1.a.The classification of engineering materials and their processing techniques.

The
engineering materials can broadly be classified as:

a)Ferrous Metals
b)Non-ferrous Metals (aluminum, magnesium, copper, nickel, titanium)
c)Plastics (thermoplastics, thermosets)
d)Ceramics and Diamond
e)Composite Materials
f)Nano-materials

The engineering materials are often primarily selected based on their mechanical, physical,
chemical and manufacturing properties. The secondary points to be considered are the cost and
availability, appearance, service life and recyclability. In the present day, strict environmental
legislations have forced the designers and engineers to select the environment friendly
materials which have minimum environmental impact. Materials are often selected for their
mechanical, physical, chemical and manufacturing properties for ensuring proper functioning
under desired conditions. When several materials are suitable for a particular design
requirement, the cheapest one is usually selected.

Ferrous metals are having iron as common element. All ferrous materials are having very high
permeability which makes these materials suitable for construction of core of electrical
machines. Examples: Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, Steel, Silicon Steel, High Speed Steel, Spring
Steel etc.

Non-ferrous metals are having very low permeability. Example: Silver, Copper, Gold,
Aluminum etc.

Non-Metal materials are non-crystalline in nature. These exists in amorphic or mesomorphic

forms. These are available in both solid and gaseous forms at normal temperature.Normally all
non-metals are bad conductor of heat and electricity.Examples: Plastics, Rubber, Leathers,
Asbestos etc.Non-metals are having very high resistivity which makes them suitable for
insulation purpose in electrical machines.

Metals are polycrystalline bodies which are have number of differentially oriented fine
crystals. Normally major metals are in solid states at normal temperature. However, some
metals such as mercury are also in liquid state at normal temperature.
Pure metals are having very a low mechanical strength, which sometimes does not match with
the mechanical strength required for certain applications. To overcome this draw back alloys
areused.
Alloys are the composition of two or more metals or metal and non-metals together. Alloys are
having good mechanical strength, low temperature coefficient of resistance.
Example: Steels, Brass, Bronze, Gunmetal, Invar. Super Alloys etc.

Ceramic materials are non-metallic solids. These are made of inorganic compounds such as
Oxides, Nitrides, Silicates and Carbides. Ceramic materials possess exceptional Structural,
Electrical, Magnetic, Chemical and Thermal properties. These ceramic materials are now
extensively used in different engineering fields.Examples: Silica, glass, cement, concrete,
garnet, Mgo, Cds, Zno, SiC etc.
organic materials are having carbon as a common element. In organic materials carbon is
chemically combined with oxygen, hydrogen and other non-metallic substances. Generally
organic materials are having complex chemical bonding.
Example: Plastics, PVC, Synthetic Rubbers etc.

1.b..Phase transformation – Formation of a new phase having a distinct physical/chemical

character and/or a different structure than the parent phase.It involves two phenomena
Nucleation and Growth Nucleation formation of a nucleus or tiny particles of the new phase.A
nucleus is formed when the Gibbs free energy, G, of the system decreases i.e. G becomes
negative.Two types of nucleation Heterogeneous and HomogeneousGrowth Increase in size of
the nucleus at the expense of the parent phase.

Homogeneous nucleation: The probability of nucleation is same throughout the volume of the
parent phase. The simplest example of nucleation is solidification of a metal.Above melting
point Tm, liquid free energy, Gl< Gs(Solid free energy) and free energy change for
solidification G > 0. Below Tm, G < 0 and nuclei of the solid phase form.

Heterogenous nucleation: The probability of nucleation is much higher at certain preferred

sites such as mold wall, inclusions, grain boundaries, compared to rest of the parent phase. The
small value of ensures that the energy barrier is effectively lowered in heterogeneous
nucleation.

Nucleation and Growth KineticsOnce the embryo exceeds the critical size r*, the growth
of the nucleus starts. Nucleation continues simultaneously.Nucleation and growth rates are
function of temp. Nucleation rate increases with cooling rate and degree of undercooling

(T = Tm–T)

High nucleation rate and low growth – Finer grain size.The overall transformation rate is the
product of nucleation and growth rates.

2.aAtomicstructureEveryatomconsistsofasmallnucleuscomposedofprotonsandneutrons,whic
hisencircledbymovingelectronsintheirorbitals,specificenergylevels.Thetopmostortibalelectro
ns,valenceelectrons,affectmostmaterialpropertiesthatareofinteresttoengineer.E.g.:chemicalpro
perties,natureofbonding,sizeofatom,optical/magnetic/electricalproperties.Electronsandproto
nsarenegativeandpositivechargesofthesamemagnitudebeing1.60x10-
19coulombs.Neutronsareelectricallyneutral.Protonsandneutronshaveapproximatelythemas
s,1.67x10-27kg,whichislargerthanthatofanelectron,9.11x10-31kg.
Atomic Bonding in Bonds are two kinds Primary, and Secondary Primary bonds relatively
stronger. Exists in almost all solid materials. E.g: Ionic, Covalent, and Metallic bonds.
Secondary bonds relatively weaker bonds. Exists in many substances like water along with
primary bonds. E.g: Hydrogen, and van der Waals forces.
2b. Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials:To finalize the material for an engineering
product or application, is it important to understand the mechanical properties of the material.
The mechanical properties of a material are those which affect the mechanical strength and
ability of a material to be molded in suitable shape. Some of the typical mechanical properties
of a material include:

 Strength
 Toughness
 Hardness
 Hardenability
 Brittleness
 Malleability
 Ductility
 Creep and Slip
 Resilience
 Fatigue

3.a. Hydraulic cements (e.g., Portland cement) set and become adhesive due to a chemical
reaction between the dry ingredients and water. The chemical reaction results in mineral
hydrates that are not very water-soluble and so are quite durable in water and safe from
chemical attack. This allows setting in wet conditions or under water and further protects the
hardened material from chemical attack. The chemical process for hydraulic cement found by
ancient Romans used volcanic ash (pozzolana) with added lime (calcium oxide).

3.b. The hydration products in cement paste do not exist in isolation, but are entangled with
one another at the scale of microns and even nanometers. The possible exception to this is the
high-density C-S-H phase that forms within the boundaries of the original cement grains. Thus
in describing the microstructure of cement paste the structure of the individual solid phases is
not as relevant as the overall distribution of solid phases and porosity. With this in mind, a
basic but useful description of cement paste microstructure is comprised of just three "phases"
Hydrated cement particles: These consist of high-density C-S-H, and in some cases an
interior core of unhydrated cement. These behave as individual solid particles within a
continuous matrix analogous to the aggregate particles in concrete. These features are
sometimes called "phenograins", which simply refers to the fact that they are distinctly visible
in a microscope.
Outer hydration product: This is the continuous phase that grows within the capillary pore
space and binds the cement together. Following the analogy used above, it plays a role similar
to cement paste in concrete. It consists of solid C-S-H gel, gel pores, calcium hydroxide, and
calcium sulfoaluminate phases. This "phase" appears as various shades of speckled grey in an
optical or electron microscope, and is sometimes referred to as "groundmass." By far the most
important individual phase is, of course, the low density C-S-H gel (and its gel pores), because
its high surface area gives this phase its strength.
Large pores: These consist of true capillary pores, entrapped air voids, and the entrained air
system. These features appear as discrete black voids in a microscope. The large pore system
can be continuous or discontinuous, depending on the degree of hydration and starting w/c, but
this cannot be determined from microscopy.
4.a.Creep: When concrete is loaded, the structure undergoes elastic and inelastic deformations.
Elastic deformations occur immediately after the concrete is subjected to a given load,
according to Hooke’s Law. Inelastic deformations increase with time as the concrete
experiences a sustained load. This inelastic deformation, also known as creep, increases at a
decreasing rate during the loading period. During the first month of sustained loading,
approximately one-fourth to one-third of the ultimate creep takes place. the magnitude of the
sustained loading, 2) the age and strength of the concrete when the stress is applied, and 3) the
total amount of time that the concrete is stressed. When the concrete is loaded, the specimen
undergoes internal properties such as closure of voids in the concrete, viscous flow of the
cement-water paste, crystalline flow in aggregates, and water flowing out of the cement "gel"
due to drying and loading.
Shrinkage:Concrete is subjected to changes in volume either autogenous or induced. Volume
change is one of the most detrimental properties of concrete, which affects the long-term
strength and durability. To the practical engineer, the aspect of volume change in concrete is
important from the point of view that it causes unsightly cracks in concrete and called concrete
shrinkage.Concrete Shrinkage is the change in length per unit length and is, therefore, a
dimensional number expressed as percent. Shrinkage is time-dependent and its value includes
plastic shrinkage, autogenous shrinkage, drying shrinkage, and carbonation shrinkage usually
quantified in terms of micro strain which is equal to 1x10^-6 in/in or 1x10^-6 m/m

4.b.Methods of MIX DESIGN

 IS method
 ACI method
 DOE method
IS method:
Test data for materials: Cement used of 43 grade of OPC,
Company-

UltratechSpecificgravityofcement-2.975
SpecificgravityofaggregatesCoarse-2.63
Fine-2.62
WaterabsorptionCoarseaggregate-0.5percent
Fineaggregate-1.0percent
FreesurfacemoistureCoarseaggregate-nil
Fineaggregate-nil
Sieve analysis was done & results are given in Table 1 & Table 2, which satisfies the codal
requirementofIS:383-1970

Target mean strength of concrete: Tolerance factor (t) for very good quality control obtained
from Table 2 of IS: 10262-1982 is 1.65 and standard deviation is 5.6 (obtained from Table 1
of IS: 10262-1982). The target mean strength for the specified characteristic strength is

40+5.6x1.65=49.24N/mm2
Selection of water cement ratio: From Figure 1 of IS: 10262-1982, the free water cement
ratio required for the target mean strength of 49.24N/mm2 is 0.32. In this study, w/c ratio for
all the specimens were kept constant (0.32). This is lower than the maximum value of 0.50
prescribedformoderateexposure.

Selection of water and sand content:- From Table 5 of IS:10262-1982, for 20mm nominal
maximum size aggregate and sand conforming to grading Zone II, water content per cubic
metre of concrete = 180 kg and sand content as percentage of total aggregate by absolute
volume=25%

For change in values in water-cement ratio, compacting factor and sand belonging to Zone II,
the following adjustment is required as given in Table 3
Therefore, required sand content as percentage of total aggregate by absolute volume =25-1=24
percent.Required water content = 180 + 180 x 3/100=185.40 liters/m3
Determinationofcementcontent:-
Watercementratio=0.32
Water=185.40liters/m3
Cement=185.40/0.32=579.375kg/m3
From Table 4, for the specified maximum size of aggregate of 20 mm, the amount of entrapped
air in the wet concrete is 2 percent. Taking this into account and applying equations:-
V=[W+C/Sc+1/p.fa/Sfa]x1/1000,
V=[W+C/Sc+1/1-p.Ca/Sca]x1/1000
Where, V= absolute volume of fresh concrete, which is equal to gross volume (m3)
minusthevolumeofentrappedair,
W=massofwater(kg)perm3ofconcrete,
C=massofcement(kg)perm3ofconcrete,
Sc=specificgravityofcement,
p = ratio of fine aggregate to total aggregate by absolute volume,
fa,Ca = specific gravities of saturated surface dry fine aggregate and
coarseaggregaterespectively.
Sfa, Sca = specific gravities of saturated surface dry fine aggregate and
coarseaggregaterespectively.
0.98m3=[185.4+579.375/2.975+1/0.2975xfa/2.62]x1/1000
0.98m3=[185.4+579.375/2.975+1/0.7025xCa/2.63]x1/1000
orfa=467.58kg/m3
Ca=1108.52kg/m3
The mix proportion then becomes as given in Table 5:

Table 5 Proportion of different materials

Water Cement Fine aggregate Coarse aggregate

185.4 liters 579.375 kg 467.58 kg 1108.52 kg

0.32 1 0.81 1.91

Actual quantities required for the mix per bag: The mix is 0.32:1:0.81:1.919 (by mass). For
50kg of cement, the quantity of materials are worked out as below:
Cement=50kg
Fineaggregate=40.5kg
Coarseaggregate=95.5kg
(FractionI=47.75kg,FractionII=47.75kg)
(FractionI=10mm,FractionII=20mm)
Forwater-cementratioof0.32,quantityofwater=16liters
Extraquantityofwatertobeaddedforabsorption in case of coarse aggregate, at 0.5 percent by
mass=(+)0.80liters
Actualquantityofwatertobeadded=16.0+0.80=16.80liters
Actualquantityofsandrequiredafterallowing for mass of free moisture = 40.5 kg
Actualquantityofcoarseaggregaterequired:FractionI=47.75-0.385=47.365kg
FractionII=47.75-0.385=47.365kg
Therefore, the actual quantities of different constituents required for the mix are:
Water:16.80kg
Cement:50.00kg
Fineaggregate:40.50kg
CoarseaggregateFractionI:47.365kg
Fraction II : 47.365 kg

5.Durability of concrete

Physical Causes

1. Freezing and thawing action

2. Percolation / Permeability of water
3. Temperature stresses i.e. high heat of hydration

Chemical causes

1. Alkali Aggregate Reaction

2. Sulphate Attack
3. Chloride Ingress
4. Delay Ettringite Formation
5. Corrosion of reinforcement

6. The environmental impact on durability of concrete:A major component of concrete is

cement, which has its own environmental and social impacts and contributes largely to those
of concrete. The cement industry is one of the primary producers of carbon dioxide, a potent
greenhouse gas.[1] Concrete causes damage to the most fertile layer of the earth, the topsoil.
Concrete is used to create hard surfaces which contribute to surface runoff that may cause soil
erosion, water pollution and flooding. Conversely, concrete is one of the most powerful tools
for proper flood control, by means of damming, diversion, and deflection of flood waters, mud
flows, and the like. Light-colored concrete can reduce the urban heat island effect, due to its
higher albedo.[2] Concrete dust released by building demolition and natural disasters can be a
major source of dangerous air pollution. The presence of some substances in concrete,
including useful and unwanted additives, can cause health concerns due to toxicity and (usually
naturally occurring) radioactivity.[3] Wet concrete is highly alkaline and should always be
handled with proper protective equipment. Concrete recycling is increasing in response to
improved environmental awareness, legislation, and economic considerations. Conversely, the
use of concrete mitigates the use of alternative building materials such as wood, which is a
carbon sink. Concrete structures also last much longer than wood structures.

7.a. CCMS stands for component content management system. CCMS works at the topic levels,
A database and software program that lets you store, access, edit, and manage topic-level
content. Often used for DITA (XML) content because it manages the relationships between
thousands or millions of components. This site primarily deals with CCMS.Supplimentary
cementious materials its most basic form, concrete is a mixture of portlandcement, sand, coarse
aggregate and water. The principalcementitious material in concrete is portland cement. To-
day, most concrete mixtures contain supplementarycementitious materials that make up a
portion of thecementitious component in concrete. These materials aregenerally byproducts
from other processes or natural ma-terials. They may or may not be further processed for usein
concrete. Some of these materials are called pozzolans,which by themselves do not have any
cementitious proper-ties, but when used with portland cement, react to formcementitious
compounds. Other materials, such as slag, doexhibit cementitious properties.For use in
concrete, supplementary cementitious materials,sometimes referred to as mineral admixtures,
need to meetrequirements of established standards. They may be usedindividually or in
combination in concrete. They may beadded to the concrete mixture as a blended cement or as
aseparately batched ingredient at the ready mixed concreteplant.

7.b. Silica fume is a byproduct of producing silicon metal or ferrosilicon alloys. One of the
most beneficial uses for silica fume is in concrete. Because of its chemical and physical
properties, it is a very reactive pozzolan. Concrete containing silica fume can have very high
strength and can be very durable. Silica fume is available from suppliers of concrete admixtures
and, when specified, is simply added during concrete production. Placing, finishing, and curing
silica-fume concrete. Adding silica fume brings millions and millions ofvery small particles to
a concrete mixture. Just like fine aggregate fills in thespaces between coarse aggregate
particles, silica fume fills in the spacesbetween cement grains. This phenomenon is frequently
referred to as particlepacking or micro-filling. Even if silica fume did not react chemically, the
micro-filler effect would bring about significant improvements in the nature ofthe concrete.
Because of its very high amorphous silicon dioxidecontent, silica fume is a very reactive
pozzolanic material in concrete. As theportland cement in concrete begins to react chemically,
it releases calciumhydroxide. The silica fume reacts with this calcium hydroxide to form
additional binder material called calcium silicate hydrate, which is very similarto the calcium
silicate hydrate formed from the portland cement. It is largelythis additional binder that gives
silica-fume concrete its improved hardenedproperties.

8.a.. Fly Ash is a byproduct of coal-fired furnaces at powergeneration facilities and is the non-
combustible particulatesremoved from the flue gases. Fly ash used in concreteshould conform
to the standard specification, The amount of fly ash in concrete can vary from 5% to65% by
mass of the cementitious materials, depending onthe source and composition of the fly ash and
the perfor-mance requirements of the concrete.
Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS) is anon-metallic manufactured byproduct
from a blast furnacewhen iron ore is reduced to pig iron. The liquid slag israpidly cooled to
form granules, which are then ground toa fineness similar to portland cement. Ground
granulatedblast furnace slag used as a cementitious material. Slag is used at 20%to 70% by
mass of the cementitious materials.
Silica Fume is a highly reactive pozzolanic material and isa byproduct from the manufacture
of silicon or ferro-sili-con metal. It is collected from the flue gases from electricarc furnaces.
Silica fume is an extremely fine powder, withparticles about 100 times smaller than an average
cementgrain. Silica fume is available as a densified powder or in awater-slurry form. It is
generally used at 5 to 12% bymass of cementitious materials for concrete structures thatneed
high strength.
Natural Pozzolans Various naturally occurring materials possess, or can be processed to
possess pozzolanic prop-erties. natural pozzolans include,metakaolinand calcined shale or clay.
These materialsare manufactured by controlled calcining (firing) of natu-rally occurring
minerals. Metakaolin is produced from rela-tively pure kaolinite clay and it is used at 5% to
15% bymass of the cementitious materials. Calcined shale or clayis used at higher percentages
by mass. Other natural poz-zolans include volcanic glass, zeolitic trass or tuffs, ricehusk ash
and diatomaceous earth.

8.b. Natural Rubber is an elastic substance obtained from the latex sap of trees, especially
those trees which belong to the genera Hevea and Ficus. Technically speaking, natural
rubber is an elastomer or an elastic hydrocarbon polymer. Natural rubber continues to hold an
important place in the market today; its resistance to heat buildup makes it valuable for tires
used on racing cars, trucks, buses, and airplanes. Nevertheless, it constitutes less than half of
the rubber produced commercially.
Natural rubber has certain unique properties such as follows:

 Natural rubber combines high strength (tensile and tear) with outstanding resistance to
fatigue.
 It has excellent green strength and tack which means that it has the ability to stick to itself
and to other materials which makes it easier to fabricate.
 It has moderate resistance to environmental damage by heat, light and ozone which is one
of its drawback.
 The natural rubber has excellent adhesion to brass-plated steel cord, which is ideal in rubber
tyres.
 It has low hysteresis which leads to low heat generation, and this in turn maintains new tyre
service integrity and extends retreadability.
 The natural rubber has low rolling resistance with enhanced fuel economy.
 It has high resistance to cutting, chipping and tearing.

Natural rubber composites- Graphene, carbon nano tubes, silica, carbon tubes, glass, rayon,
aramid, asbestos etc.,
9.nanomaterial is defined as a "material with any external dimension in the nanoscale or having
internal structure or surface structure in the nanoscale", with nanoscale defined as the "length
range approximately from 1 nm to 100 nm". This includes both nano-objects, which are
discrete pieces of material, and nanostructured materials, which have internal or surface
structure on the nanoscale; a nanomaterial may be a member of both these categories.

Engineered
Engineered nanomaterials have been deliberately engineered and manufactured by humans to
have certain required properties.
Legacy nanomaterials are those that were in commercial production prior to the development
of nanotechnology as incremental advancements over other colloidal or particulate materials.
They include carbon black and titanium dioxide nanoparticles.
Incidental
Nanomaterials may be incidentally produced as a byproduct of mechanical or industrial
processes. Sources of incidental nanoparticles include vehicle engine exhausts, welding fumes,
combustion processes from domestic solid fuel heating and cooking. For instance, the class of
nanomaterials called fullerenes are generated by burning gas, biomass, and candle. It can also
be a byproduct of wear and corrosion products. Incidental atmospheric nanoparticles are often
referred to as ultrafine particles, which are unintentionally produced during an intentional
operation, and could contribute to air pollution.
Natural
Biological systems often feature natural, functional nanomaterials. The structure
of foraminifera (mainly chalk) and viruses (protein, capsid), the wax crystals covering
a lotus or nasturtium leaf, spider and spider-mite silk the blue hue of tarantulas, the "spatulae"
on the bottom of gecko feet, some butterfly wing scales, natural colloids (milk, blood), horny
materials (skin, claws, beaks, feathers, horns, hair), paper, cotton, nacre, corals, and even our
own bone matrix are all natural organic nanomaterials.
Natural inorganic nanomaterials occur through crystal growth in the diverse chemical
conditions of the Earth's crust. For example, clays display complex nanostructures due to
anisotropy of their underlying crystal structure, and volcanic activity can give rise to opals,
which are an instance of a naturally occurring photonic crystals due to their nanoscale structure.
Fires represent particularly complex reactions and can produce pigments, cement, fumed
silica etc.
Natural sources of nanoparticles include combustion products forest fires, volcanic ash, ocean
spray, and the radioactive decay of radon gas. Natural nanomaterials can also be formed
through weathering processes of metal- or anion-containing rocks, as well as at acid mine
drainage sites.

Nano materials are used in a variety of, manufacturing processes, products and healthcare
including paints, filters, insulation and lubricant additives. In healthcare Nanozymes are
nanomaterials with enzyme-like characteristics.[37] They are an emerging type of artificial
enzyme, which have been used for wide applications in such as biosensing, bioimaging, tumor
diagnosis,[38] antibiofouling and more. In paints nanomaterials are used to improve UV
protection and improve ease of cleaning. [39] High quality filters may be produced using
nanostructures, these filters are capable of removing particulate as small as a virus as seen in a
water filter created by Seldon Technologies. Nanomaterials are being used in modern and
human-safe insulation technologies, in the past they were found in Asbestos-based insulation.
As a lubricant additive, nano materials have the ability to reduce friction in moving parts. Worn
and corroded parts can also be repaired with self-assembling anisotropic nanoparticles called
TriboTEX. Nanomaterials can also be used in three-way-catalyst (TWC) applications. TWC
converters have the advantage of controlling the emission of nitrogen oxides (NOx), which are
precursors to acid rain and smog. In core-shell structure, nanomaterials form shell as the
catalyst support to protect the noble metals such as palladium and rhodium. The primary
function is that the supports can be used for carrying catalysts active components, making them
highly dispersed, reducing the use of noble metals, enhancing catalysts activity, and improving
the mechanical strength.

10. Cracks in concrete are a common phenomenon due to the relatively low tensile strength.
Durability of concrete is impaired by these cracks since they provide an easy path for the
transportation of liquids and gasses that potentially contain harmful substances. If micro-cracks
grow and reach the reinforcement, not only the concrete itself may be attacked, but also the
reinforcement will be corroded. Therefore, it is important to control the crack width and to heal
the cracks as soon as possible. Since the costs involved for maintenance and repair of concrete
structures are usually high, this research focuses on the development of self-healing concrete.
Self-healing of cracks in concrete would contribute to a longer service life of concrete
structures and would make the material not only more durable but also more sustainable.

Bacteria-Based Healing Process

Also known as Bio-Concrete; this kind of concrete uses a simple process to close the formed
crack. The main mechanism is achieved by making a concrete mixture that contains (i) a
precursor like calcium lactate (Ca(C3H5O2)2) and, (ii) bacteria planted in micro capsules (or
just added to the mixture) that will later germinate, once the water reaches the crack. As soon
as the bacteria germinate, they produce limestone (CaCo3) caused by the multiplying bacteria.
Not to mention that it employs oxygen present which would then benefit the process of steel
corrosion
The bacteria which are applied in this kind of concrete are Spore-forming and alkali-resistant
bacteria. Bacteria from this group are the most suitable as they are spore-forming and can live
for more than 200 years in dry conditions. Therefore, using bacteria as a healing mechanism is
one of the best mechanisms to produce this kind of concrete because of its sustainable organic
properties.
Shape Memory Polymers
New smart materials (SMP) that are capable of returning to their initiative state by changing
back their form upon applying a stimulus. This mechanism employs both the autogenic and
autonomic principles. It uses a man-made system to increase the natural autogenic healing and
seal cracks in concrete. This kind of polymers is semi-crystalline polymers that have a
predefined shape memorized in their structure that later helps the polymers to go back to their
original state.
When a crack occurs, the system will be triggered, hence, the shape memory polymer within
the crack gets activated through heating which can be in the form of direct heat, or an electrical
current. As soon as it’s activated, the shape memory effect or shrinkage takes place, and due to
the restrained nature of the tendon, a tensile force is generated, hence the crack closes on itself.
After that, the autogenous healing starts taking place.
Manufacturing:
Because the core material granulated with cement (hereinafter, “core material”) can react with
water when it is mixed with the cement composite, thereby losing the components of the cement
composite and the mixer, three suitable wall materials were selected and tested. The wall
materials were liquid rubber (“LR”), an acryl-based material of poly(methyl methacrylate)
(“AM”), and silicate-based materials (a mixture of sodium silicate, potassium silicate, and
lithium silicate, hereinafter referred to as “SM”).

Because AM is solid in the operating temperature range, dichloromethane (CH 2Cl2, hereinafter
referred to as “MC”) was used as a solubilizer in order to dissolve AM. The performance of
each wall material was assessed by applying the test methods specified in KS L 5105 “testing
method for compressive strength of hydraulic cement mortars” after standard mortar mixing.
Moisture resistance was assessed through the permeability test specified in KS F 4930
“penetrating water repellency of liquid type for concrete surface application,” and the strength
was evaluated for samples cured for 3 days according to KS L 5105 “testing method for
compressive strength of hydraulic cement mortars.”
The core material is inserted into the chamber of Figure 1(b) and the wall material is coated
and dried, while the chamber rotates at a certain rate. Figure 2 shows the wall materials of the
capsules used in the experiment, and Figure 3 presents the samples used to assess the moisture
resistance and strength of the wall material.
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