Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
2
Cost of Carrying/Holding Inventory
0 T time
Average Inventory, I =
Inventory Turns
6
Example
6,204,000,000
5.79
1,071,000,000
Inventory Turns
How to measure inventory turns for an organization with
many stock keeping unit (sku)?
∑
Inventory turns = ∑
8
Return on invested capital figures for select companies in the
computing industry.
10
Safety inventory
Inventory carried for the purpose of satisfying
demand that exceeds the amount forecasted in a
given period
11
12
Two Questions to Answer in
Planning Safety Inventory
13
• Demand variability
• Service level
• Lead time
14
Measuring Product Availability
16
Type of Service Level
Order fill rate
• Suppose the following customer orders
Customer 1 – 20 units
Customer 2 – 30 units
Customer 3 – 35 units
Customer 4 – 5 units
Customer 5 – 10 units
• Inventory have 90 units in stock
• Order Fill rate = 4/5 = 0.8
17
Reorder
Point
cycle
time
Lead time
A cycle – from time between replenishment or time between orders
Cycle service level – is the fraction of cycles that is able to satisfy
all customer demand – i.e. 4/6 or 0.67 18
Replenishment Policies
Replenishment policy: decisions regarding
when to reorder and how much to reorder
Continuous review: inventory is
continuously monitored and an order of
size Q is placed when the inventory level
reaches the reorder point ROP
Periodic review: inventory is checked at
regular (periodic) intervals and an order is
placed to raise the inventory to a specified
threshold (the “order-up-to” level)
19
time
Lead
time
G-I’ G-I”
I’
I”
Lead time
R Review point
22
Example: Two Bin Systems
23
Assumptions
• Demand follows a stationary and iid
process
• All shortages are backordered
• Lead time is constant
• Backlog orders are small and satisfied
immediately by a replenishment order
24
Example
Assume lead time is one week
Order quantity is 20 units
Determine the reorder point based on
• Cycle service level, P1 = 0.9
Determine the reorder point based on cost
• Fixed order cost, S = $18
• Inventory holding cost, h=rc = $10/unit/year
• Shortage cost, = $20/unit short
• Assume 50 working weeks
25
Example
Lead time demand Fraction of Occurrences Cumulative Fraction
at this value at this value or lower
0 0.1
1 0.2
2 0.3
3 0.2
4 0.2
27
Example P(X ≤ s)
0 0.1 0.1
1 0.2 0.3
2 0.3 0.6
3 0.2 0.8
4 0.2 1.0
28
Example P(X ≤ s)
0 0.1 0.1
1 0.2 0.3
2 0.3 0.6
3 0.2 0.8
4 0.2 1.0
Example
Assume lead time is one week
Order quantity is 20 units
Determine the inventory cost
• Fixed order cost, S = $18
• Inventory holding cost, h=rc = $10/unit/year
• Shortage cost, = $20/unit short
• Assume 50 working weeks
Reorder point is 3
30
Inventory Cost Model
Expected Inventory Cost
= Ordering cost per year + Holding cost
per year + Shortage cost per year
31
Example
Ordering cost per year
• Cost per order = S = 18
• Expected number of orders per year = D/Q
= 2.2 x 50/20 = 5.5
• Expected Order cost per year = SD/Q =
18x5.5 = $99
Example – Shortage
Reorder Point = 3
Lead time demand Probability Amount of shortage just
before replenishment arrive
0 0.1 0
1 0.2 0
2 0.3 0
3 0.2 0
4 0.2 1
35
36
Reorder Point (s,Q) Policy
Ordering cost = SD/Q
37
Optimal Q ≈ EOQ
38
𝑑 𝑆𝐷 𝑄 𝜋𝐷
𝑟𝑐 𝑠 𝐷 𝑥 𝑠 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑠 𝑄 2 𝑄
𝜋𝐷 𝑑
𝑟𝑐 𝑥 𝑠 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑄 𝑑𝑠
39
a s
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑠 𝑥 𝑠 𝑓 𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑∞ 𝑑𝑠
𝑥 𝑠 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑠 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ∞ s 𝑓 ∞ 𝑠 𝑠 𝑓 𝑠
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
F’(s)
𝐹′ 𝑠
s
40
𝑑 𝑆𝐷 𝑄 𝜋𝐷
𝑟𝑐 𝑠 𝐷 𝑥 𝑠 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑠 𝑄 2 𝑄
𝜋𝐷 𝑑
𝑟𝑐 𝑥 𝑠 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑄 𝑑𝑠
𝜋𝐷
𝑟𝑐 𝐹′ 𝑠
𝑄
At stationary point
𝜋𝐷
𝑟𝑐 𝐹 𝑠 0
𝑄
𝑟𝑐𝑄
𝐹 𝑠
𝜋𝐷
41
Example
A manufacturer of textile product uses a certain chemical
in its finishing process at an expected annual rate of
10,000 gallons. This expected rate is constant over time;
however, the actual demand in a period may vary
randomly. The chemical is purchased and the demand
during the procurement lead time is estimated to be
normally distributed with a mean of 300 gallons and a
standard deviation of 40 gallons. The fixed procurement
cost is $70 per order and the variable procurement cost
is $3 a gallon. The company uses an annual inventory
carrying cost rate of 0.20. Shortages result in
rescheduling production, with the resulting cost assumed
proportional to the size of the shortage. This loss is
estimated at a backlogged cost of of $1.50 per gallon. A
fixed reorder quantity systems is to be used.
42
D = 10,000 gallons/year
DL= 300 gallons
σL= 40 gallons
S = $70 per order
c = $3 per gallon
r = 0.2 $/$/year
π = $1.50 per gallon
43
Order Quantity
Q* = EOQ =
=
.
=1528
Reorder Point
F’(s) =
0.06112
.
=
.
= s?
44
= 0.06112
From unit normal table
u = 1.55
𝑠 𝐷𝐿
u= σ𝐿
Example
An (s, Q) policy is being used. To set the safety stock
as low as possible, the management decide to set
backlogged cost of $1.50 per unit. The replenishment
quantity is fixed at 85 units with an ordering cost is
$21.50. The annual inventory carrying cost is
charged at 20%. The unit cost is $2. Annual demand
is forecasted to be 200 units. The demand and
standard deviation over the lead time are respectively
50 units and 10 units. Determine the reorder point
and the total cost of the inventory policy.
46
Q = 85 units
D = 200 units/year
DL= 50 units
σL= 10 units
S = $21.50 per order
c = $2/unit
r = 0.20 $/$/year
π = $1.50 per unit
47
Reorder Point
F’(s) =
.
F’(s) =
.
=
From unit normal table
u = 1.21
0.1133
u= 1.21
s = 50 + 1.21x10 = 62
s?
48
Expected Inventory cost
𝑆𝐷 𝑄 𝜋𝐷
𝑟𝑐 𝑠 𝐷 𝑥 𝑠 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑄 2 𝑄
𝑆𝐷 𝑄 𝜋𝐷
𝑟𝑐 𝑠 𝐷 σ 𝐿′ 𝑢
𝑄 2 𝑄 𝐿
Where u = 1.21
50
Performance Criteria
Service level versus Cost criteria
• Mature product – cost and delivery performance is
important
• New product – delivery performance may be more
important than cost
• Difficult to measure cost
Type of shortage measure being used
• expedites to avert impending stockout
• units short are made during overtime production
• item consideration is a spare and each unit short
results in a machine being idle
51
52
Safety stocks based on customer
service (Continuous Review Policy)
Cycle service level P1
• P1 = uwhere u = (s-DL)/L
Fill rate, P2
• P2 =
53
0 b1 b2 T time
Lead
time
,
Fill rate =1 -
,
Fill rate =1 -
, 54
Continuous Review Policy
Q
0 b1 b2 T time
Lead
time
Fill rate =1 -
Fill rate =
55
Example
The weekly demand has a mean and standard
deviation of 100 units and 23.5 units respectively.
The unit cost of an item is $5. Weekly inventory
carrying cost rate is 5% and backlogged carrying cost
is $25 per unit. The replenishment lead time is 2
weeks. Assume that t = 1√t, where t is the
standard deviation of demand during t periods. For a
policy of Q = 50, and s = 275, find the following
– Cycle service level, P1
– Fill rate, P2
56
Cycle Service l
Determine the expected and standard deviation
during the lead time
𝐷𝐿 100 2 200
σ𝐿 23.5 2 33.23
= 2.257
=0.988 57
Fill rate
Fill rate =
=
where u = 2.257
From Unit Loss Normal Integral Table
𝐿′ 2.257 = 0.004114
. .
Fill rate = 1 =1
= 0.997 58
Periodic Review Policy
59
R Review point
Safety Stock ~ E[Y] = G – DR+ L
Expected Order Quantity = DR/2
Example
A periodic review is being used. The mean
demand rate is 500 units per year. The lead
time, L, is 3 months. The demand during R+L
follows a normal distribution with mean
500(R+L) and variance 800(R+L). The cost of
each unit is $10, the annual inventory
carrying rate, r = 0.1, the cost of making the
review and placing an order is $15, and the
backorder carrying rate, , is $3 per unit.
Given that R = 3 months, what is the optimal
G?
61
D = 500 units/year
L = 3 months or 0.25 years
R = 3 months or 0.25 years
S = $15 per order
c = $10/unit
r = 0.10 $/$/year
π = $3 per unit
DL+R= 500(0.25 + 0.25) = 250 units
σL+R= 800 0.25 0.25 20 units
62
Order up to G level
F’(G) =
. .
F’(G) =
=
From unit normal table
u = 1.38
0.0833
u= 1.38
65