
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to his own understanding of the nature of human reason. Agamben describes a similar logic at work in
philology, history, anthropology, and psychoanalysis in his essay, arguing in each case that these sciences exclude
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integrity of the order they impose on the objects of their investigations.37$>/$&'$*+56$46$%#<+&+:$/"#$84#:&++&+:;$
*, $.$'(&#+(#$&+$*33*'&/&*+$/*$7"./$(.@#$84#,*1#;$/"./$'(&#+(#$/"./$*+#$&'$.45#$/*$%#5&@&/$.$3.1/&()5.1$<#5%$*, $
inquiry. In so doing, however, one establishes a relation between what is included within the order of knowledge
and what is excluded from it.38$B"./$&'$#C(5)%#%$/"#+$4#(*@#'$+*$5#''$%#<+&/&9#$*, $/"./$'(&#+(#$/".+$7"./$&'$
included and what is included simply becomes what is not excluded.
The logic of this operation is the same as the logic of the ban that Agamben describes in Homo Sacer. Agamben
calls the ban “the power of delivering something over to itself, which is to say, the power of maintaining itself
in relation to something presupposed as nonrelational.”39 In Homo Sacer, Agamben tried to show how this logic
was paradoxical, because it both excluded bare life from the political order and included it within that order
at the same time. Because a political life is a life which is subject to sovereign power, Agamben argues, bare life
must be understood as a life which has no relation to the political order and which is not governed by sovereign
power. Insofar as subjection to sovereign power is something which is imposed on life, however, the idea of a
political life necessarily presupposes the idea of a life which precedes political subjection. Instead of being a
COLIN MCQUILLAN
life which is outside the political sphere and free from sovereign decision regarding its life and death, bare life
comes to be included within the political order as life that is to be subjected. The history of modern political
institutions illustrates the disastrous consequences of this logic and the ongoing attempts sovereign power has
made to include bare life within the political order.40
In his essay on philosophical archaeology, Agamben casts archaeology as the science which exposes the
paradoxes of the logic of presupposition and exclusion. Unlike Kant, whose philosophical archaeology merely
reproduces this logic, Agamben thinks Foucault acknowledges the gap between “a heterogenous stratum that
is not placed in the position of a chronological origin” and something “qualitatively other,” which establishes
the relation between what is excluded from that order as heterogenous and what is included within the order
of knowledge.41 This gap is constitutive for archaeology, according to Agamben, because it renders that which
is included intelligible and establishes its credentials as knowledge. Instead of presenting this knowledge as
essential and necessary, however, Agamben claims that Foucault’s archaeology establishes the distinction
between knowledge and its presupposed yet excluded other “in order to work on it, deconstruct it, and detail it
to the point where it gradually erodes, losing its originary status.”42
What is central to archaeology, for Agamben, is “the movement of freedom” that Foucault attributes to dreams
and the imagination in his ‘Preface’ to Binswanger’s Dream and Existence.43 Foucault had praised Binswinger for
recognizing the “poetic”function of dreams and the imagination, rather than emphasizing their role in wish
!"#$##%&'()*+,*-.&"/*0+/*/1'&244 The “movement of freedom” to which Agamben refers is this imaginative
“poetics.” Instead of proposing an objective account of the past “as it was,” Agamben thinks Foucault’s
archaeology exercises its “freedom” and its “poetic” license, conjuring up an image of the past, which it then
proceeds to deconstruct.45 Through this movement, Agamben suggests, archaeology exposes the past as a
projection of the present, which contains the present within itself. This in turn reveals the image of the past
to be a history of the present, because it shows how the present recreates itself as the “future anterior” of the
past.46 By making the past the origin of the present order, while simultaneously excluding the past as “other”
than that order, the present secures a beginning for itself and saves that beginning from critical scrutiny. The
origin of the past is simply the “will have been” of the present, whose image is “derealized” by archaeological
excavations.47
Recognizing the logic of inclusion and exclusion at work in our image of the past allows us to free ourselves
from the fantasy that the set of inclusions and exclusions that order our lives are somehow the “archaic”
origin of our present reality. Far from being an inheritance which we must carry into the future, archaeology
3.&,&'(,*(0&*3+,(*+,*+*41.5*1! *$6(71')*,1%&(07'8*40760*7,*#7(&.+##9*:%+/&*"32;48 We may study the past and
play with the distinctions projected into the past by the present, but we are under no obligation to regard them
as essential and original features of our individual and collective modes of existence.49 This, I think, is the
concrete meaning of redemption for Agamben, because it “unworks” the distinctions that organize our lives
and our political institutions, and gives us the freedom to create new forms of life.
4. THAT WHICH RENDERS NECESSARY A CERTAIN FORM OF THOUGHT

It should be clear by now that Kant and Agamben present very different accounts of the nature and value of
philosophical archaeology. Yet neither of them seems to correspond to the archaeology of the human sciences
that Foucault undertakes in The Order of Things and The Archaeology of Knowledge. This is all the more curious,
since Foucault claimed to have derived his understanding of archaeology from Kant and because Agamben is
allegedly drawing his account of philosophical archaeology from Focault. By weighing the different conceptions
of philosophical archaeology which are to be found in Kant and Agamben and comparing them to Foucault’s
own archaeological practices, however, it may be possible to assess their relevance for our understanding of
Foucault and his reasons for relating his own investigations to Kant’s philosophical archaeology in his response
to the New York Times review.
!"#$%&%!"#'($)(*'"+%$%,-)#.)/(.01)2%3'(3$0)(.4)(,(56+.) ) )
The fact that Foucault claims to have derived his conception of archaeology from Kant does not prove that
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of the principles of a philosophical history of philosophy with the principles of human reason as evidence of
the kind of subjectivism and anthropologism he so sharply criticized in phenomenology. In the ‘Forward’ to the
English edition of The Order of Things, Foucault says he rejects phenomenology, precisely because it “places its
own point of view at the origin of all historicity—which, in short, leads to a transcendental consciousness.”50
While these remarks appear to be directed against Husserl, later chapters reveal Kant’s critical philosophy
to be “the threshold of our modernity,” which makes man the privileged object of the human sciences.51
Phenomenology is for Foucault only a late and confused expression of this development, causing it to “topple
over, willy-nilly, into anthropology,” despite its claim to be a pure philosophy and a rigorous science.52 If Kant’s
philosophical archaeology could be said to follow a similar trajectory, founding its philosophical claims about
the history of philosophy on a theory of the subject, then many of the objections which Foucault raised against
phenomenology could also be leveled against Kant.
The archaeology of the human sciences that Foucault presents takes a theory of discursive formations as
its starting point, rather than a theory of the subject.53 By focusing on the discursive practices which order
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between the ways knowledge is ordered in each period. Because Foucault brackets questions of causality in
The Order of Things<(/"-+0+*<(.'(.2(,.4;$#&'('"(2++(/"-(/.2(%*$/%+"&")1($"#&,(=+(2%.,('"(,+2$*.=+(>'/+(/.2'"*1(
of that which renders necessary a certain form of thought.”54 While Foucault emphasized the necessity with
which certain forms of thought are determined in his response to the New York Times review, it is impossible to
recount the history of that which “renders necessary” (rendre necessaire) a certain form of thought, when one has
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determined in a way that is not merely possible and not merely actual, for reasons which are neither arbitrary
nor contingent. Unless one is willing to explain why something takes place, in other words, it is impossible to
determine how it might be rendered necessary. Foucault’s resistance to causal explanation distances him further
from Kant’s conception of philosophical archaeology, because it prevents him from saying anything about the
necessity of the discursive practices he considers.
The impossibility of describing the necessity “a certain form of thought” in archaeological terms does not
mean that Foucault is committed to the peculiar conception of arbitrariness that characterizes Agamben’s
understanding of philosophical archaeology. By making archaeology a kind of conjuring trick, which creates an
image of the past as the presupposed but excluded origin of the present, Agamben denies that there is anything
which is necessary about the forms thought takes in certain periods.55 The very idea that something would
render a certain form of thought necessary is absurd, for Agamben, because he regards history as a catalog of
the distinctions we use to order our thoughts and our activities, which is projected into the past.56 The effects
of the distinction between life and death, man and animal, alien and citizen, friend and enemy and many
other distinctions may be real parts of our social and political history, but these distinctions are simply works of
;$'."6857 Attributing any kind of necessity to such distinctions would be the most obscene kind of obscurantism,
from Agamben’s perspective, because it would give them the power and authority of an ontological foundation,
which would guarantee their legitimacy.58 By revealing the ungroundedness of the distinctions which order our
lives and thoughts and showing them to be arbitrary and inessential, Agamben thinks we suspend their effects
and free ourselves from the illusion that the catastrophe of the present was unavoidable.
To declare the distinctions which order knowledge in a given period to be arbitrary would be going too far for
Foucault. Foucault does not address questions of causality in his archaeology, because he regards the causal
explanations which are usually employed in the history of philosophy and science to be “more magical than
effective.”59 Explanations which claim that a particular event was determined by “the spirit of the age,” for
example, are not so different from those which purport to explain how the soul moves the body. Citing the
invention of the telescope as the cause of the revolution in modern astronomy and talking about how the
attempt to address social inequality leads to totalitarianism are, for similar reasons, too simplistic to be taken
COLIN MCQUILLAN
seriously as explanations. Anyone with a sense of the complexity of the forces which drive historical change
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merely acknowledges the difference between description and explanation, while recognizing the complexity of
the causal relations between different historical events.
Foucault avoids the “magical thinking” of traditional narrative history by describing the transformations which
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limit archaeology to empirical observation, simply by privileging description over explanation. The force of
Foucault’s archaeology comes from the recognition that the empirical is the product and not the principle of
the order of knowledge. “There is no similitude and no distinction,” Foucault claims, “that is not the result of
a precise operation and of the application of a preliminary criterion.”61 The attempt to distinguish various
“empiricities” according to the qualities we observe in them must therefore presuppose principles of similarity
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order of knowledge. For Foucault, this means that empirical phenomena become visible through a “hidden
network that determines the way they confront one another.”62 While Foucault acknowledges that the order
which derives from this network “has no existence except in the grid created by a glance, an examination, a
language,” he insists that the existence of order is as undeniable as its effects.63 Foucault’s archaeology of the
human sciences is concerned with the “experience” of that order, which he regards as a “historical a priori”
allowing different ideas, sciences, and rationalities to become manifest in different periods.64
Foucault’s “historical a priori” is very different from the universal and necessary conditions of possible experience
/0'/$?',/$"(&,/"4&1$",$/0&$Critique of Pure Reason, but it is not an oxymoron as Agamben suggests.65 In his essay
on philosophical archaeology, Agamben argues that there can be no historical a priori, because a historical a
priori would have to be “inscribed within a history.”66 This means that a historical a priori have to be projected
backwards onto the past by the present. A historical a priori would therefore have to “constitute itself a posteriori
with respect to this history,” rendering the historical a priori both a priori and a posteriori.67 Such a paradoxical
formulation is striking, but it not to be found in Foucault. Foucault’s archaeological inquiries are motivated
by the experience of order and its effects upon knowledge. Order is experienced, not because it is conjured
up by a certain form of inquiry and projected onto the past, but because it has regular and observable effects
on knowledge and discourse. Even if order is historically contingent and different orders obtain in different
periods, the fact of order remains, along with its effects.
The thread which ties Foucault’s archaeology to Kant’s conception of philosophical archaeology is perhaps to
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of order and the posteriority of inquiry and its objects. Knowledge of order, in other words, is possible because
order really exists. We recognize empirical objects within a pre-established framework, because that is what
it means to “experience” order. Kant appeals to universal and necessary principles to determine that order,
whether they are the pure concepts of the understanding or the principles which allow a science of metaphysics
to become manifest in history. The temporal order according to which the idea of metaphysics develops is
consequently a necessary order, which cannot fail to achieve its ultimate purpose. Foucault distances himself
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under the sign of necessity. Nor is Foucault concerned with the “ultimate purpose” of that order, as it might
be determined by human reason. Questions of modality and teleology are simply beyond the scope of the
archaeological inquiry he undertakes in The Order of Things and The Archaeology of Knowledge.
Even if he cannot go so far as to say that thought “necessarily” assumes a certain form during a certain period,
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times. Regarded as the historical a priori of a historical form of thought, Foucault even acknowledges that the
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upon this point, Foucault refutes the arbitrariness that Agamben attributes to the distinctions that organize our
lives and thoughts. Foucault associates his archaeology of the human sciences and, indeed, knowledge as such,
with Kant’s philosophical archaeology, simply because he recognizes the priority of the order that serves as the
historical condition of the possibility and actuality of knowledge.
5. CONCLUSION
Foucault shares with Agamben a concern for the effects of knowledge and the desire to destabilize the present
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distinctions which are projected onto the past by the present. According to Agamben’s reading, Foucault’s
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Foucault’s own accounts of his archaeology, however, suggests a rather different view.
Foucault associates his archaeology of the human sciences with Kant’s philosophical archaeology, because
he takes order to be the condition of the possibility and the condition of the existence of knowledge. While
Foucault does not follow Kant in his attempt to determine the conditions of the possibility of all possible
experience and the principles governing the progress of philosophy in history, he seeks to understand the
effects of that order on historical forms of knowledge. It is for this reason that he addresses his archaeological
),=$*3)0.3)!,*&3!&3($&$4)*3$1!-!0)+.-&:$-#*&!5 &3($&"$,.)**.,+$9&3($&+-.**)+.-&.0$9&.,#&1!#$",)38%&
The considerable differences between Foucault’s historical analyses and Kant’s philosophical archaeology must
be stressed. Yet these differences are not indicative of a fundamental distinction between Kant’s philosophical
history of philosophy and Foucault’s archaeology of the human sciences; instead, they qualify a common
interest in the way a priori principles affect the historical forms of knowledge. Foucault’s claim, in his response
to the New York Times review of The Order of Things, that his use of the word archaeology is anticipated by Kant
should therefore be taken as a testament to Foucault’s knowledge of Kant’s works and his proximity to the
Kantian tradition.69
COLIN MCQUILLAN received his PhD. in philosophy from Emory University, where he wrote a
dissertation on Kant’s conception of critique. Colin’s current research focuses on German philosophy
from Leibniz to Kant. In addition, Colin has published several articles on the work of Michel Foucault,
Jacques Rancière, and Giorgio Agamben.
COLIN MCQUILLAN
NOTES
1. George Steiner, “The Mandarin of the Hour—Michel Foucault,” New York Times Book Review (February 21, 1971).
2. Michel, Foucault, “Monstrosities in Criticism,” Translated by Robert J. Matthews, Diacritics 1 (1971, 60). See also Michel
Foucault, “Les Monstrousités de la critique,” Included in Michel Foucault: Dits et Écrits I (1954-1975), Edited by Daniel Defert
et al. Paris: Gallimard, 2001, 1089-1090.
3. Monstrosities in Criticism, 60. Les Monstrousités de la critique, 1090.
4. Monstrosities in Criticism, 60. Les Monstrousités de la critique, 1090.
5. See Les Monstrousités de la critique, 1089. See also Michel Foucault, The Archaeology of Knowledge and the Discourse on Language,
Translated by A.M. Sheridan Smith, New York: Pantheon Books, 1972, 135-195.
6. The details of Foucault’s early appropriations of Kant are analyzed in great detail in Marc Djaballah, Kant, Foucault, and
the Forms of Experience, New York: Routledge, 2008.
7. Giorgio Agamben, “Philosophical Archaeology,” Included in The Signature of All Things. Translated by Luca D’Isanto with
Kevin Attell. New York: Zone Books, 2009, 93. See also Giorgio Agamben, “Philosophical Archaeology,” Law and Critique
20:3 (2009, 211-231).
8. “Jottings” is the term used by the editors of the Cambridge Edition of the Works of Immanuel Kant to designate those parts of
Kant’s handschriftliche Nachlaß which are called löse Blätter in the standard Akademie Ausgabe (AA) of Kant’s Gesammelte Schriften.
A more precise translation would be “loose sheets,” but I have followed the convention established by the Cambridge edition
in my references to Kant’s “jottings.”
9. Kant actually refers to a philosophirenden or “philosophizing” history of philosophy. It is important to note that talk of a
“philosophizing” history of philosophy is as unusual and unconventional in German as it is in English, but Kant’s usage
corresponds to the emphasis he places on the practice and activity of philosophizing in other texts. I have nevertheless
preferred to call Kant’s history “philosophical” rather than “philosophisizing,” for reasons of style.
10. See, for example, Immanuel Kant, Lectures on Metaphysics, Edited and Translated by Karl Ameriks and Steve Narragon,
New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997, 299-302 (AA XXVIII: 531).
11. Immanuel Kant, Critique of Pure Reason. Translated by Paul Guyer and Allen W. Wood. New York: Cambridge University
Press, 1998. pg. 150 (A13/B27).
!"#$%&'$()*+',-./$01'/2345$6*/$,4237*2'+$8-$32/$)45)'95$*8412$2&'$:94635:$35;1'5)'$4< $=*523*53/,$*5+$32/$,',8'9/$+'/39'$
to save philosophy from the “great confusion” (grosse Verwirrung>$6941:&2$8-$2&'$35;1'5)'$4< $=*523*53/,#$?''$(+4@< $A*95*)BC$
Geschichte der königlich Preußischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin (Erster Band, Zweite Hälfte), Berlin: Reichsdruckerei, 1900,
609-610.
13. Immanuel Kant, “What real progress has metaphysics mad in Germany since the time of Leibniz and Wolff ?” Translated
by Henry Allison, Included in Immanuel Kant: Theoretical Philosophy After 1781, Edited by Henry Allison and Peter Heath, New
York: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Henry Allison provides a useful survey of the history of the text of Kant’s essay in
his editorial introduction in the Cambridge edition of Immanuel Kant: Theoretical Philosophy After 1781 (339-442).The text we
have today was compiled shortly after Kant’s death from three different manuscripts by Kant’s friend Friedrich Theodor
D35B#$ %&'$ 493:35*@$ ,*51/)93E2/$ &*7'$ 8''5$ @4/2$ *5+$ 2&'$ /&492)4,35:/$ 4< $ D35B./$ '+32493*@$ E94)'+19'/$ ,*B'$ 32$ +3<F)1@2$ 24$
determine the authenticity of Kant’s text. A certain degree of caution is therefore necessary in attributing the claims found
in What real progress has metaphysics mad in Germany since the time of Leibniz and Wolff ? to Kant. The positions attributed to Kant in
2&3/$'//*-$&*7'C$&46'7'9C$8''5$)45F9,'+$8-$)4,E*93/45$632&$=*52./$542'/$*5+$@')219'/#
14. What real progress has metaphysics made in Germany, 353 (AA XX:259).
23. What real progress has metaphysics made in Germany, 353 (AA XX:260). The idea that an Endzweck is an “ultimate purpose”
plays an important role in Kant’s writings on teleology. See, for example, Immanuel Kant, Critique of the Power of Judgment,
Translated by Paul Guyer and Eric Matthews, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000, 294 (AA V: 426).
27. What real progress has metaphysics made in Germany, 419 (AA XX:342). See also Critique of Pure Reason, pg. 147 (B21-22).
28. What real progress has metaphysics made in Germany, 419 (AA XX:342). See also Critique of Pure Reason, pg. 147 (B21-22).
!"#$%&%!"#'($)(*'"+%$%,-)#.)/(.01)2%3'(3$0)(.4)(,(56+.) ) )
30. Monstrosities in Criticism, 60. See also Les Monstrousités de la critique, 1089.
32. Philosophical Archaeology, 81.
33. Philosophical Archaeology, 82-83.
35. Philosophical Archaeology, 82. Agamben admits that “what could or ought to have been given” in philosophy is something
!"#!$%&'("#&)$*+'$,#-$./0"!$1'23$14!$"'$#5)*$)400')!)$!"#!$!"'$('#5/6#!/*+$*7 $!"#!$&*))/1/5/!-$/)$/+8+/!'5-$,'7'((',2$9"'+$"'$
says “at the moment, they exist only in the condition of partial objects or ruins.” Because the realization of the possibility
of what could be and what should be is never realized “at the moment,” the possibility of what could and what should take
place in the history of philosophy must always remain a possibility with respect to the present, something which is forever
“to come,”which, for that reason, never is. Jacques Derrida has analyzed this logic in many places, especially with respect to
“democracy to come.” See Jacques Derrida, Rogues: Two Essays on Reason, Translated by Pascale-Anne Brault and Michael
:##)2$ ;!#+7*(,<$ ;!#+7*(,$ =+/>'()/!-$ ?('))2$ @AAB2$ CDEFGH$ I0#.1'+$ "#)$ *1J'K!',$ !*$ !"'$ 9#-$ !"/)$ 5*0/K$ /+8+/!'5-$ ,'7'()$ !"'$
%4+9*(L/+03$*7 $#+$45!/.#!'5-$8K!/*+#5$/+J4+K!/*+$1-$/+!'(./+#15-$,'K*+)!(4K!/+0$/!2$.#/+!#/+/+0$/!2$I0#.1'+$)#-)2$%/+$#$
spectral life.” See Giorgio Agamben, State of Exception, Translated by Kevin Attell, Chicago: The University of Chicago
Press, 2005, 64. The difference between Derrida and Agamben on this issue is discussed by Catherine Mills, The Philosophy of
Agamben, Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2009, 121.
36. Philosophical Archaeology, 82. Agamben’s discussion of the paradoxes of Kant’s philosophical archaeology and his defense
of Foucauldian archaeology should be compared with his criticism of deconstruction in Giorgio Agamben, “Theory of
Signatures,” Included in The Signature of All Things, Translated by Luca D’Isanto and Kevin Attell, New York: Zone Books,
2009. 78-81. It should also be noted that Kant did not maintain the view that Agamben attributes to him at the beginning
of his essay on philosophical archaeology. Agamben points to a passage in Kant’s Logic, where Kant says that philosophy
cannot be learned, because “it is not yet given,” but Agamben misrepresents the context in which Kant made this claim
and its implications when he suggests that the whole of philosophy can never be given as such for Kant. Instead of arguing
that philosophy is only an idea and does not exist in reality, as Agamben claims, Kant is arguing, in the passage from the
Logic—and in the corresponding passage in his lectures, which I have cited in note 8—that one must philosophize, in order
to become a philosopher. One cannot simply memorize what other philosophers have said, taking their words to be true
on the authority of the wise men who have spoken them. One must think for onself, if one wishes to learn philosophy,
and approach philosophical questions with one’s own reason. When one has done that, then Kant thinks one has “given”
oneself philosophy. Kant cannot mean that it is impossible for philosophy to be given at all, or that philosophy cannot be an
empirically given whole, because Kant claims to have made metaphysics a science in the Critique of Pure Reason (1781/1787).
Kant went on to defend the claim that his “critique” had made metaphysics a science in his Progomena to any future metaphysics
that will be able to come forward as a science (1783), !"#$#%&'()*+,-#./+,+0-#$"-#"+.#(,&1&23+#)4 #53,+#,+$')"#&'#1)#0+#6$%+#'35+,73)3'#0-#$"#)8%+,#
one (1790), and the drafts of his prize-essay on the progress of metaphysics (1793/1804). In his late writing against Fichte,
Kant even claimed that his Critique contained the entire science of metaphysics, a claim which is contradicted by the text of
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that Kant thought that “what could happen” and “what should happen” in the history of philosophy could not be realized.
38. For a helpful account of Agamben’s critique of this logic, see Alexander García Düttmann, “Never Before, Always
Already: Notes on Agamben and the Category of Relation,” Angelaki: A Journal of the Theoretical Humanities 6:3 (2001, 3-6).
39. Giorgio Agamben, Homo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life, Translated by Daniel Heller-Roazen, Stanford: Stanford
University Press, 1998, 109-110.
40. See, for example, Homo Sacer, 148, 169-176.
44. Philosophical Archaeology, 104. See also Michel Foucault, Michel, “Introduction,” Included in Ludwig Binswanger, and
Michel Foucault, Dream and Existence, Translated by Keith Hoeller, Atlantic Highlands: Humanities Press, 1993, 72.
48. T"'$U+05/)"$9*(,$%8K!/*+3$/)$,'(/>',$7(*.$!"'$V#!/+$9":+,+, which means “to touch,” but also “to shape” and “to form.”
Etymologically, the term need not refer to works of literature, but may be extended to anything which is “shaped” or “formed”
*($'>'+$%.#,'H3$W'#,/+0$!"'$>#(/*4)$%8K!/*+)3$I0#.1'+$('7'()$!*$/+$"/)$9*(L)$#)$!"/+0)$9"/K"$#('$%.#,'$4&3$$/)$"'5&745$7*($
understanding his critique of the distinctions distinction between the norm and exception, law and anomie, man and animal,
and so forth.
COLIN MCQUILLAN
!"#$%&$'()$*+,&+-./&.)$01 $*'234$/&3$56/47$*))$State of Exception, 63-64.

50. Michel Foucault, The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences, New York: Vintage Books, 1994, xiv. Similar claims
are to be found in The Archaeology of Knowledge, where Foucault is even more explicit in his criticism of the phenomenological
approaches to history. It is here that Foucault famously accuses phenomenology of “transcendental narcissism” and claims
that his archaeology aims to “free history from the grip of phenomenology.” See The Archaeology of Knowledge, 203.
51. The Order of Things, 319.
52. The Order of Things, 220, 248.
53. The Order of Things, xiv. The theory of discursive formations to which Foucault refers is articulated more generally in The
Archaeology of Knowledge, 31-39.
54. The Order of Things, xii-xiii.
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feature of Agamben’s thought, but it is perhaps most clearly expressed at the end of Language and Death, a work dedicated to
'()$>2&,;02&3)3&)**?$01 $5(+60*05(4#$@&$'()$.0&')A'$01 $/$3+*.2**+0&$01 $'()$;)6/'+0&$<)'B))&$:+06)&.)$/&3$*/.;+-.)7$C,/=<)&$
argues that “man, the animal possessing language, is, as such, ungrounded... he has no foundation except in his own action...
in every case, the action of the human community is grounded only in another action... the ungroundedness of all human
praxis is hidden here in the fact that an action... is abandoned to itself and thus becomes the foundation for all legal behavior;
the action is that which, remaining unspeakable and intransmissible in every action and in all human language, destines man
to community and to tradition.” This means that the categories governing human language, communities, traditions, and
laws have their foundations in human action. The acts which “found” those languages, communities, traditions, and laws
may have real and even disastrous consequences, but they are ultimately gratuitous. They cannot be considered necessary, for
Agamben, because they are arbitrary. See Giorgio Agamben, Language and Death: The Place of Negativity. Translated by Karen
E. Pinkus and Michael Hardt. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1991, 105.
57. See Giorgio Agamben, The Open: Man and Animal, Translated by Kevin Attell, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2004,
35-36. See also Giorgio Agamben, State of Exception, Translated by Kevin Attell, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005,
86-88.
58. At the end of his essay on philosophical archaeology, Agamben argues that “the human sciences will be capable of
reaching their decisive epistemological threshold only after they have rethought, from the bottom up, the very idea of an
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likely that Agamben would deny that these distinctions have any “ontological anchoring,” which would provide them with I
have simply called “a foundation in “reality.”
59. The Order of Things, xii-xiii.
60. The Order of Things, xii-xiii, xxii, 218. See also The Archaeology of Knowledge, 5-6, 169-177.
61. The Order of Things, xx. See also The Order of Things, 252, where Foucault begins to discuss the role this approach to the
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that isolate them and surround their outlines—all these will now be presented to our gaze only in an already composed state,
already articulated in that nether darkness that is fomenting them with time.”
62. The Order of Things, xx.
63. The Order of Things, xx. Agamben’s position could be said to emphasize this element of Foucault’s argument.
64. The Order of Things, xxi-xxii.
68. The phrase “conditions of existence” (les conditions d’existence) appears several times in The Order of Things, often in
conjunction with Foucault’s discussion of Cuvier. See The Order of Things, 274. It acquires a more general methodological
*+,&+-./&.)$+&$The Archaeology of Knowledge. See The Archaeology of Knowledge, 27-28, 38, 116-117. Foucault also sometimes refers
to the historical a priori as the “condition of reality” (condition de réalité) of statements, which I take to be lexically equivalent
to the idea of a “condition of existence.” See The Archaeology of Knowledge, 127.
69. I have described the limits within which I think Foucault may be described as a Kantian in Colin McQuillan,
“Transcendental Philosophy and Critical Philosophy in Kant and Foucault: Response to Colin Koopman,” Foucault Studies 9
(2010, 145-155).
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A TASTE FOR LIFE

(ON SOME SUICIDES IN DELEUZE AND SPINOZA)
Jason E. Smith
Gilles Deleuze’s book-length account of Foucault’s thought, Foucault, published two years after the Foucault’s
death, sets out to decipher the secret or latent systematicity of that thought’s unfolding.1 Such a systematicity
would seem to be belied by the hazards and turns of Foucault’s itinerary, marked deeply as it was by sudden
shifts in perspective, object and methodology. It is this very capacity for sudden mutations that was, for many,
the strength of his thought. As early as 1969, in the “Introduction” to The Archeology of Knowledge, Foucault
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moving in, admonishing readers who object to his brusque shifts in orientation in this way: “do not ask who I
am and do not ask me to remain the same: leave it to our bureaucrats and our police to see that our papers are
in order.”2 Deleuze underlines that, on the surface and indeed in its most interior movement, Foucault’s thought
proceeds by jolts, and mutates only under the bottled-up pressure of an impasse. The crisis witnessed by the
long period of silence at the end of his life—between the publication of La Volonté de savoir in 1976 and L’Usage
des plaisirs in 1984, on the eve of his death—is said to be exemplary of this halting trajectory. And yet after his
death it becomes incumbent on thought itself, in its confrontation with Foucault’s published work, to decipher
the “logic of a thought” and to demonstrate the “necessary” passage from one phase or stratum of that thought
to another: “Obviously, what is important is to show how one passes necessarily from one these determinations
to the next.”3
That Deleuze’s scansion of Foucault’s work would result in the isolation of three'&%*32(26%'!%"2#&$'#"'7#7%3($'
necessarily casts a “systematic” shadow over it, while placing a special pressure on the concluding phase—in this
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Sexuality trilogy. More telling, Deleuze then proceeds to characterize these three periods of Foucault’s thought
in terms that deliberately, if not explicitly, recall the articulations found in Kant’s critical system. Deleuze sees
Foucault’s thought unfolding in three moments dealing successively with questions of knowledge, power and the
aesthetic: thought-as-archive, thought-as-strategy, thought-as-artistic.4 To these images of thought correspond
a given form or type of “rule”: the determined forms of knowledge, the “constraining rules” of commands
or ethical imperatives, and what Deleuze refers to the set of “facultative rules” that evaluate a given “style” of
existence. And just as Kant’s third critique negotiates the vast Abgrund that opens between the domains of nature
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late Foucault’s sudden turn to operations of subjectivation and to what Deleuze calls a pensée-artiste is compelled
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Why will another dimension be necessary for Foucault, why is he going to discover subjectivation
as distinct both from knowledge and power? […] Foucault had the feeling, more and more after La
Volonté de savoir, that he was in the process of closing himself up in relations of power […] How to
cross the line, how to surpass, in their turn, relations of power? Or are you instead condemned to a
face-off with Power, either seizing hold of it or submitting to it?5
The answer is neither: you will neither go beyond relations of power nor be necessarily condemned to a face-off
with a homogenous bloc of “Power” that can only be appropriated, undergone or resisted. The return to the
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power by performing an operation on it, “straddling” or “folding” it in such a way, Deleuze proposes, that it is
made to “affect itself ” rather than act on other forces.6 Such an operation, however, is less performed or carried
by a subject than the genesis of the subjective itself. Consequently, Deleuze suggests that what is called a process
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mode and not a personal subject.”7
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Deleuze’s work on Spinoza will recognize his distinction between an intensive mode—or what he will also call
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of his account of “Spinozism.”8 This intensive mode is a singular essence that can be actualized in existence
by extensive parts that are external both to us—they belong to us insofar as they realize our essence, yet do
not constitute this same essence—and to one another. The “intense” part of ourselves is, to the contrary, not
made up of parts at all: it is a part of ourselves insofar as it a part of substance, an “affection” of substance
that expresses substance in a certain way or mode (modus). Our intense part is therefore a part of substance
insofar as the latter “be explained [or explicated] through” it (EVP36)9; this part or essence takes the form of
a “relation” that is then realized in the form of extensive parts that can always undergo mutations that force
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then, simply a type of encounter that acts on me in such a way that the extensive parts that realize my essence
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that hold together by means of internal conatus or desire to persevere in existence, singular modes all agree or
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To the extent that the mind understands the essential agreement between modes through the formation of
“common notions” and experiences itself as a part of divine power that “explains” God in a certain way, the
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The more the mode knows—of other modes and their characteristic relations, of God and of itself—through
the second and third kinds of knowledge, through common notions and the enigmatic intellectual intuition
described by Spinoza in Book V, the higher the number of affections it will have that come not from without,
but from within, from its own essence as a part of God. These are what Deleuze calls — paradoxically10 —
active affections, affections of the self by the self and substance or power by itself, rather than passive affections
(whether joy or sadness) that come from without, either heightening or diminishing an individual mode’s power
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external parts actualizing my essence so that they cease to belong to me, and take on a new life. In order
to heighten the paradoxical nature of these affections such as Deleuze construes them, he speaks elsewhere
“internal, immune affections” because in them modes are not exposed to potentially destructive encounters with
JASON E. SMITH
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power. (SPP 44) Immune: these would immunize affections immunize the body from other forces. They would
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substance by itself, the folding of its power back onto itself.
If we return to Deleuze’s remarks on Foucault, we see the extent to which the “art of living” proposed by
Foucault’s late work corresponds to the cultivation of those “intense, immune affections” that do not result from
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the action of power on itself. Or, to insist on the language of Spinoza, a way of living in which the individual mode
feels itself as increasingly less affected to forces impinging on it from without, less exposed to the contingency of
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given on the occasion of the publication of Foucault, Deleuze describes “modes of subjectivation” as different
or singular ways or styles of folding force or power, of bending back onto itself in order to create a space to live
and to “breathe”: “you must manage to fold the line [of the Outside, of Force], in order to constitute a liveable
zone where you can . . . breathe—in other words, think. Fold the line in order to be able to live on it, with it: a life
and death affair.”11 In a strange aside in second interview given on the occasion of the publication of his book
on Foucault (“Un Portrait de Foucault”), Deleuze addresses the fact that Foucault’s discovery of the problem of
modes of subjectivation as a way to transform the question of power occurs at the end of life, on the threshold
of death. Thought, he says,
has never been a theoretical matter. It was a matter of problems of life. It was the way Foucault get
out this new crisis: he drew the line that allowed him to get out of it, and to draw out new relations
with knowledge and power. Even if he had to die from it [Même s’il devait en mourir]. That sounds
stupid: it’s not the discovery of subjectivation that made him die. And yet . . .12
Pages later, Deleuze suggest that not only was Foucault’s death somehow implicated in the crisis his thought
underwent and the discovery of a new terrain of experiment at the point of intersection between thought and
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such a way that it was no longer possible to know whether this death came from without or from within: “Beyond
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it so that you can no longer distinguish death from suicide.”13
The example of suicide is discussed on two occasions in Deleuze’s shorter book on Spinoza, Spinoza: Practical
Philosophy. “Example of suicide” because, for Deleuze, suicide represents just one of the phenomena of
“apparent” destruction and decomposition of modal existence exhibited and analyzed in the fourth book of
the Ethics. Among the other phenomena he brings to bear are what he calls “survivals in name only,” those
who have encountered some external force that provoked such a profound displacement of some proportion of
their (external) parts that their body “has changed into another nature,” and continues to live on—as someone
else, forgetful of itself (EIVP39D). More importantly, where Deleuze speaks elsewhere of active affections as
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the peculiarity of diseases of an “auto-immune” nature that affect a fraction of our external parts in such a way
that this grouping not only changes nature, but begins to attack us from within, behaving like a “foreign body.”
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-511$%-'0)'$)4!5)"$%'1%!+'0)!"#$%'()*"$'+!,$'65"'-$$+-&'*)-"$0,&'"!'6$'0""04A$,'1%!+'9*"#*)&'by itself;'L#$'()02'
example he offers is indeed that of suicide, but suicide understood as a type or extreme case of the phenomena
!1 '05"!K*++5)$',*-$0-$&'*)'9#*4#'0'?+!,*($,'80%"'!1 '!5%-$23$-'6$#03$-'2*A$'0'8!*-!)'"#0"',*-*)"$:%0"$-'"#$'
other parts and turns against them (certain diseases, and, in the extreme case, suicide)” (SPP 34). The example
of Spinoza is therefore presented as an extreme or limit case which must be shown to be a merely “apparent”
form of self-destruction. The example therefore plays a strategic role in Deleuze’s presentation of Spinoza.
Destructions and decompositions always come from without, he repeats over and over again: they do not
affect our intensive part, neither our singular essence the relations that expression. Only our external parts,
!"#!$#%"&'(")*&%" " " " "
!"#$"%&$'(&)#*+%'"+,+%-+)&'#./,%0.-%&%$+-'&#/%#/1+2/#'+%3+-#.14%&-+%&00+$'+1%56%,($"%7#.)+/$+8%90 %'"+%+:&;3)+%.0 %
suicide plays a strategic role in Deleuze’s reading of Spinoza—as well as, in a different way, in his account of
<.($&()'=,%!.->?'"+%,3+$#2$%;.;+/'%#/%'"+%Ethics in which Spinoza refers to the phenomenon of suicide is
never addressed with attention by Deleuze.
When Spinoza addresses the question of suicide in the Scholium to Proposition 20 of the Ethics’ Fourth Part,
#'%#,%/.'%'"+%2-,'%'#;+%#'%#,%;+/'#./+18%%9/%'"+%@$".)#(;%'.%A-.3.,#'#./%BC4%D(,'%&%0+!%3&E+,%5+0.-+4%&%1#,$(,,#./%
of the problem of “virtue” concludes with the remark that “those who kill themselves are weak minded [animo
esse impotentes].” It is important to note, however, that the verb employed in both cases does not correspond to
the term used in most classical Latin discussions of suicide, be they Roman or Christian (Seneca, Augustine):
there, the problem of suicide is a problem not simply of the will, but of dying willingly—it is a question of a
“voluntary death.” And it is this problem of the will that gives these discussions their ethical charge, for in each
case the decision not to be always emits a dark glimmer of freedom. An initial question of semantics, then: one
cannot be exactly certain what “killing oneself ” means here, the moment it is unhinged from the problem of
the will, from the deliberate and from deliberation. It should be noted that the problem of “suicide,” of killing
oneself, interests Spinoza not for itself, but only insofar as its invocation has an exemplary value. It is as if he
&/'#$#3&'#/E%&%-+D+$'#./F%#0 %'"+%+,,+/$+%.0 %+&$"%,#/E()&-%'"#/E%#,%1+2/+1%56%#',%+00.-'%'.%3+-,+7+-+%#/%#',%5+#/E4%".!%
does one account for phenomena which seem to indicate the presence of another principle, namely a desire not
to be? Suicide is a limit-case: it is as if Spinoza were arguing that even suicide manifests the very thing it seems
to except itself from, namely the effort to persevere in one’s being. And what should follow are those examples
.0 %,+)0G+-&,(-+%'"&'%$.;+%&'%'"+%$).,+%.0 %&%-+H+$'#./F%'"+%&-$"#7+,%&-+%0())%.0 %&$$.(/',%.0 %"&/E#/E,4%1-.!/#/E,4%
0&'&)%)+&3,%0-.;%!#/1.!,4%&/1%,.%./8%I7+/%'"+,+%1+&'",4%,++;#/E)6%!#))+14%!.()1%,'-&/E+)6%-+H+$'%&%1+,#-+%'.%)#7+8%
J,% #',% 2-,'% &/1% ./)6% J:#.;% #/1#$&'+,4% A&-'% <.(-% .0 % '"+% Ethics has as its horizon a single phenomenon:
K1+,'-($'#./8L%M"#,%1+,'-($'#./%$.;+,%0-.;%!#'".('F%0.-%&/6%E#7+/%2/#'+%;.1+%.-%,#/E()&-%'"#/E4%'"+-+%#,%&)!&6,%
“another which is more powerful than it and by which it can be destroyed” (EIVax.). But this does not prevent
Spinoza, according to Gilles Deleuze, from attaching a great deal of “importance to apparently self-destructive
phenomena.” When Deleuze is referring to these seeming cases of self-destruction, it is precisely to the Scholium
on suicide that he refers, while addressing none of the internal articulations of the text. I quote Spinoza’s text
at some length, almost in its entirety:
No one, I say, refuses food or kills himself out of the necessity of his nature; he does so because he is
compelled by external causes….Someone may kill himself if he is compelled by another, who twists
the right hand which happens to be holding a sword….Or again, he may kill himself because, like
Seneca, he is compelled by the order of a tyrant to open his veins; that is, because he desires to avoid
a greater evil by a lesser [majus malum minore vitare cupiat]. Finally, he may do so because hidden external
causes [causae latentes externae] so dispose his imagination and affect his body that it takes on another
nature [aliam naturam priori contrarium induat] that is contrary to the one that it previously had, and of
which an idea cannot exist in the mind (by Prop. 10, Part 3). But that a man, by the necessity of his
own nature, should endeavor not to exist or should endeavor to be changed into another form [aliam
formam mutari] is as impossible as that something should come from nothing, as anyone can see with
a little thought (EIVP20S).
The management and selection of examples here is typical of Spinoza: in a manner recalling the famous
Scholium to Proposition 2 of part III (“what can a body do?), the set presented is at once enigmatic and
unconvincing.14%N+%&-+%+,,+/'#&))6%.00+-+1%'!.%0.-;,%.0 %!"&'%@3#/.*&%$&)),%K+:'+-/&)L%$&(,+,F%&%2-,'%,+'%!".,+%
+:'+-/&)#'6%'"&'%#,%3&'+/'4%&%,+$./1%!".,+%+:'+-#.-#'6%#,%K"#11+/8L%9/%'"+%2-,'%$&,+4%!+%&-+%.00+-+1%'!.%,$+/&-#.,%
that almost no one would contend constitute suicide: two forces, physical and political, a twisted hand and a
despot’s demand. The reference to Seneca is particularly loaded, and not without some irony: it seems to imply
that even Seneca, a name associated with the coupling of suicide and freedom, did not die voluntarily, willingly,
but on the orders of an other. Tacitus, who is surely Spinoza’s source here, makes its clear that when Seneca is
JASON E. SMITH
implicated in a plot to depose Nero, he is not seen to “contemplate suicide [voluntarium mortem pararet]”: hence
the death sentence he subsequently receives (Annales!"#$%"&'(%"")* "+,-./01"/2234"5.3-676"785"9:;<5"/* "+5.5=1"16"
evidence that one never dies willingly—precisely because it is not a matter of the will—he nevertheless portrays
him as having made a decision, based upon a moral calculation: he chooses the least evil. This contention,
which is entirely Spinoza’s (it is not in Tacitus), is questionable on two registers. At the level of events, it is not
certain what “greater evil” is referred to, particularly considering the episode’s fallout: Seneca did not die alone.
But, more importantly, nothing in the previous development of the Ethics",<5,1<56";6"*/<"78-6">-7"/* "61=<-9=-13"
algebra. Pierre Macherey is right to point out that a similar formulation occurs in the Scholium to Proposition
39 of Part Two, which is concerned with the emotion called timor: anguish, fear.15 There we read that such
“[fear] disposes man to avoid one evil or harm [malum], that he judges must occur in the future, through a lesser
one”; in this context, however, the greatest evil, the absolute harm against which every lesser harm is measured
is nothing less than my death. Anguish means: my death is always the worst. This is the fundamental sense of
what is called conatus. Seneca, therefore shows no timidity, for in this case the death both ordered and chosen is
“desired” because it takes place on the backdrop of some supposedly more intolerable possibility.
Whatever the interest of these two examples, they remain secondary to the precise extent that the exteriority
of the cause of death is in each case explicit, patent: that is, incontestably exterior. [What could be more
public than a death sentence?] But when Spinoza passes to the “hidden external causes [that] so dispose [my]
imagination and affect [my] body that it takes on another nature,” the illustrations cease, and we transition into
an imageless logical idiom: it is just as impossible that someone could desire to take on another form as it is that
something should come from nothing. This shift is probably to be expected—for where, after all, might one
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7/"-6/3175"1."-25.7-91>35"1:5.7"-."78-6"84,/7856-6"/* "1"8-225."5E75<-/<"=1;65!"-7"-6"136/"81<2"7/"A1,"785"3/=17-/."
of the cause as simply without. The entirety of the question in this phase of the argument is the exact location
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another body “in” my body.
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“neglect[ing]” to preserve one’s being, the “or [vel]” in the phrase “no one…refuses food or kills himself ” could
imply two distinct modes of neglect. It can in turn seem to imply a certain equivalence between two terms: to
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the result of exterior causes, either manifest or hidden, respectively. But to the extent there are no examples
given for the proposed hidden causes, the image of a refusal to eat seems secretly to carry out the function: the
most appropriate example of what it means to lose the taste for life.
It’s a question of eating, of taste and the tasteless, of disgust. Spinoza often makes reference to eating, both
to its role as nourishment and to the pleasure or delight taken in the act of eating itself; the mouth tends to
be a privileged site for an encounter between bodies, and ingestion perhaps the very model for the “dealings
[commercium] with things which are outside us” as the Scholium to Proposition 18 of Part Four puts it, useful
things whose scale ranges from the edible to the other man, a range from which animals (edible or not) are
not excluded (on the “use” of animals: EIVP37S1).17 Almost every reference to eating in Spinoza is, however,
inscribed within analogical chains that constantly suspend the activity’s literality. To speak of losing the taste for
life is here no mere metaphor, for in the Ethics one rarely knows what eating in fact is.
I"6-.:35"5E1A,35"?-33"6;*9=5%")."785"+=8/3-;A"7/"J</,/6-7-/."KL"/* "J1<7"C8<55"MNO."785"O<-:-."1.2"P17;<5"
of the Affects”), Spinoza makes a curious comparison between “love” and “eating.” Because the scholium
=/A56"1*75<"785"9.13",</,/6-7-/."/* ",1<7"C8<55"M>;7">5*/<5"785"<5=1,-7;317-G5"NQ59.-7-/.6"/* "785"RA/7-/.6S(!"
its function is less to comment upon the matter of the proposition (the so-called “active” affects) as to conclude
Part Three as whole. It summarizes its entire movement, which consists not simply in isolating a set of primary
!"#!$#%"&'(")*&%" " " " "
emotions said to be three in number (desire, joy, sadness: cupiditas, laetitia, tristitia: cf. EIIIP11S; EIIIDef. Aff.
4Expl), but the description of the laws of their combination, of the combinatory and associative mechanism
that implacably generates an in principle open-ended series of supposed derived emotions. We should recall
!"#!$%&'"$(#)%$#*+$,-#!&*#(.$/-$#$%0+'/1'#((2$30/-45#$%+-%+6$7+(4-8/-8$!4$!"+$,'4994-$04)+*.$4: $#-$+-(#*8+;$
18&*+$ 4: $ <#!&*+=$ +94!/4-%$ #*+$ !*+#!+;$ (/>+$ #-2$ 94!/4-=$ #%$ 9&!#!/4-%$ #-;$ +?+-!%$ )"4%+$ @&'!&#!/4-%$ #-;$
variations can be calculated according a perfectly determined regime of legality. In turn, these laws account
for two modes of resemblence: not only what Spinoza calls the partial similarity between a newly encountered
body and those objects which we are familiar with, that we habitually or “usually encounter” and which we
#*+$,#''&%!49+;$!4$#::+'!$&%.$ABCCCDEF3G$DEHI=$7&!$#(%4$!"+$8+-+*#($9/9+!/'/%9$4: $!"+$%4'/#($1+(;=$)"#!$#*+$
called the “imitation of the affects” [“affectuum imitatio,” EIIIP27S; cf. P19-32]. These two modes of affective
'490(/'#!/4-J9-+94-/'=$!*#-%/-;/?/;&#(J"#?+$#$%/-8(+=$&7/K&/!4&%$+::+'!6$!4$8+-+*#!+$?#%!$1+(;%$4: $#::+'!/?+$
ambivalence and equivocation, such that it becomes possible, for example, to “simultaneously love and hate
the same thing” (EIIIP17).17$3&'"$+K&/?4'#!/4-%$#*+$)"#!$4&*$%'"4(/&9$*+:+*%$!4$#%$!"+$'"/+: $,'4-@/'!%$4: $!"+$
soul [!"#$#%&'"(#&)*+],” whose generalized form is that of the indiscernability of love and hate. Though he has
addressed this relation for much of the middle sections of Part Three, Spinoza nevertheless insists the he has
left out something about love, that there is something to add. Love is addressed in a sexual context, and the
experience described is familiar enough: we are reminded that, in the very instant we come to “enjoy” the body
we encounter and make use of it in love, our mind is simultaneously [simul] invested with “images of other
things,” which we immediately begin to desire. Spinoza accounts for this ambivalence by noting how my body is
affected in such an encounter: my “enjoyment [fruitione]” of another body transforms my body in turn, making it
undergo a mutation that alters its capacity to act, making it acquire a new “constitution.” It is here that Spinoza,
in the form of an “example,” soberly compares love to eating: “For example, when we imagine something that
usually delights us by its taste [sapore], we desire to enjoy it [edem frui], i.e. to eat it…” The analogy is followed
!"*4&8"$4-=$)/!"$!"+$1((/-8$4: $!"+$%!49#'"$0*4;&'/-8$#$'"#-8+$/-$!"+$;/%04%/!/4-$4: $!"+$74;2=$#-$#(!+*#!/4-$4: $
what Spinoza calls both its “disposition” and its “constitution” [aliter disposito; aliter constitution], making the image
of the food we have just consumed offensive [odiosa: hated], repugnant, disgusting.18
This disgust does not, however, account for the refusal or aversion to food described in the Scholium on suicide.
The semantic range of the term translated by “disgust” is wide: for this experience of “Taedium” (what “we call
satiety and disgust [Fastidium, & Taedium]”19) is just as much an experience of indifference, or of boredom. This
is perhaps why Spinoza moves so easily between love and eating: in each case we are presented with a loss of
ardor, a lapsed fervor. It is a diminution of force, but this slackening is both relative and local—it is this body
!"#!$C$1-;$*+0&8-#-!=$!"#!$C$*+:&%+=$#-;$!"/%$;/%8&%!$#()#2%$*+%&(!%$:*49$#$(4'#($9&!#!/4-$/-$!"+$%!*&'!&*+$4: $92$
74;2L%$,'4-%!/!&!/4-M.$N+$%0+#>$4: $#$*+(#!/?+$94;/1'#!/4-$4: $!"+$74;2L%$'4-%!/!&!/4-$)"+-$)+$)#-!$!4$;+%'*/7+$
the manner in which my body maintains what is called its characteristic “ratio of motion and rest” through
the experience of an affection by another body (EIIP13L5). Such a ratio, whose constant renewal in the very
94?+9+-!$4: $#(!+*#!/4-$#(4-+$#''4&-!%$:4*$!"+$%/-8&(#*/!2$4: $#$1-/!+$94;+=$/%$'"#*#'!+*/%!/'$4: $#(($74;/+%G$7&!$
/!$/%$#$0#*!/'&(#*(2$/904*!#-!$:+#!&*+$4: $%4O'#((+;$,'4904%/!+.$74;/+%M$3&'"$74;/+%$#*+$'4-18&*#!/4-%$)"4%+$
stability is only relative, constantly exposed to encounters threatening disaggregation, and therefore constantly
developing strategies of renovation, of survival. Spinoza will speak elsewhere of the “temperament” of such
bodies:20$ !"#!$ /%=$ #-$ #::+'!/?+$ !+-4*$ !"#!$ /%$ *+0+#!+;(2$ #:1*9+;$ !"*4&8"$ #$ !+-;+-'2$ !4)#*;$ '+*!#/-$ :4*9%$ 4: $
encounters. In the case of disgust, we not only have a change in the body corresponding to an affection, but a
variation whose repetition participates in the natural, cyclical process of the body’s continuous reconstitution,
including the regeneration of its own parts. What matters here is continuity: to speak of my body’s temperament
is to think of affect no longer in terms of a unique, instantaneous encounter with another body, but rather as an
inclination to reactivate traces left by earlier events, regulating and organizing the variability of encounters. This
formation of an affective and mnemonic habitus is the elementary form of resistance to the powers of fortune;
it is what Laurent Bove calls a “strategy of conatus,” a form of resistance to “exterior forces of decomposition
and death.”21 Now what is at stake in these latter is not the body’s assuming a different disposition, but what
the Scholium on suicide describes as its taking an ”another nature [aliam naturam]” altogether. This difference
between what Proposition 4 of Part Four simply calls “changes”—or mutations, mutationes—and decomposition
JASON E. SMITH
and death articulates the entire movement of the Ethics’ fourth section.
!"#$%#&'$()#*$+,$%"#$-&)%$.,*$/,01$234+/'5$/6 $7.&%$8/(&$+)$,#+%"#&$*#.%"$,/&$*#9/':/)+%+/,;$<(%$2*#)%&(9%+/,5=$
“there exists no singular thing in the nature of things [in rerum natura] such that there does not exist an other
that is more powerful, more strong….[G]iven any thing whatsoever, there is another more powerful, by which
%"#$-&)%$9.,$<#$*#)%&/1#*$>destrui?5$@ABC34DE$F(9"$+)$%"#$9/,*+%+/,$/6 $#4+)%#,9#$6/&$%"#$-,+%#$'/*#E$G(%$+%$+)$
precisely the task of the Ethics$%/$*#)9&+<#$)%&.%#H+#)$/6 $&()+,H$I+%"$%"+)$-,+%(*#J)%&.%#H+#)$/6 $+,-,+%+K.%+/,E$
In the well-known Scholium to Proposition 18, describes this strategies basic modality, namely composing or
“joining” with other modes: “if…two individuals of the same nature are joined with each other, they constitute
an individual who is twice as powerful as either” (EIVP18S). Such a law of composition applies to all bodies;22
it forms the premise, however, of Spinoza’s description of the genesis of sociality, the joining or union of men
in forms of collective existence that are not always reducible to state-form. This initial statement of the law of
composition is anticipatory. The description of the origin of sociality does not immediately follow, starting only
with Proposition 29 and culminating in the justly famous second Scholium to Proposition 37, concerning the
passage from the “natural…[to] the civil state of man” (EIVP39S2). It is precisely between these two references
to the union of men in collective life that the Scholium on suicide and the refusal of food appears. It is as if
%"#$-H(&#$/6 $)(+9+*#$I#&#$/,$%"#$/,#$".,*$<#+,H$9".&.9%#&+K#*$,/%$)+':01$.)$'.,,#&$+,$I"+9"$.$-,+%#$'/*#$
+)$*#)%&/1#*L$+%$+)$.)$+6 $)(+9+*#$I#&#$.0)/$<#+,H$*#)9&+<#*$.)$.$)/&%$/6 $#&&.,%;$</%9"#*$)%&.%#H1$/6 $+,-,+%+K.%+/,E$
In short: as if suicide was an apparently self-destructive phenomenon that nevertheless manifested a desire to
defeat the forces of “death and decomposition.” This is a hypothesis, one I will return to: it is simply a question
of situating this text—whose internal movements we have not, however, exhausted—within larger sequences.
Before returning to this hypothesis, however, the Scholium on suicide should be inscribed in one other series
presented in the Ethics’ fourth part. It has been noted that the “destruction” promised in the Axiom to Part
Four is translated, in our Scholium, both as “taking on another nature [aliam naturam priori...induat]” and as
“chang[ing] into another form [aliam formam mutari].” François Zourabichvili has recently underlined not only
%"#$#M(+N.0#,9#$<#%I##,$6/&';$,.%(&#$.,*$#))#,9#$+,$F:+,/K.;$<(%$%"#$&#:#%+%+/,$/6 $%"#$):#9+-9$:"&.)#$2%.O#)$/,$
another nature [or form]” later in the Part Four: namely the Scholium concerning “a certain Spanish poet who
was stricken with disease…[such that] he was so forgetful of his past life that he did not believe…that [what] he
had written [was] his own” (EIVP39S).23 This text, which is of an enormous complexity, has been the subject
of many remarkable readings.24 I want only to retain this secret link between these two phenomena of suicide
and a kind of total amnesia that amounts, for Spinoza, to death. In the Proposition to which the scholium is
appended, a thing is said to be good or bad to the extent that it brings about the preservation or decomposition
of the human body’s “ratio of motion and rest”; as a result, death is characterized not, as is classically the
case, by the cessation of the heartbeat and the circulation of blood, but only by the bringing about of another
2&.%+/;5$.,/%"#&$/&H.,+K.%+/,$/6 $%"#$</*1E$B%$+)$*+6-9(0%$%/$0/9.%#$%"#$0+,#$<#%I##,$.,$.0%#&.%+/,$/6 $%"#$</*1P)$
disposition and its destruction—Spinoza says this qualitative distinction is achieved the moment a body is “so
disposed [ita disponuntur=$Q.+,)+$*+):/)R#)P?5$%".%$+%$%.O#)$/,$.$*+66#&#,%$,.%(&#;$I"#,$)/'#$/,#$(,*#&H/#)$2such
changes that it is not easy for me to say he is the same” (EIVP39S). Such an event requires that I take on another
body, that I give birth to another body: a body whose novelty is characterized, in the case of the amnesiac, by its
having lost all traces of past affections, and therefore having lost all the sedimentations that alone account for a
body’s individuation, its habitus, its history.
The Scholium on suicide should not, therefore, be considered an isolatable and therefore avoidable text. It
seems to form, rather, one of a series of scenes or examples of destruction and indeed, self-destruction, that
proliferate in part Four of the Ethics. That these two scenes should be linked seems rare enough, despite the
precise reproduction of these text’s phrasing—to my knowledge only Zourabichvili and, in a different manner,
Deleuze have noted this correlation.25 But what is most important, it seems, is to clarify the exact nature of
their relation. It has already been remarked that the text on suicide offers no examples of apparent suicides in
I"+9"$I".%$+%$9.00)$2"+**#,$#4%#&,.0$9.()#)5$.&#$.%$I/&OJ(,0#))$I#$&#.*$%"#$-&)%$-H(&#$'#,%+/,#*;$,.'#01$%"#$
&#6().0$%/$#.%;$.)$S()%$)(9"$.$)(+9+*#E$G(%$)(9"$.,$+*#,%+-9.%+/,$:&/*(9#)$%I/$#66#9%)$%".%$.&#$*+6-9(0%$%/$&#9/,9+0#E$
!"#!$#%"&'(")*&%" " " " "
On the one hand, the entire argument of EIVP20S is this—there is no such thing as suicide. Every apparently
voluntary death is the result of secret, hidden, external forces. But the example of the anorexia is clearly a form
of self-destruction—it only unhinges the image of self-destruction from every form of decision, from every form
!" #$%&#'())*#!" #'%+$#'!,)-#.&#/!),0$+123#4%&#1&5,)$#(5*#6+1+-!7(8+))2*#+0#&0)+19&:&0$#!" #$%&#;9,1&#!" #5,(8(-&#$!#
include not only instantaneous acts of self-erasure following a more or less lengthy deliberation. Anyone could
-1!6#+#)(5$#!" #5,8%#;9,1&<+#)(5$#"1!:#'%(8%#$%&#+:0&5(+8#6!&$#'!,)-#0!$#.&#+.5&0$3#=0&#8+0#&/&0#(:+9(0&#
Spinoza replacing the anorexic with, for example, the alcoholic: a life that consists, as Fitzgerald said, in nothing
more than “a process of breaking down,” a slow, even patient, “self ”-demolition.26
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What is at stake is still an encounter, an entering into composition with a body that does not agree with my own,
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body, by nobody else; it seems to suspend every “exchange” with “things that are outside us” (EIVP18S) even
if this suspension is itself induced by an external cause, even if this doing without itself comes from without.
When Spinoza refers us to the one who “refuses food,” there is no indication of gender. It is for this reason
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of the 19th century; for the link between anorexia and sexual difference is not simply a statistical oddity. Here
we cannot speak of the very confused notion of a “body-image,” nor simply confuse this refusal of food with a
melancholic withdrawal of libido, or an hysterical investment in self-deprivation, a disgust with regard to desire
that crystallizes in response to an early, unprepared-for seduction.27 None of this in Spinoza. The refusal of
food—which is also an avoidance of the poison nourishment always potentially represents or conceals—should
be referred to Proposition Four of the Part Four. There Spinoza exhibits, in negative terms, the condition of
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apart from those that can be understood through his nature alone, and of which he is the inadequate cause”
(EIVP4). To be a part of the common power of Nature means to be exposed to events and encounters that
are by necessity irreducible to my essence, my nature—events, that is, that cannot be explained as a simple
unfolding or explication of my essence or concept. For unlike Leibniz, for whom every monadic alteration
is reducible to a series of predicates that are analytically included in an individual substance or “concept,”
the changes undergone by Spinoza’s mode are irreducibly synthetic: a synthesis that takes the real form of a
continuous, partial decomposition and reconstitution of my body in its exchanges with other, always potentially
lethal bodies. Étienne Balibar has characterized this process as one of an incessant “virtual decomposition,”
and referred the problem of individuation in Spinoza to the always threatened transformation of this virtual
decomposition to a real, actual decomposition or death.28 It is an aversion to this necessary exposure and risk,
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only on oneself, to form a closed, undifferentiated block of existence, so as to save oneself from a fatality that
every instant promises. It is a renunciation of the condition of life, in the name, however, of life itself: a desire
to save or immunize — recall that Deleuze speaks of “internal, immune affects” when postulating the existing of
“active affects” — oneself that coincides with self-destruction.
To say there is never any suicide is to contend that the innumerable ways of killing oneself do not represent
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coinciding with death itself. There is a peculiar logic behind suicide, one that makes the condition of life death
at one’s own hands: it is always another life, another body that is at stake. Spinoza wants to characterize even
the most deliberate suicide as a concatenation of events reducing agents to bystanders, victims. This is no doubt
because suicide is unavoidably characterized as a conclusion, a resolution, an affair of the will: voluntary. It is
for this reason that the passage seems less to concern death as such, and the particular case of killing oneself,
than the coupling of freedom and the will; it is as if the decision not to be represents the will in its purest
JASON E. SMITH
form, and therefore is presented as the hyperbolic model of the voluntary. It would punctuate and conclude a
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feel alive (this is no life!), therefore I commit suicide.”29 These deliberations we all know—their contradictions
make suicide seem either impossible, or necessary. But it is precisely this form of deliberation—of illusory
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us with a suicide in this sense. One never dies by oneself, no matter how alone one may be. This is why suicide,
even when it is planned from beginning to end, always assumes the form of a surprise. In a text published in
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this experience. The passage describes the suicide of a young girl, Mouchette: “We generally think that the
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the conclusion of a supreme debate between the vital instinct and another, more mysterious instinct, that of
renunciation, of refusal. But it’s not like that….[T]he suicidal gesture remains an inexplicable phenomenon of
a frightening suddenness, recalling those chemical decompositions about which fashionable and still emerging
sciences can only offer only absurd or contradictory hypotheses…[T]he suicide’s last glimmer of consciousness
must be one of amazement, of desperate surprise.”30
JASON E. SMITH is Assistant Professor at the Art Centre College of Design, California. He is the
translator with Steve Miller of Jean-Luc Nancy’s Hegel: The Restlessness of the Negative, and the co-
editor of the forthcoming Plural Temporality: Transindivdiuality and the Aleatory.
!"#!$#%"&'(")*&%" " " " "
NOTES
1. Foucault. Editions de Minuit, 1986.
2. Michel Foucault, The Archaelogy of Knowledge. Trans. A.M. Sheridan Smith. New York: Pantheon, 1972, 17.
3. Gilles Deleuze, Pourparlers. Paris: Minuit, 1990, 129, 131. In this section, I make reference not to Deleuze’s book on
Foucault but to two interviews Deleuze gave on the occasion of its publication, both collected in Pourparlers.
4. Pourparlers, 131.
7. Pourparlers, 138, 135.
8. Gilles Deleuze, Expressionism in Philosophy: Spinoza. Trans. Martin Joughin. New York: Zone, 1992; Gilles Deleuze, Spinoza:
Practical Philosophy. Trans. Robert Hurley. San Francisco: City Lights, 1988, cited parenthetically as SPP.
9. Spinoza, Ethics, tr. and ed. G.H.R. Parkinson. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.
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have no adequate idea. Deleuze singles out these “internal” affections in a way that is only suggested by the literality of
Spinoza’s text.
11. Pourparlers p. 151.
12. Pourparlers p. 143.
13. Pourparlers p.150-51. Deleuze later continues in this vein: “There’s only one way to confront the line,” Deleuze continues,
“and straddle it: you go all the way to death, to suicide, but, as Foucault said in a strange conversation with [Werner]
Schroeter, suicide then becomes an art that take an entire life” (P 154).
14. Compare the examples given by Augustine in his discussion of the ethics of suicide in Book One of City of God: those
women who would kill themselves rather than be raped by Rome’s invaders.
15. P. 139n1 of commentary on Book IV.
16. This passage is remarkable, since it comes in the midst of a celebrated discourse on the genesis of sociality, and seems
to have two functions: to explain why there can be no being-with-the-animal (“they do not agree with us in nature”), and
to introduce nuance into the notion of “use”…. (“use them as we wish”)….one assumes this means either domestication or
food.
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)4 $&$5<+8?$61$232&--.$78($:&+842-$6+--/$5<1$@)@185$+5$+3$4)28($5)$<&E1$C3)@15<+8?$3+@+-&'D$5)$3)@15<+8?$:-1&32'&0-1/$6+--$
produce an equivocation: due to the resemblance, the overlap, we at the same time both love and hate the thing before us.
In Part Three of the Ethics, Spinoza makes two important distinctions. In addition to the global distinction between active
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of these initial discriminations is the relatively disproportionate space devoted to these derived emotions. This investment
in describing the genesis—that is, the methodical deduction—of the derived emotions seems strange, since it appears to
prioritize what are in fact ontologically secondary phenomenon. But this impression is misleading. Spinoza makes clear
that the separation between primary and derived emotions is a purely juridical operation: a separation motivated by a
desire, as the third parts “Preface” underlines, to treat the affects from the point of view of their legibility. Their methodical
treatment—the discussion of “human actions and appetites just as if the inquiry concerned lines, planes, or bodies”
(EIIIPref.)—requires that the affective complexes treated in the vast majority of the propositions be regressively referred to
the simple: to a primary emotion whose cause is the simple presence of an object. This scene is simple, because it implies
no affective ambivalence. In each case, I encounter another body that brings me pleasure or pain according to whether it
adds to or saps my force of existence, my power to act; in each case, this scene implies the absence of two complicating, and
irreducible, factors. For the real interest of Spinoza’s analysis stems from the implication of memory and a transindividual
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since emotion is inscribed in a supplementary turn: such that I can like Peter for liking what I like, or I can like what he likes
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this has on the problem of conatus.
18. François Zourabichvili discusses this passage and the general problem of “disgust” in the Ethics in Spinoza: Une physique
de la pensée (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2002), p. 88ff.
19. Seneca, Letter 77.
20. Cf. Ch. 2 of The Theologico-Political Treatise, which speaks of the different temperaments of the prophets.
21. Laurent Bove, !"#$%&"%'()*#+,#-./"%,01#234&5"%)./#*%#6'0)0%"/7*#78*9#$:)/.9" (Paris: Vrin, 1996), p. 134.
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simultaneously compose one body, i.e. an individual, which is distinguished from others by this union of bodies” (EIIDef.
JASON E. SMITH
Between Axioms 1 and 2 of “Physics” treatise).

23. Cf. François Zourabichvili, Le conservatisme paradoxal de Spinoza: Enfance et royauté (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France,
2002), and Spinoza: Une physique de la pensée (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2002). Both of these texts, which form
two parts of a single thèse, are concerned with the problem of “transformation” in Spinoza, both at the individual and
collective levels.
24. See in particular Warren Montag, Bodies, Masses, Power: Spinoza and His Contemporaries (London: Verso, 1999), esp. ch. 2,
“Seeing the better and doing the worse,” pp. 26-61; and, more recently, and in a different context, his Louis Althusser (New
York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2003), pp. 130-31.
25. See Spinoza: Philosophie Pratique, ch. 2.
26. The Crack-Up (New Directions, 1993), p. 69.
27. Lacan has developed an analysis of “mental anorexia” less in terms of sexual difference, than as a drama played out
in the relation between mother and child. Nourishment not as biological need, but as offering: the child refuses food only
insofar as it presented as gift, as stake in an intersubjective agon. cf. Seminar IV, pp. 183-84.
!"#$%&'())($*+,'-+./$01)2'3'24+,'&5$(&$6.+)7')2'3'24+,'&5$89(:$;<')=:+/>$')$Architectures de la raison. Mélanges offerts à
Alexandre Matheron,$(2#$?#@A#$B=.(+4$CDE;$D2'&'=)7/$A=)&()+F@+4G@H=7(7/$IJJKL/$<<#$MN@OKP$01&$Q=4,2$&9(.(R=.($-($S&&')T$
to ask ourselves what distinguishes a virtual, transitional or reversible decomposition from an actual and irreversible
decomposition, that is, a destruction of the individual” (42).
29. Serge Leclaire, A Child is Being Killed, tr. Marie-Claude Hays (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998), p. 4. A similar
formulation is found in the “young” Lukacs’ journal. Extraordinary entry from December 15, 1911: “The crisis seems to
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be alive, at the height of my essence, consistent. Now everything is just pale compromise and degradation” (Tagebuch, p. 53,
Lukacs Archivum; quoted in Michel Löwy, Georg Lukacs—From Romanticism to Bolshevism, tr. Patrick Camiller (London: NLB,
1979), p. 107).
30. Georges Bernanos, Nouvelle Histoire de Mouchette (Paris: Librairie Plon, 1937), p. 169.
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REVIEW ARTICLE
Thomas Wheatland, The Frankfurt School in Exile
University of Minnesota Press, 2009
Mark Tomlinson
Anyone keen to learn about the history of the Frankfurt School is spoilt for choice. If The Dialectical Imagination—
Martin Jay’s classic—fails to satisfy, there is always Rolf Wiggershaus’s comprehensive The Frankfurt School. On
the face of it, the reading no less than the writing of Thomas Wheatland’s new book—yet another history
of the Frankfurt School—might seem a rather needless exercise. Yet this is not the case. For the success of
books like The Dialectical Imagination has created its own set of problems. Through repeated telling from a single
perspective, certain aspects of the Frankfurt School’s history have hardened into myth; our familiarity with
the object has become a barrier to our knowing it. This is especially true of the Frankfurt School’s American
years. Of that period, we are typically told one thing: that in the United States the Institute for Social Research
!"#$%"&'$()*+,$"$-"('$%"&'+$(.)!$("-/0-!1$2*3$03$("04',5"3$4'"-3$*+304$3%'$.0-'$)( $3%'$6'7$8'(353)$9+,$"+$
audience for its work; that during their stay on Morningside Heights, Horkheimer and Co had very little contact
with, or impact upon, American intellectual life. That such a view should have come to prevail is in many
ways understandable. It is certainly true, for example, that for various reasons—mainly political—Horkheimer
sought for the group a degree of isolation, almost anonymity, in the US. But as The Frankfurt School in Exile makes
clear, this is only half the story, and the less interesting half at that.
Wheatland’s thesis is straightforward enough: far from having little impact on the intellectual culture of its
adopted homeland, the Frankfurt School’s migration “produced broad boulevards of interaction, thoroughfares
)+$ 7%0/%$ /.)--:/*43*."4$ '+/)*+3'.-$ /)*4,$ .'-*43$ 0+$ /));'."30)+1$ "-$ 7'44$ "-$ /)+<0/3="--0!04"30)+1$ "-$ 7'44$ "-$
misunderstanding” (xvi). Throughout the book, he makes good this claim by tracing the Institute’s various, and
often complex, relationships with a number of academic institutions, networks and intellectual communities in
the US, including Columbia University, the institution that agreed to house the émigrés. Though the Frankfurt
>/%))4?-$ .'"-)+-$ ().$ -''@0+A$ "(940"30)+$ 703%$ B)4*!20"$ ".'$ 7'44$ @+)7+53%'#$ +'',',$ "$ .'-;'/3"24'1$ +)+:
European base, and fast—almost nothing has been written about Columbia’s motives. Wheatland helpfully
944-$0+$3%'$A";-C$D%'$.'-*43$0-$"$("-/0+"30+A$;"0.$)( $/%";3'.-$)+$3%'$'&'+3-$2'().'1$,*.0+A1$"+,$"(3'.$3%'$E+-303*3'?-$
!"#$%&'(")%!*%+,-'THE FRANKFURT SCHOOL IN EXILE' ' ' '
arrival, but also on the inner workings of Columbia’s sociology department through the 1930s and 1940s.
Perhaps the most interesting and telling connection Wheatland documents is that between members of the
Horkheimer Circle (as Wheatland sometimes calls them) and the group of American writers and literary critics
knows as the New York Intellectuals. The Institute for Social Research arrived in New York City in 1934. At
!"#$%&'$#&"()*$'+(),&#(-."(&*/0&'/0(1(/0(/$&!/*/-'*)&#'$.*$'2/&3(*/$&'$#&3(34("#&5("(&32"(&2"&)(##&6"((&$2&52"7&
in isolation on projects of their choosing. This suited Horkheimer who, half out of respect for his new home and
half out of fear of persecution, thought it wise for the Institute to keep its radical views to itself. This all changed
when in the late 1930s, owing largely to a series of disastrous property deals, the Institute fell on hard times
and isolation was no longer an option. If it was to attract funding, the Institute would have to raise its public
1"2!)(8&9#&$:(&;"2.1&1*"$'-'1*$(0&32"(&*-$'+(),&'/&$:(&'/$())(-$.*)&*/0&-.)$."*)&)'6(&26 &'$#&/(5&:23(%&'$&4(;*/&$2&
attract the attention of young, precocious radicals like Philip Rahv, Dwight Macdonald, and William Phillips,
7(,&!;."(#&4(:'/0&1.4)'-*$'2/#&#.-:&*#&Partisan Review and Politics8&<("(%&=:(*$)*/0%&*";.(#%&$:(&'/>.(/-(&26 &$:(&
Frankfurt School on its adopted homeland cannot be overestimated:
?5@:($:("&*-7/25)(0;(0&2"&/2$%&$:(&52"7&26 &$:(&<2"7:('3("&A'"-)(B)."7(0&4(:'/0&$:(&1"26.#'2/&
of ink that the New York Intellectuals devoted to making sense of the new world that was taking
shape during and after the Second World War. Even the most casual perusal of Partisan Review, Politics,
Commentary, and Dissent discloses a continuous fascination with the basic set of interrelated topics
that the Horkheimer Circle helped many of the New York writers to comprehend and interconnect
(186-87).
C:(&'/>.(/-(&'#&(#1(-'*)),&-)(*"%&5"'$(#&=:(*$)*/0%&'/&$:(&-"'$'D.(&26 &3*##&-.)$."(&5:'-:&4(;*/&$2&#."6*-(&'/&
the late 1930s. Before their contact with the Frankfurt School, the writers of Partisan Review only “had a general
sense of what mass culture was”, they only “dimly perceived connections between the propaganda in Nazi
Germany and the Soviet Union” (170-71). What they lacked were fully developed theories of mass culture,
Modernism and totalitarianism. It was this that the Horkheimer Circle provided them with. According to
Wheatland, however, in the end the encounter was really one of missed opportunities: “[the] collision [of the
$52&;"2.1#@&-2.)0&:*+(&)(0&$2&#2&3.-:&32"(&$:*/&'$&0'0B?4.$&4,@&$:(&$'3(&$:*$&$:(&<2"7:('3("&A'"-)(&:*0&
2+("-23(&'$#&$'3'0'$,%&$:(&E(5&F2"7("#&:*0&*)"(*0,&32+(0&4(,2/0&'$BG&HIJKL8
Missed opportunity also dogged the Frankfurt School’s encounter with Sidney Hook—the foremost authority
on Marx in America during the 1930s. The Frankfurt School and Hook had much in common. Hook’s
Pragmatic Marxism and Horkheimer’s critical theory both sought to identify “social and natural problems
that blocked human actions and potentials” as well as ideas that could overcome these obstacles (105). But
there were key differences as well and before long the two were engaged in a hostile debate. As with most
intellectual disagreements involving the Frankfurt School, the nature of the dispute was methodological. The
Horkheimer Circle would have no truck with the positivistic aspects of Hook’s Pragmatism while for Hook, it
was the Frankfurt School’s apparent lapse into metaphysics, its residual Hegelianism, that was the problem.
In Wheatland’s judgment, by attacking each other in this way, both parties, but especially the Frankfurt
M-:22)%&3'##(0&*&./'D.(&-:*/-(&*$&-2))*42"*$'2/8&C:(&N"*/76."$&M-:22)%&:(&#.;;(#$#%&2.;:$&$2&:*+(&4((/&32"(&
*--23320*$'/;%&)(##&02;3*$'-8&M:*025'/;&<*4("3*#O#&-"'$'D.(&26 &<2"7:('3("&*/0&902"/2O#&-"'$'-*)&$:(2",%&
=:(*$)*/0&*";.(#&$:*$&P$:(&3(34("#&26 &$:(&Q/#$'$.$(&62"&M2-'*)&R(#(*"-:&52.)0&:*+(&4(/(!$(0&'33(*#."*4),&
from engaging in a more serious confrontation with the democratic communication theory inherent within
Pragmatism” (188).
C:(&N"*/76."$&M-:22)O#&32/(,&$"2.4)(#&/2$&2/),&3(*/$&*&32"(&1.4)'-&1"2!)(%&'$&3(*/$&*&-:*/;(&'/&$:(&+(",&
nature of their research. If there was an American organization willing to fund The Dialectic of Enlightenment,
<2"7:('3("&-2.)0&/2$&!/0&'$8&C:(&Q/#$'$.$(&/((0(0&*&32"(&#.'$*4)(&1"2S(-$%&2/(&$:*$&52.)0&!$&5'$:&$:(&52")0&26 &
empirically-driven, Anglo-American sociology and eventually they found one. With funding from the American
Jewish Committee, the Frankfurt School through the 1940s worked on its Studies in Prejudice8&T.4)'#:(0&'/&$:(&!"#$&
MARK TOMLINSON
months of 1950, the response from the scholarly community to this expansive project was extremely positive:
!"#$ "$ %&''(%)*+($ #(,*(#$ &- $ .,&/(%)#0$ )1($ #()$ &- $ 2+($ 3&4&5,".1#$ 6"#$ .,"*#(7$ -&,$ *)#$ #%*(4)*2%$ "47$ *4)(''(%)8"'$
rigor” (255). Wheatland delights in the irony here: “after several years of struggling to gain recognition in
the United States, the work that garnered the Institute the spotlight was not a truly representative piece of
9,*)*%"'$:1(&,;<$=8)$"$.,&/(%)$.8,#8(7$2,#)$"47$-&,(3&#)$-&,$24"4%*"'$,("#&4#$>?@ABC$D*+(4$)1($%&3.,&3*#($
involved, it is tempting to view the success of Studies in Prejudice in a negative light but Wheatland goes the
other way. Although it involved a great deal of compromise, the Studies in Prejudice must be seen as a boon; it
helped unite Anglo-American empiricism and Continental social theory. As a result of the Studies, “American
#&%*&'&5;$5(4(,"'';$=(%"3($3&,($"%%(.)*45$&-EF,(87*"4$.#;%1&"4"';#*#$"47$&)1(,$)1(&,()*%"'$)&&'#$)1")$1"7$
been fashioned on the Continent” (xx).
No account of the Frankfurt School in exile would be complete without a chapter or two devoted to Herbert
Marcuse, who, after the war, having made the US his permanent home, continued to have an impact on
American society and culture. Wheatland does not disappoint. Only here his book takes an interesting turn.
G1")$ 1($ 7*#%&+(,#$ *#$ 4&)$ "$ 258,($ 61&#($ *4H8(4%($ 1"#$ =((4$ 847(,#)")(7$ =8)$ +"#)';$ &+(,#)")(7C$ I",%8#(0$ )1($
so-called ‘guru’ of the New Left was, according to Wheatland, nothing of the sort. After interviewing leaders
of the student movement and examining the writings of the New Left from that period, Wheatland has his
#8#.*%*&4#$%&42,3(7J$I",%8#(K#$4"3($%&3(#$8.$-",$'(##$)1"4$&4($3*51)$(L.(%)C$One-Dimensional Man might
have sold well but there is little evidence to suggest that he played anything like the role attributed to him by
the media. His work was not as widely discussed as the popular image would have us believe: “[t]he typical
847(,5,"78")(#$&- $)1($'")($MNOP#$61&$H&%Q(7$)&$RSR$"47$%&4#*7(,(7$)1(3#('+(#$%&84)(,%8')8,"'$6(,($4&)$)1($
protégés of Herbert Marcuse” (297-98).
Wheatland’s commitment to uncovering the truth about the Frankfurt School’s American years is admirable.
Anyone interested in the intellectual history of the twentieth century, especially transatlantic intellectual history,
will want to read it. Wheatland’s weakness is not so much the history of the Frankfurt School, but its theory.
T,7*4",*';0$)1*#$3*51)$4&)$=($"$#(,*&8#$.,&='(3$-&,$"$#.(%*2%"'';$1*#)&,*%"'$#)87;0$=8)$")$Q(;$.&*4)#0$G1(")'"47K#$
historical narrative clearly rests on a particular interpretation of the Frankfurt School’s theoretical work. In
his account of the Frankfurt School’s encounter with Sidney Hook, Wheatland views the missed opportunity
as one for which the Frankfurt School was largely to blame. In drawing this conclusion, Wheatland relies
on an old, yet still widely accepted, view about the Frankfurt School: that sometime in the late 1930s under
Horkheimer’s direction, the Institute underwent a radical theoretical revision. Its members abandoned reason,
#%*(4%($"47$I",L*#3$*4$-"+&8,$&- $"$)&)"'*U*45$"47$),"4#1*#)&,*%"'$%,*)*V8($&- $G(#)(,4$%*+*'*U")*&4$="#(7$",&847$
the concept of the domination of nature. If only they had not succumbed to such a radical revision, they
might have seen the positive aspects of Hook’s Pragmatism; they might have avoided the error of their “highly
antiliberal [sic]” and “Mandarin” ways (188). Yet it is not at all clear that the Frankfurt School’s radical new
theory of society, which Wheatland clearly views as an aberration, was all that new, nor all that much of an
aberration. The most cursory glance at Adorno’s theoretical work shows that as early as “The Actuality of
W1*'&#&.1;<$>MNAMB$"47$!:1($X7("$&- $Y")8,"'$Z*#)&,;<$>MNA?B$)1($%,*)*V8($&- $*4#),83(4)"'$,("#&4$"47$&- $)1($
domination of nature were already in place; they were already central to his philosophical project. This might
#((3$'*Q($"$),*+*"'$.&*4)$=8)$*)$#1&6#$)1")$)1($F,"4Q-8,)$R%1&&'K#$"4)*['*=(,"'*#30$*)#$%,*)*V8($&- $)1($7&3*4")*&4$&- $
nature, and of Hook’s Pragmatic Marxism, were not mere aberrations; nor were they born of some temporary
overwhelming pessimism, as many historians of the Frankfurt School would have us believe. They were essential
to the School’s identity. Had members such as Horkheimer and Adorno abandoned them, much of what is
84*V8($"47$+"'8"='($"=&8)$)1($X4#)*)8)($-&,$R&%*"'$\(#(",%1$6&8'7$1"+($+"4*#1(70$)&&C$X4$)1($(470$*)$6"#$)1(*,$
%,*)*V8($of, and not their conformity to, American ideas, practices and methods that made the Frankfurt School
such an important part of our intellectual history.
MARK TOMLINSON is a member of the Melbourne School of Continental Philosophy

and a postgraduate student at the University of Melbourne.

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PARRHESIA

THE METAPHORMATTED HUMAN:

A man’s reach must exceed his grasp, or what’s a meta for?

THE HUMAN NEXUS: CLOSE ENCOUNTERS OF THE FOURTH KIND

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FUTURE EVES: CAPITALIST (RE)GENESIS?

!"#$%&'($)'*#+($,- $(./'$*#&-,&0)(/1/(23$,- $(.#'#$4#5&##'$,- $6#/"53$/'$.,7$Future Eve informs recent artworks, and

RE-constructing EVE begins as a concept: a futuristic re/presentation of an unchangeable bio-

About this piece, Adam Zaretsky has recently noted that,

VIRAL ONTOLOGY: LOVE THY VIRUSES LIKE THYSELF

ORGANS WITHOUT BODIES: SPARE PARTS FOR THE MACHINE OF THE

!*6*0$#*$#/22$6*1*6$+'*,/9,)227$%"$%-*$#"6@$"1 $%-*$Tissue Culture and Art Project (TC&A hereafter), alone or in

BRAVE NEW GOLEM: OVERMAN, REDUX

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What do you!"#$%&!"#'"!()*!'+,!-'.,!)/0!'%(1'(23!4'",+0!,'+"#0!1$%.!'%.!5+,3!6"*// !.+,'-2!'+,!-'.,!)/ 3!

Are these mutually exclusive options? May we risk a synthesis?

78,+-'%!9"+'%2#*-'%0!,:"+);$'%0!<(=)+>0!+$=);*%&0!%'-,!()*+!=+'%.?@!<*2").$'%!)/ !"#,!-'<#$%,2!)/ !"#,!

CONCLUSION: HARDWARE, SOFTWARE, WETWARE AND JUNKWARE

MAN IS DEAD, LONG LIVES THE NEXUS!

THIERRY BARDINI!2*!)!/6::!10%/+**%0!2#!&'+!B+1)0&4+#&!%/ !E%446#2()&2%#!)&!&'+!?#23+0*2&F!.+!

THE ETERNAL RETURN AND

Translated by Arne De Boever2

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CATHERINE MALABOU teaches philosophy at the University of Paris X-Nanterre and is

THE BIRTH OF IMMUNOPOLITICS1

Translated by Arne De Boever

OF LIFE TURNED INTO DEATH

IMMUNITY VERSUS COMMUNITY

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DESTRUCTION, OVEREXPOSURE, AND AUTO-IMMUNITY

The modern status of immuno-politics is inseparable from the—modern—forms of capitalist destruction

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PHILOSOPHICAL ARCHAEOLOGY IN KANT, FOUCAULT,

within a certain historical period, conditions which are by no means arbitrary.

2. A PHILOSOPHICAL HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY

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3. THE HISTORY OF THE THING WHICH HAS NOT HAPPENED

4. THAT WHICH RENDERS NECESSARY A CERTAIN FORM OF THOUGHT

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